Fo^ 


M 


r 


if 


h 


HISTORY  OF  THE  HORSE, 


IN  ALL  ITS  VARIETIES  AND  USES; 


TOGETHER 


WITH  COMPLETE  DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  BREEDING,  REARING,  AND 

MANAGEMENT ; 

AND    FOR 

THE  CURE  OF  ALL  DISEASES  TO  WHICH  HE  IS  LIABLE. 
ALSO, 

A    CONCISE    TREATISE    ON    DRAUGHT. 


WITH  A   COPIOUS    INDEX   TO    THE   AVHOLE. 


i 


WASHINGTON : 
PUBLISHED  AND  STEREOTYPED  BY  DUFF  GREEN. 

1834. 


■'^l^ 


CONTENTS 


PACK 

Introduction  -.-----------i 

CHAPTER  I. 


General  History  of  the  Horse 1 

Earlist  records  of  him :  appears  to  have  been  first  domesticated  in  Egypt,  and 
thence  propagated  to  otlier  countries  :  the  horse  not  cultivated  in  Arabia  until 
the  seventh  century. 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  Different  Foreign  Breeds  of  Horses        ......      3 

The  wild  horses  of  South  America,  method  of  catching  and  breaking  them  by  the 
Gauchos  :  the  wild  horses  of  Tartary:  the  Barb  :  the  Dongola  :  the  Arabian,  his 
vai'ieties,  beautiful  form,  fleetness,  docility,  afl'ection  of  the  Arab  towards  him, 
anecdotes  of:  the  East  Indian,  his  varieties  :  the  Chinese  :  Persian,  beauty  and 
value  of :  the  Toorkoman  :  Tartar  and  Calmuc  :  Turkish:  German:  Swedish: 
Finland,  and  Norwegian  :  Iceland  :  Flemish  and  Dutch :  French :  Spanish  : 
Italian :  American. 

CHAPTER  III. 

History  of  the  English  Horse 17 

Horse  of  the  early  Britons  :  crossed  by  the  Romans  :  improved  by  Athelstan  and 
Howell  the  Good  :  not  used  for  the  plough  until  the  tenth  century  :  improved  by 
William  I.  and  Henryll.:  neglected  by  the  Crusaders  :  materially  improved  by 
John,  who  imported  many  Flanders  horses  :  by  Edward  H.,  who  purchased 
thirty  Lombardy  horses :  by  Edward  III.,  who  introduced  tlie  Spanish  horse, 
and  had  several  nmning  horses  :  more  rapidly  improved,  however,  when  cumb- 
rous armour  was  laid  aside  :  the  improvement  arrested  by  the  tyrannical  and 
illiberal  policy  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  under  Elizabeth  horses  were  diminished  in 
number  and  value  :  under  James  I.  the  progi-ess  of  improvement  was  ha.stened : 
Turkish  and  Barbary  horses  were  introduced,  and  the  first  Arabian  horse  :  races 
were  now  established :  Charles  I.  was  fond  of  horses :  even  Cromwell  en- 
couraged the  improvement  of  the  breed  :  at  the  restoration  a  new  impulse  was 
given  under  Anne,  Arabians  were  again  introduced  :  and  about  the  middle  of  tlie 
eighteenth  century  the  English  horse  had  arrived  at  its  state  of  highest  perfec- 
tion. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Different  Breeds  of  English  Horses         ......      22 

The  roadster  or  hackney :  description  of  him  :  the  horse  of  all  work,  the  farmer's 
horse  :  the  coach-horse,  derived  from  the  Cleveland  bays  :  principle  of  draught : 
power  of  the  horse  :  the  pace  killing :  the  heavy  draught-horse  :  the  old  Surtolk : 
the  Clydesdale  :  the  heavy  black  horse-,  too  heavy :  the  dray-horse  ;  the  cavalry- 
horse  :  the  race-horse,  question  of  his  real  origin,  actually  superior  to  the  Ara- 
bian, the  Darley,  Flying  Childers,  Eclipse,  the  Godolphin  Arabian,  the  emula- 
tion of  the  race-horse,  consequence  of  short  races  :  the  hunter,  description  of 
his  proper  breed  and  form,  anecdotes  of  his  love  of  the  sport,  usage  of  him, 
management  of,  when  distressed,  summering  of:  the  Galloway:  the  Welsh 
pony:  the  New-Forester:  the  Exmoor  pony:  the  Dartmoor:  theHigldand: 
the  Shetland  :  the  Irish  horse. 


•••s.-r 


iv  CONTENTS. 

« 

CHAPTER  V. 

PA6B 

Zoological  Classification  of  the  Horse  --..-.    48 

CHAPTER  VI. 

The  External  Structure  of  the  Horse  ....---49 
The  head :  frontal  bones :  frontal  sinuses,  used  for  the  discovery  of  glanders : 
the  parietal :  tenaporal :  arched  form  of  the  skull :  designed  strength  of  the  base 
of  the  arch :  occipital,  attachment  of  the  strong  hgament  of  the  neck  to  it :  the 
sphenoid  and  aetnmoid :  the  brain  :  medullary  and  cineritious  portions :  the 
nerves  :  spinal  cord  :  spinal  nerves,  consisting  of  fibres  of  sensation  and  mo- 
tion, and  others  devoted  to  respiration  :  the  sympathetic  or  organic  nerve,  at  tli« 
base  of  the  skull,  devoted  to  nutrition  and  circulation.  The  ear,  beauty  of,  in- 
dicative of  temper,  folly  of  cropping  or  singeing:  the  internal  ear;  beautiful 
mechanism  of,  the  drum,  the  little  bones,  the  expansion  of  the  nerve.  The  eye: 
the  lids,  substitution  for  eye- brows,  eye-lashes,  tears,  situation  of  lachiymal 
gland  :  the  haw,  beautiful  mechanism  of  it,  barbarous  practice  of  destroying  it : 
the  conjunctiva :  cornea,  importance  of  its  perfect  transparency,  directions  for 
examining  it :  the  sclerotica :  choroid  coat,  its  black  color,  the  beautiful  color 
and  use  ot  the  lucid  carpet  within  the  eye  :  the  aqueous  humour :  iris :  wall- 
eyed horse :  the  pupil,  importance  likewise  of  carefully  examining  it :  the  lens  : 
vitreous  humour :  retina  :  theoiy  of  vision  :  shying :  muscles  of  the  eye  :  the 
one  peculiar  to  quadrupeds  to  retract  it  from  danger. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Diseases  of  the  Brain  and  Eye 79 

Fracture  of  the  skull :  pressure  on  the  brain  :  megrims  :  apoplexy :  stomach- 
staggers,  arising  usually  from  mismanagement :  mad  staggers  :  locked  jaw,  or 
tetanus :  epilepsy  or  fits  :  palsy  :  rabies  or  madness  :  neurotomy,  method  of  per- 
forming the  operation,  diseases  of  the  foot  for  which  beneficial.  Diseases  of 
the  eye :  wounds :  warts  :  enlargement  of  the  haw  :  inflammation  of  the  eye  : 
opacities  of  the  cornea :  cataract :  gutta  serena,  or  glass  eye. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

The  Nose  AND  Mouth,  AND  THEIR  Diseases 92 

Anatomy  of  the  nose :  Roman  noses  :  cartilage  of  the  nose :  turbinated  bones : 
wideness  of  nostril,  advantage  of:  importance  of  observing  the  color  of  the 
membrane  of  the  nose  :  discharge  from  the  nose.  Glanders,  symptoms  of,  how 
distinguished  from  strangles  or  cold :  primarily  a  disease  of  the  membrane  of 
the  nose  :  connected  with  farcy  ;  they  are  diflerent  forms  of  the  same  disease  ; 
causes  of  contagion :  hot  and  foul  stables  :  debihtating  disease :  highly 
contagious :  prevention  :  treatment.  Farcy,  a  disease  of  the  absorbents  : 
farcy  buds :  symptoms :  treatment.  The  lips,  the  organs  of  touch  :  lips, 
how  formed :  bearing  rein,  necessity  for :  bones  of  the  mouth  :  the  palate, 
method  of  bleeding  irom  :  lampas  :  the  lower  jaw,  curious  mechanism  of  the 
joint  of,  contrived  to  grind  the  food.  Teeth,  their  growth  and  changes  from  the 
birth,  as  indicative  of  the  age :  wolves  teeth  :  diseases  of  the  teeth.  Descrip- 
tion of  the  tongue  :  vesicles  under  the  tongue  :  the  salivary  glands  :  the  parotid  : 
the  submaxillary  and  sublingual :  strangles :  canker  in  the  mouth :  wounds  in 
the  mouth  :  description  of  the  pharynx. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Neck ■        -120 

Description  of  the  neck  :  poll-evil :  proper  form  of  the  neck  :  the  splenius  mus- 
cle :  neck  should  be  muscular  at  the  bottom  :  the  complexus  major  :  ewe-neck- 
ed :  the  muscles  of  the  neck  generally  :  arteries  and  veins  of  the  neck  :  inflam- 
mation of  the  vein  after  bleeding  :  the  wind-pipe :  the  larynx :  roaring :  the 
oesophagus  or  gullet. 


CONTENTS.  V 

CHAPTER   X. 

PAGE 

The  Chest — Its  Contents  and  their  Diseases 129 

The  proper  form  of  the  chest :  form  of  as  much  importance  as  capacit}'^ :  depth 
of  chest,  importance  of  :  ribbed  home.  Anatomy  of  the  spine  :  the  bones  of  the 
spine  connected  by  highly  elcistie  substance  :  consequent  ease  in  riding:  con- 
tiivances  ibr  strength  :  broken -backed  :  comparison  between  the  long  and  short 
backed  horse ;  saddle-backed  :  weak-backed.  The  loins :  should  be  broad  and 
muscular.  The  withers  :  advantage  of  higli  withers.  The  muscles  of  the  back. 
Fistulous  withers:  warbles:  sitfasts:  saddle-galls.  The  ribs.  The  breast: 
muscles  of  the  breast:  being  all  abroad.  Chest-founder:  dropsical  swellings  be- 
tween the  fore-legs.  Inside  of  the  chest,  diaphragm  :  the  pleura  :  the  medias- 
tinum. The  heart  and  its  action  :  inflammation  of  the  heart.  The  arteries. 
The  pulse  :  its  standard  number :  when  quick,  hard,  small,  weak,  or  oppressed  : 
necessity  of  attending  to  the  pulse.  The  capilleiries.  Inflammation,  an  in- 
creased flow  of  blood  to  and  through  the  part :  local  and  general :  treatment  of: 
cold  or  warm  applications.  Fever,  or  genr.ral  increased  arterial  action :  pure 
fever:  symptomatic  fever:  treatment.  The  veins:  bog  and  blood  spavin. 
Bleeding;  directions  for:  the  fleam  and  lancet;  bleeding  places.  The  lungs  : 
description  of:  change  of  blood  in  passing  through  them  :  capacious  chest,  ad- 
vange  of.  Inflammation  of  the  lungs  :  symptoms  :  causes  :  b-eatment :  con- 
sequences. Pleurisy.  Catan-h,  or  common  cold.  Bronchilis.  Catarrhal  fever. 
The  mdignant  epidemic.  Chronic  cough.  Thick-wind:  broken-wind:  the 
piper  :  wheezer  :  whistler :  highblower :  grunter. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

The  Stomach  and  Intestines — Their  Diseases    ......  ips 

The  diaphragm.  The  stomach  :  stomach  staggers  :  inflammation  :  poisons  :  bots, 
The  intestmes  :  the  mesenterv,  duodenum,  jejunum,  ileum,  ccecum,  colon,  rec- 
tum :  spasmodic  colic  :  calculi :  intussusception :  entanglement :  inflammation 
of  the  bowels  :  over-purging :  washy  horses  :  worms  :  physicing :  the  best 
purgatives  :  rupture.  The  liver :  inflammation  of  the  liver :  jaundice.  The 
spleen.  The  pancreas.  The  omentum.  The  kidneys  :  diuretic  medicines, 
use  and  abuse  of:  inflammation  of  the  kidney  :  profuse  staling.  The  bladder  : 
inflammation  of  the  bladder :  stone  in  the  bladder. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  Breeding  .-.--.....  J72 

Form,  constitution,  diseases  inherited  :  causesof  deterioration  of  half-bred  horses  : 
the  mare  of  as  much  importance  in  breeding  a.s  the  horse  :  shape  of  mare  and 
horse  :  breeding  in  and  in  :  age  at  which  mare  is  capable  of  breeding:  time  of 
neat:  time  of  going  with  foal :  management  of  mare  with  foal :  when  she  has 
foaled  :  weaning  foal :  treatment  of  foal :  importance  of  good  feeding :  process 
of  breaking  in  begun  from  the  period  of  weaning :  actual  breaking  in :  ditlerent 
steps  of:  necessity  of  implicit  obedience,  yet  not  enforced  by  cruelty:  break- 
ing in  for  the  road  or  chase  :  bitting  the  colt :  saddling:  castration. 

CHAPTER   XIII. 

The  Fore-legs,  and  their  Diseases       ........  175 

The  shoulder :  sprain  of  the  shoulder :  slanting  direction  of  the  shoulder,  import- 
ance of:  how  applicable  to  horses  of  heavy  draught :  muscle  of  the  outside  of 
the  shoulder :  trapesius  :  levator  humeri :  serratus  :  sterno-maxillaris :  spinati : 

[)ectorals  :  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder :  the  arm  :  the  elbow  :  principle  of  the 
ever  applied  to  it :  the  extensor  muscles:  the  flexors  :  disadvantage  at  which 
they  act :  the  perforated  muscle  :  the  perforating  :  the  arm  should  be  long  :  the 
knee  :  broken  knees  :  the  leg,  splent :  speedy-cut :  tied  in  below  the  knee  : 
sprain  of  the  back  sinews  :  necessity  of  attention  to  any  thickening  on  them  : 
wingalls:  the  pasterns:  the  suspensory  ligaments:  obliquity  of  the  pastern: 
rupture  of  the  suspensory  ligament :  the  fetlock  :  grogginess  :  cutting  :  bones 
of  the  pasterns  :  sprain  of  the  coffin-joint :  ring-bone  :  position  of  the  legs. 


vi  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

PAGE 

The  Hinder  Limbs  and  their  Diseases    ---.-..         199 

The  haunch:  bein^  ragged-hipped  :  width  of  haunch  :  the  thigh  :  muscles  of  the 

inside  of  the  tliigh :  the  sartorius :  gracilis :  muscles  of  the  outside  of  the 

thigh  :  the  glutaei :  great  trochanter  of  the  thigh,  importance  of:  sprain  of  the 

round  bone  :  the  stifle  :  the  extensor  pedis  muscle  :  the  peronaeus  :  the  flexor 

Eedis  :  thorough-pin  :  the  hock  :  enlargement  of  the  hock  :  curb  :  bog-spavin : 
one  spavin  :  other  lameness  of  tl^ie  hock  :  the  point  of  the  hock  :  capped  hock  : 
malenders  and  salenders  :  cow-hocks  :  slringhalt :  swelled  legs  :  grease,  cause 
and  treatment  of:  washing  the  heels  :  danger  of  cutting  the  hair  from  the  heels  . 

CHAPTER  XV. 

The  Anatomy  of  the  Foot--  216 

The  crust  or  wall  of  the  foot :  the  inner  heel  should  not  be  too  much  cut  away  : 
the  coronary  ligament :  the  coronary  ring  :  the  frog-band  :  the  crust :  color  of: 
the  bars  :  folly  of  destroying  them  :  the  frog :  the  sole  :  the  coflin-bone  :  the 
sensible  sole  :  the  sensible  frog :  the  navicular  bone :  the  cartilages  of  the  foot. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

Diseases  of  the  Foot 223 

Inflammation  of  the  foot,  or  acute  founder:  pumiced  feet :  chronic  founder:  con- 
traction :  the  navicular-joint  disease  :  sand-crack  :  tread  or  over-reach  :  false- 
quarter  :  quittor  :  prick,  or  wound  in  the  foot  :  corns :  thrush  :  canker  :  ossifi- 
cation of  the  cai-tilages  :  weakness  of  the  foot. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

On  Shoeing 238 

The  concave  seated  shoe  :  preparation  of  the  foot:  putting  on  of  the  shoe:  cal- 
kins :  clips  :  the  hind-shoe  :  the  hunting-shoe  :  the  bar-shoe  :  tips  :  the  ex- 
panding snoe  :  felt  or  leather  soles. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

Operations 244 

The  trevis :  the  side-line:  the  hobbles:  the  twitch:  the  barnacles:  bleeding: 
blistering :  firing :  setons  :  docking  :  nicldng. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

Vices  and  Bad  Habits 251 

Restiveness  :  Jumper  the  horse-breaker  :  King  Pippin,  anecdote  of:  Sullivan  the 
Irish  whisperer :  backing  or  gibbing :  biting :  getting  the  cheek  of  the  bit  into 
the  mouth :  kicking :  unsteadiness  while  being  mounted  :  rearing :  running 
away :  vicious  to  clean  :  vicious  to  shoe  :  swallowing  without  grinding :  crib- 
biting  :  wind-sucking :  cutting :  not  lying  down  :  overreach  :  pawing :  quid- 
ding  :  rolling  :  shying  :  slipping  the  collar :  tripping :  weaving. 

CHAPTER  XX. 

The  General  Management  of  the  Horse       --..--        262 

Air :  litter :  light :  grooming :  exercise  :  food  :  manger-feeding :  oats  :  barley : 
grains :  wheat :  beans  :  peas  :  grass  :  hay  :  tares  :  rye-grass  :  clover :  lucern  : 
saint-foin  :  Swedish  turnip  :  carrots  ;  potatoes  :  furze  :  nutritive  matter  in  the 
different  articles  of  food  :  the  times  of  feeding  should  be  equally  divided  :  wa- 
ter :  management  of  the  feet. 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

Soundness 273 

The  grand  principle  of :  supposed  causes  of  unsoundness  :  broken  knees  :  capped 


CONTENTS.  vii 

PAGE 

hocks  :  contraction  :  corns ;  couffh  :  roaring  :  wheezing :  whistling  :  high- 
blowing  :  grunting :  broken  wind  :  crib-biting  :  curb  :  cutting  :  enlarged 
glands  :  enlarged  hock  :  tlie  eyes  :  lameness  :  neurotomy  :  ossification  of  the 
lateral  cartilages  :  pumiced  foot :  quidding  :  quittor  :  ringbone  :  sandcrack  :  spa- 
vin :  blood  spavin  :  splent :  stringhalt :  thickening  of  the  back  sinews  :  thorough- 
pin  :  thrush  ;  windgalls.  Form  of  warranty  :  the  horse  must  be  unsound  or 
vicious  at  the  time  of  sale  :  no  price  will  imply  a  warranty  :  a  warranty  after 
tlie  sale  invalid  :  to  complete  tlie  purchase  there  must  be  a  transfer,  a  memo- 
randum, or  partial  payment :  notice  of  unsoundness  not  legally  required,  yet 
advisable  :  prudent  to  refrain  from  all  medical  treatment :  where  no  warranty, 
an  action  may  be  brought  on  the  ground  of  fraud :  exchanges  considered  on 
the  same  ground  as  simple  sales :  the  allowance  of  trial :  laws  of  tlie  principal 
Repositories. 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

The  Skin    -        -        - 279 

Hide  bound  :  the  hair  :  pores  of  the  sldn  :  moulting :  clipping :  color  of  the  horse  : 
surfeit ;  mange :  wairts. 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

Medicines  used  in  Veterinary  Practice  .--...  287 
Aloes  :  alteratives  :  alum  :  hartshorn  :  sal-ammoniac  :  anodynes :  black  antimo- 
ny :  emetic  tartar:  antimonial  powder :  butyr  of  antimony :  antispasmodics: 
arsenic :  astringents :  bafls  :  blisters  :  bole-Armenian  :  burgimdy  pitch  :  cala- 
mine :  calomel :  camphor  :  cantharides  :  carraways  :  castor  oil :  catechu  :  caus- 
tics :  chalk  :  camomile  :  charcoal :  charger  :  clysters  :  verdigris  :  blue  vitriol : 
cordials  :  corrosive  sublimate  :  cream  of  tartar  :  croton  :  diaphoretics  :  diges- 
tives :  digitalis :  diuretics :  drinks  :  elder:  epsom-salts  :  fomentations  :  gentian  : 
ginger:  Goulard's  extract:  helle-bore  :  hemlock:  infusions:  iodine:  green 
vitriol:  oil  of  juniper  :  krd  :  sugar  of  lead  :  white  lead  :  chloride  of  fime  : 
liniments  :  linseed :  lotions :  mashes  :  mercurial  ointment :  jEthiop's  mine- 
ral: mint:  myrrh:  nitre  :  spirit  of  nitrous  aether:  oil  of  olives  :  opium:  palm 
oil:  pitch:  physic:  poultices:  powders:  raking:  resin:  rowels:  salt:  seda- 
tives :  lunar  caustic  :  chloride  of  soda :  soap  :  starch  :  stoppings  :  sulphur : 
tar:  tinctures:  tobacco:  tonics:  turpentine  :  vhiegar:  wax,  white. 

On  Draught      .        ^        .        .        . 303 

The  power  of  the  horse,  how  calculated :  difference  of  opinion  as  to  wheels : 
draught  regarded  as  to  the  act  of  drawing,  and  the  resistance  to  the  power  em- 
ployed :  the  moving  power.  Animal  power  is  the  application  of  the  strength 
of  an  animal ;  and  mechanical  power  i?  power  employed  through  the  inter- 
vention of  machinery  :  horse-power  and  that  of  the  steam-engine  compared, 
as  to  interest  of  first  cost,  decrease  of  value,  hazard  of  loss  or  accidents,  value 
of  food,  or  coals  and  water,  renewals  and  repairs,  harness,  shoeing,  farriery,  sta- 
bling, and  expense  of  attendance  :  the  power  of  draught,  or  effect  produced  by 
each :  the  obstacles  to  be  overcome  in  the  use  of  machinery.  The  manner  in 
which  the  animal  adapts  himself  to  his  load  :  errors  with  regard  to  this  in  some 
ancient  sculptures :  real  action  of  the  horse  in  walking,  trotting  and  galloping. 
The  resistance  to  draught  should  be  rigid,  and  void  of  elasticity,  but  sliould  not 
be  constant  and  unremiting :  a  horse  pulls  better  when  close  to  his  work  :  the 
disadvantage  of  long  teams.  The  effect  of  draught  depends  on  the  speed,  the 
power  of  the  animal,  and  the  time  employed  :  calculation  and  comparison  of 
these  :  the  hours  of  labor  should  not  exceed  six  hours  :  the  rapid  reduction  of 
the  power  of  the  horse  when  his  speed  is  increased.  A  flat  piece  of  road  more 
destructive  to  the  horse,  than  one  with  alternate  rises  and  falls.  Best  direction 
of  the  traces  :  should  be  nearly  horizontal,  but  varying  with  the  kind  of  horse, 
and  nature  of  the  work  and  road:  inclining  the  traces  downward,  the  same 
as  throwing  a  part  of  the  load  on  the  shafts.  Ancient  mode  of  harnessing  :  the 
collar  in  the  time  of  Homer:  explanation  of  the  power  of  the  South  American 
lasso.  The  advantage  of  transporting  goods  by  water,  consists  in  the  small- 
ness  of  power  required ;  this  rapidly  increasing  with  the  speed :  calculation 
of  the  draught  of  a  canal  boat.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of 
sledges  and  rollers :  manner,  in  which  the  rock  forming  the  pedestal  of  tlie 
statue  of  Peter  the    Great  was  moved  on  rollers:  the  best  construction  of 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

the  roller.  Description  of  the  ancient  war  chariots  :  the  mechanical  advantage 
of  the  wheel  increased  in  proportion  to  its  height :  the  resistance  depends  on  the 
friction  at  the  axle  :  comparative  advantages  of  different  materials  as  used  for 
axles :  axles  working  in  iron  boxes  :  calculation  of  the  force  of  draught  required 
for  a  four-wheeled  cart  on  different  roads  :  comparison  between  narrow  and 
broad  wheels  :  description  of  dishing  the  wheels,  and  advantage  of:  comparison 
between  conical  and  cylindrical  wheels  ;  injury  received  by  the  roads  by  difler- 
ent  wheels  :  the  cylindrical  wheel  a  little  dished,  and  the  edges  rounded  off,  is 
the  best :  ruts  form  a  great  resistance  to  draught :  the  hind  wheels  should  ex- 
actly follow  the  track  of  the  fore  ones  :  description  of  Jones's  patent  wheels  : 
the  expense  and  weight  must  limit  the  height  of  the  wheels  ;  the  fore-wheels 
usually  too  small :  the  comparative  advantages  of  two  and  four-wheeled  car- 
riages :  two  wheeled  carts  with  two  horses,  disadvantageous.  Springs  should 
never  be  applied  to  give  any  longitudinal  elasticity  to  the  carriage  :  disadvan- 
tage of  C  springs  on  this  account :  advantage  of  springs  :  Mr.D.  Giddy's  theory 
of  wheels  and  springs  :  springs  particularly  advantageous  when  much  velocity 
is  required  :  loading  high,  although  dangerous,  makes  the  carriage  run  light : 
the  safety  coaches,  by  having  the  load  low,  very  disadvantageous.  Hardness, 
the  great  desideratum  in  roads  :  great  rounding  of  the  road  useless,  and  injuri- 
ous :  a  rise  of  six  or  eight  inches  in  a  road  twenty  feet  wide,  quite  sufficient : 
hardness  of  surface,  how  best  secured :  constant  repairs  and  attention,  on  the 
whole,  most  economical.  Great  advantage  of  railways  :  the  power  of  the  horse 
increased  tenfold  on  a  railway. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  HORSE. 


CHAPTER    I. 

GENERAL   HISTORY   OF   THE   HORSE. 


Hackney. 


Arahian, 


Hunter. 


The  native  country  of  the  horse  cannot  with  certainty  be  traced.  He  has  been- 
found,  varying  materially  in  size,  in  form,  and  in  utility,  in  all  the  temperate,  in' 
most  of  the  sultry,  and  in'  many  of  the  northern  regions  of  the  old  world. 

In  the  sacred  volume,  which,  beside  its^  higher  claims  to  stand  at  the  head  of  the 
farmers'  library,  contains  the  oldest  authentic  record  of  past  transactions,  we  are 
told  that,  so  early  as  1650  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  the  horse  had  been  do- 
mesticated by  the  Egyptians.  When  Joseph  carried  his  father^s  remains  front 
Egypt  to  Canaan,  "  there  went  up  with  him  both  chariots  and  horsemen."*  One 
hundred  and  fifty  years  afterwards,  the  horse  constituted  the  principal  strength  of 
the  Egyptian  army.  Pliaraoh  pursued  the  Israelites  with  "  six  hundred  chosen 
chariots,  and  with  all  the  chariots  of  Egypt."-}- 

If  we  could  believe  the  accounts  of  tl>e  uninspired  historians,  Sesostris  (the  mo- 
narch probably  whom  Joseph  served,)  had  twenty --seven  thousand  chariots  of  war;: 
and  Semiramis,  the  founder  of  Babylon,  had  one  hundred  thousand  chariots,  and 
a  million  of  horsemen;  but  this  was  probably  a  great  exaggeration. 

Fifty  years  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Israefites  from  Eg}'pt,  and  1450  years  be- 
fore the  birth  of  Chi-ist,  the  horse  was  so  far  naturalized  in  Greece,  that  the  Olym- 
pic games  were  instituted,  including  chariot  and  horse  races.  We  have,  therefore, 
sufficient  evidence  that  the  horse  was,  at  a  very  early  period,  subjected  to  the 
dominion  of  man,  and,  unfortunately,  for  the  worst  of  purposes — the  business  of 
war. 

*  Gen.  i.  9.  f  Exod.  xvi.  7. 


2  THE  HORSE. 

From  the  records  of  the  Old  Testament,  we  are  likewise  enabled  to  ascertsun 
the  precise  period  of  time  when,  in  Egypt  and  Canaan,  and  the  neig-hboring-  coun- 
tries, tliis  animal  began  to  be  domesticated.  1920  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ, 
when  Abraham,  having  left  Haran,  in  obedience  to  the  divine  command,  was  driven 
into  Egypt  by  the  famine  which  raged  in  Canaan,*  Pharaoh  offered  him  sheep 
and  oxen,  and  asses,  and  camels.  Horses  would  doubtless  have  been  added,  had 
they  tlien  existed,  or  had  they  been  subdued  in  Egypt. 

When,  fifty  years  afterwards,  Abraliam  journeyed  to  Mount  Moriah,  to  offer  up 
his  only  son,  he  rode  upon  an  ass,  wliich,  with  all  his  wealdi  and  power,  he  would 
scarcely  have  done  had  the  horse  been  known,  f 

Thirty  years  later,  when  Jacob  retui-ned  to  Isaac  with  Rachel  and  Leah,  an  ac- 
count is  givent  of  the  number  of  oxen,  sheep,  camels,  goats,  and  asses,  which  he 
sent  to  appease  the  anger  of  Esau,  but  not  one  horse  is  mentioned. 

It  is  not  until  twenty-foui-  years  after  this,  when  the  famine  devastated  Canaan,  || 
and  Jacob  sent  into  Egypt  to  buy  corn,  that  horses  are  first  heard  of.  "  Wa- 
gons," probably  carriages,  drawn  by  horses,  were  sent  by  Joseph  into  Canaan  to 
bring  his  father  to  Egypt.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  horses  had  been  but 
lately  introduced,  and  were  not  nun>erous,  or  not  used  as  beasts  of  burden;  for  the 
whole  of  the  corn,  which  was  to  be  conveyed  some  hundred  miles,  and  was  to  af- 
ford subsistence  for  Jacob's  large  household,  was  carried  on  asses. 

It  appears  then  that  about  1740  years  before  Christ,  horses  were  first  used  in 
Egypt;  but  they  soon  afterwards  became  so  numerous  as  to  form  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  Egyptian  army:  and  when  the  Israelites  returned  into  Canaan,  the 
horse  had  been  inti-oduced  and  naturalized  there;  for  the  Canaanites  ♦'  went  out 
to  fight  against  Israel  \\itli  horses  and  chariots  very  rfiany."§ 

The  sacred  volume,  therefore,  clears  up  a  point  upon  which  no  other  record 
throws  any  light,  namely,  the  period  when  the  horse  first  became  the  sei-vant  of 
man,  at  least  in  one  part  of  the  world,  and  that  the  most  advanced  in  civilization, 
and  before  Greece  was  peopled.  A  long  time  must  have  elapsed  before  man  was 
able  to  ascertain  the  value  and  peculiar  use  of  the  animals  that  surrounded  him. 
He  would  begin  with  the  more  subordinate — those  which  were  most  easily  caught, 
and  most  readily  subdued;  and  the  benefits  which  he  derived  from  their  labors 
would  induce  him  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  superior  quadrupeds.  In  accordance 
with  this,  the  writings  of  Moses  show  us  that,  after  the  ox,  the  sheep,  and  the  goat, 
min  subdued  the  ass,  and  then  the  camel,  and,  last  of  all,  the  horse  became  his. 
sei-vant:  and  no  sooner  was  /te  subdued,  and  his  sti'ength,  and  docihty,  and  sagacity, 
appi-eciated,  than  the  others  were  comparatively  disregai-ded,  except  in  Palestine, 
where  the  use  of  the  horse  was  forbidden  by  divine  authority,  and  on  extensive 
and  barren  deserts  where  he  could  not  hve.^ 

From  Egypt  the  use  of  the  horse  was  propagated  to  other  and  distant  lands;  and, 
probably,  the  horse  himself  was  first  transmitted  from  Egypt  to  several  countries. 
The  Greeks  affirm,  that  Neptune  struck  the  earth  with  his  trident,  and  a  horse  ap- 
peared. The  truth  is,  that  the  Thessalians,  the  first  and  most  expert  of  the  Gre- 
cian horsemen,  and  hkevvise  the  inhabitants  of  Argos  and  of  Athens,  were  colo- 
nists from  Egypt. 

The  Bible  likewise  decides  another  point,  that  Arabia,  by  whose  breed  of  horses 
those  of  other  countries  have  been  so  much  improved,  was  not  the  native  place  of 
the  horse.     Six  hundi-ed  years  after  the  time  just  referred  to,  Arabia  had  no  horses. 

•  Gen.  xii.  16.  f  Gen.  xxli.  3.  +  Gen.  xxxii.  14.  P  Gen.  xlv.  19.  §  Joshua  xi.  4. 
1  When  Sir  Gore  Ouseley  travelled  through  Persia,  and  the  different  countries 
of  the  east,  he  examined,  among  other  relics  of  antiquity,  the  sculptures  on  the 
ruins  of  Persepolis,  and  he  draws  from  them  a  curious  and  interesting  conclusion 
as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  horse  was  gradually  subdued.  "  There  are  no  fi- 
gures," says  he,  "  mounted  on  horseback,  although  some  travellers  have  mention- 
ed horsemen  among  those  sculptures.  One  would  think  that  the  simple  act  of 
mounting  on  a  horse's  back  would  naturally  have  preceded  the  vise  of  wheel-car- 
riages and  their  comphcated  harness;  yet  no  horsemen  are  found  at  Persepolis;  and 
we  know  Homer's  horses  are  represented  in  chariots  from  which  the  wamors  some- 
times descended  to  combat  on  foot,  but  the  poet  has  not  described  them  as  fighting 
on  horseback.  The  absence  of  mounted  figures  might  authorize  an  opinion  that 
those  sculptui-es  had  been  executed  before  tJ^e  time  of  Cyrus,  whose  precepts  and 
example  first  inspired  the  Persians  with  a  love  of  equestria)i  exercises,  of  which, 
before  Ills  time,  they  were  wholly  ignorant."     Vol.  ii.  p.  276. 


THE  HORSE.  3 

Solomon  imported  spices,  gold,  and  silver,  from  Arabia;*  but  all  the  liorses  for 
his  own  cavalry  and  chariots,  and  those  with  which  he  supplied  the  Phoinician 
monarchs,  he  procui-ed  from  Egypt. f 

In  the  seventh  century  after  Christ,  when  Mahomet  attacked  the  Koreish,  near 
Mecca,  he  had  but  two  horses  in  his  whole  army;  and  at  tlie  close  of  his  murderous 
campaign,  although  he  drove  off  twenty-four  thousand  camels,  and  forty  thousand 
sheep,  and  carried  away  twenty-four  thousand  ounces  of  silver,  not  one  horse  ap- 
pears in  the  list  of  plunder. 

There  is  a  curious  record  of  the  commerce  of  different  countries  at  the  close  of 
the  second  century.  Among  the  articles  exported  from  Egypt  to  Arabia,  and  par- 
ticularly as  presents  to  reigning  monarchs,  were  horses.  + 

In  the  fourth  century  two  hundred  Cappadocian  horses  were  sent  by  the  Roman 
emperor,  as  the  most  acceptable  present  he  could  offer  a  powerful  prince  of  Arabia. 

So  late  as  the  seventh  century,  the  Arabs  had  few  horses,  and  those  of  little 
value.  These  circumstances  sufficiently  prove  that,  however  superior  may  be  the 
present  breed,  it  is  comparatively  lately  tliat  the  horse  was  naturalized  in  Arabia. 

The  horses  of  Arabia  itself,  and  of  the  soutlieastern  parts  of  Europe,  are  clearly 
derived  from  Egypt;  but  whether  they  wei-e  there  bred,  or  imported  from  the 
southwestern  regions  of  Asia,  or,  as  is  more  probable,  brought  from  the  interior, 
or  northern  coasts  of  Africa,  cannot  with  certainty  be  determined. 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE  DIFFERENT  FOREIGN  BREEDS  OF  HORSES. 


THE   WILD   HORSE. 

Tnoops  of  wild  horses  are  found  in  the  plains  of  Great  Tartary,  and  also  in  se- 
veral parts  of  South  America.  In  neither,  however,  can  we  recognize  an  origintil 
race.  The  horses  of  the  Ukraine,  and  those  of  South  America,  are  equally  the 
descendants  of  those  who  had  escaped  from  the  slavery  of  man.  The  Tartar 
horses  are  fleet  and  strong,  but  comparatively  of  an  ordinary  breed.  Those  of 
South  America  retain,  almost  unimpaired,  the  size  and  form  of  their  European 
ancestors. 

In  no  part  of  America,  or  of  the  more  newly  discovered  islands  of  the  Pacific, 
was  the  horse  known  until  he  was  introduced  by  Europeans;  and  the  origin  of  the 
horses  of  Tartary  has  been  clearly  traced  to  those  who  were  employed  in  the  siege 
of  Azoph  in  1657,  but  which  were  turned  loose  for  want  of  forage. 

All  travellers,  who  have  crossed  the  plains  extending  from  the  shores  of  La 
Plata  to  Patagonia,  have  spoken  of  numerous  droves  of  wild  horses.  Some  affirm 
that  they  have  seen  ten  thousand  in  one  troop.  They  appear  to  be  under  the 
command  of  a  leader,  the  strongest  and  boldest  of  the  herd,  and  whom  they  im- 
plicitly obey.  A  secret  instinct  teaches  them  that  their  safety  consists  in  their 
union,  and  in  a  principle  of  subordination.     The  hon,  the  tiger,  and  the  leopard, § 

*  2  Chron.  Ix.  14.  1 2  Chron.  i.  17. 

i  The  historian  gives  us  the  price  of  the  horse  and  the  chariot  at  that  time.  A 
horse  brought  from  Egypt,  including,  probably,  the  expense  of  the  journey,  cost 
one  hundred  and  fifty  shekels  of  silver,  which,  at  two  shillings  three  pence  and 
one  half  farthing  each,  amounts  to  about  seventeen  pounds  two  shillings.  A  cha- 
riot cost  six  hundred  shekels,  or  sixty-eight  pounds  eight  shillings;  a  most  enor- 
mous sum  at  that  early  period,  but  little  to  him  who  expended  more  than  thirty- 
five  milUons  of  pounds,  in  gold  alone,  to  ornament  the  temple  which  he  had  built. 

§  These  animals  are  of  a  different  race  from  those  which  go  under  the  same 
names  in  the  old  world,  and  are  very  inferior  in  strength. 


4  THE  HORSE. 

are  their  principal  enemies.  At  some  signal,  intelligible  to  them  all,  they  either 
close  into  a  dense  mass,  and  trample  their  enemy  to  death;  or,  placing  the  mares 
and  foals  in  the  centre,  they  form  themselves  into  a  circle,  and  welcome  him  with 
their  heels.  In  the  attack,  their  leader  is  the  first  to  face  the  danger,  and,  when 
prudence  demands  a  retreat,  they  follow  his  rapid  flight. 

In  the  thinly  inhabited  parts  of  South  America,  it  is  dangerous  to  fall  ^n  with 
any  of  these  troops.  The  wild  horses  approach  as  near  as  they  dare:  they  call 
to  the  loaded  horse  with  the  greatest  eagerness,  and,  if  the  rider  be  not  on  the 
alert,  and  have  not  considerable  strength  of  arm,  and  sharpness  of  spur,  his  beast 
will  divest  himself  of  his  burden,  take  to  his  heels,  and  be  gone  for  ever. 

Captain  Head  gives  the  following  account  of  a  meeting  with  a  troop  of  wild 
horses,  where  the  country  is  more  thickly  inhabited.  Some  poor  captured  ani- 
mals are  supposed  to  be  forced  along  by  their  riders  at  their  very  utmost  speed: 
••  As  they  are  thus  galloping  along,  urged  by  the  spur,  it  is  interesting  to  see  the 
groups  of  wild  horses  one  passes.  The  mares,  which  are  never  ridden  in  South 
America,  seem  not  to  understand  what  makes  the  poor  horse  carry  his  head  so 
low,  and  look  so  weary.*  The  little  innocent  colts  come  running  to  meet  him, 
and  then  start  away  frightened:  while  the  old  horses,  whose  white  marks  on  the 
flanks  and  backs  betray  their  acquaintance  with  the  spur  and  saddle,  walk  slowly 
away  for  some  distance,  then,  breaking  into  a  trot  as  they  seek  their  safety,  snort 
and  look  behind  them,  first  with  one  eye  and  then  with  the  other,  turning  their 
nose  from  right  to  left,  and  carrying  their  long  tail  high  in  the  air."-|- 

The  same  pleasing  writer  describes  the  system  of  horse  management  among  the 
rude  inhabitants  of  the  plains  of  South  America.  They  have  no  stables,  no  fenced 
pastures.  One  horse  is  usually  kept  tied  at  the  door  of  the  hut,  fed  scantily  at 
night  on  maize;  or  at  other  times  several  may  be  enclosed  in  the  corral,  which  is 
a  circular  space  surrounded  by  rough  posts,  driven  fiimly  into  the  ground.  The 
mares  are  never  ridden,  or  attempted  to  be  tamed,  but  wander  with  their  foals 
wherever  they  please. 

When  the  Gaucho,  the  native  inhabitant  of  the  plains,  wants  horses  for  himself, 
or  for  the  supply  of  the  traveller,  he  either  goes  with  his  lasso  to  the  corral,  and 
selects  those,  possibly,  who  on  the  preceding  day  had  for  the  first  time  been 
backed,  or  he  scampers  across  the  plain,  and  presently  returns  with  an  unwilling, 
struggling,  or  subdued  captive.  AVhen  the  services  of  the  animals  have  been  ex- 
acted, he  either  takes  them  to  the  corral,  and  feeds  them  with  a  small  quantity 
of  maize,  if  he  thinks  he  shall  presently  need  them  again,  or  he  once  more  turns 
them  loose  on  the  plains. 

Travellers  give  some  amusing  accounts  of  the  manner  in  which  all  this  is  effect- 
ed. Miers^:  thus  describes  tlie  lasso,  simple  in  its  construction,  but  all-powerful  in 
the  hands  of  the  Gaucho. 

"  The  lasso  is  a  missile  weapon  used  by  every  native  of  the  United  Provinces 
and  Chile.  It  is  a  very  strong  plated  thong  of  equal  thickness,  half  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter, and  forty  feet  long,  made  of  many  strips  of  green  hide,  plaited  like  a 
whipthong,  and  rendered  supple  by  grease.  It  has,  at  one  end,  an  iron  ring 
above  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  through  which  the  thong  is  passed,  and 
this  forms  a  running  noose.  The  Gaucho,  or  native  Peon,  is  generally  mounted 
on  horseback  when  he  uses  the  lasso.  One  end  of  the  thong  is  affixed  to  his  sad- 
dle girth:  the  remainder  he  coils  carefully  in  his  left  hand,  leaving  about  twelve 
feet  belonging  to  the  noose  end  in  a  coil,  and  a  half  of  which  he  holds  in  his 
right  hand.  He  then  swings  this  long  noose  horizontally  round  his  head,  the 
weight  of  the  iron  ring  at  the  end  of  the  noose  assisting  in  giving  to  it,  by  a  con- 
tinued circular  motion,  a  sufficient  force  to  project  it  the  whole  length  of  the 
line." 

When  the  Gauchos  wish  to  have  a  grand  breaking-in,  they  drive  a  whole  herd 
of  wild  horses  into  the  corral.  "The  corral  was  quite  full  of  horses,  most  of 
which  were  young  ones  about  two  or  three  years  old.  The  capitar,  (chief  Gaucho,) 
mounted  on  a  strong  steady  horse,  rode  into  tlie  corral,  and  threw  his  lasso  over 

•  An  Englishman  once  attempted  to  ride  a  mare,  but  he  was  hooted  and  pelted 
by  the  natives,  and  thought  himself  fortunate  to  escape  without  serious  injury. 

Sir  John  Carr,  in  his  Northern  Summer,  p.  44,  states  that  it  is  only  a  short  time 
since  mares  began  to  be  ridden  in  Russia. 

f  Head's  Journey  across  the  Pampas,  p.  258. 

\  Miers'  Travels  in  Chile,  vol.  i.,  p.  88. 


THE  HORSE.  5 

the  neck  of  a  young  horse,  and  dragged  him  to  the  gate.  For  some  time  he  was 
very  unwilHng  to  leave  his  comrades;  but  the  moment  he  was  forced  out  of  the 
corral,  his  first  idea  was  to  gallop  away:  however  a  timely  jerk  of  the  lasso  checked 
him  in  the  most  effectual  way.  The  Peons  now  ran  after  him  on  foot,  and  threw 
a  lasso  over  his  fore-legs  just  above  the  fetlock,  and,  twitching  it,  they  pulled  his 
legs  from  under  him  so  suddenly,  that  I  really  thought  the  fall  he  got  had  killed 
him.  In  an  instant  a  Gaucho  was  seated  on  liis  head,  and  with  his  long  knife, 
and  in  a  few  seconds,  cut  off  the  whole  of  the  horse's  mane,  while  another  cut  the 
hair  from  the  end  of  his  tail.  This  they  told  me  was  a  mark  th:>t  the  horse  hud  been 
once  mounted.  They  then  put  a  piece  of  hide  into  his  mouth  to  serve  for  a  bit, 
and  a  strong  hide  halter  on  his  head.  The  Gaucho  who  was  to  mount  arranged 
his  spurs,  which  were  unusually  long  and  sharp,*  and  while  two  men  held  the 
horse  by  his  ears,  lie  put  on  the  saddle,  which  he  girthed  extremely  tight.  He 
then  caught  hold  of  the  horse's  ear,  and  in  an  instant  vaulted  into  the  saddle;  up- 
on which  the  man  who  held  the  horse  by  the  halter  threw  the  end  to  the  rider, 
and  from  tliat  moment  no  one  seemed  to  take  any  further  notice  of  him. 

"The  horse  instantly  began  to  jump  in  a  manner  which  made  it  very  difficult 
for  the  rider  to  keep  his  seat,  and  quite  different  from  the  kick  or  plunge  of  an 
English  horse:  however,  the  Gaucho's  spurs  soon  set  him  going,  and  off  he  gal- 
loped, doing  every  thing  in  his  power  to  throw  his  rider. 

"  Another  horse  was  immediately  brought  from  the  corral,  and  so  quick  was  the 
operation,  that  twelve  Gauchos  were  mounted  in  a  space  which  I  think  liardly  ex- 
ceeded an  hour.  It  was  wonderful  to  see  the  different  manner  in  which  different 
horses  behaved.  Some  would  actually  scream  while  the  Gauchos  were  girding 
the  saddle  upon  their  backs;  some  would  instantly  lie  down  and  roll  upon  it;  while 
some  would  stand  without  being  held — their  legs  stiff,  and  in  unnatural  positions, 
their  necks  half  bent  towards  their  tails,  and  looking  vicious  and  obstinate;  and  I 
could  not  help  thinking  that  I  would  not  have  mounted  one  of  those  for  any  reward 
that  could  be  offered  me,  for  they  were  invariably  the  most  difficult  to  subdue. 

"  It  was  now  curious  to  look  around  and  see  the  Gauchos  on  the  horizon  in  dif- 
ferent directions,  trying  to  bring  their  horses  back  to  the  corral,  wliich  is  the  most 
difficult  part  of  their  work;  for  the  poor  creatures  had  been  so  scared  there  that 
they  were  unwilling  to  return  to  the  place.  It  was  amusing  to  see  the  antics  of 
the  horses — they  were  jumping  and  dancing  in  different  ways,  while  the  right  arm 
of  the  Gauchos  was  seen  flogging  them.  At  last  they  brought  the  horses  back 
apparently  subdued  and  broken  in.  The  saddles  and  bridles  were  taken  off,  and 
the  young  horses  trotted  off  towards  the  corral,  neighing  to  one  another. "-j- 

When  the  Gaucho  wishes  to  take  a  wild  horse,  he  mounts  one  that  has  been  used 
to  the  sport,  and  gallops  over  the  plain.  As  soon  as  he  comes  sufficiently  near 
his  prey,  t"the  lasso  is  thrown  round  the  two  hind  legs,  and  as  the  Gaucho  rides 
a  httle  on  one  side,  the  jerk  pulls  the  entangled  horse's  feet  laterally,  so  as  to  throw 
him  on  his  side,  without  endangering  his  knees  or  his  face.  Before  the  liorse  can 
recover  the  shock,  the  rider  dismounts,  and,  snatching  his  poncho  or  cloak  from 
his  shoulders,  wraps  it  round  the  prostrate  animal's  head.  He  then  forces  into 
his  mouth  one  of  the  powerful  bridles  of  the  countiy,  straps  a  saddle  on  his  back, 
and,  bestriding  him,  removes  the  poncho;  upon  which  the  astonished  horse  springs 
on  his  legs,  and  endeavors,  by  a  thousand  vain  efforts,  to  disincumber  himself  of 

•The  manufacture  of  the  Gaucho's  boots  is  somewhat  singular.  "The  boots 
of  the  Gauchos  are  formed  of  the  ham,  and  part  of  the  leg-skin  of  a  colt,  taken 
reeking  from  the  mother,  which  is  said  to  be  sacrificed  for  the  sole  purpose,  just 
at  the  time  of  bearing,  when  the  hair  has  not  begun  to  grow.  At  this  stage,  the 
skin  strips  off  easily,  and  is  very  white  and  beautiful  in  texture  and  appearance. 
The  ham  forms  the  calf  of  the  boot;  the  hock  easily  adapts  itself  to  the  heel,  and 
the  leg  above  the  fetlock  constitutes  the  foot;  the  whole  making  a  neat  and  ele- 
gant half-boot,  with  an  aperture  sufficient  for  tlie  great  toe  to  project  through." 
Andrews'  Journey  in  South  America,  vol,  i.,  p.  iJ6, 

•j"  Head's  Journey  across  the  Pampas,  p.  258. 

t  Basil  Hall's  Journey  to  Peru  and  Mexico,  vol.  i.,  p.  151.  The  Jesuit  Dobriz- 
hoffer,  in  his  History  of  the  Abipones,  a  nation  of  Paraguay,  and  speaking  of  the 
tamed  horse,  (vol.  ii.,  p.  113,)  says  that  "stirrups  are  not  in  general  use.  The 
men  leap  on  their  horse  on  the  right  side.  In  the  right  hand  they  grasp  tlie  bri- 
dle, and  in  the  left  a  very  long  speai-,  leaning  on  which,  they  jump  with  the  im- 
pulse of  both  feet,  and  then  fall  right  upon  the  horse's  back." 


6  THE  HORSE. 

his  new  master,  who  sits  quite  composedly  on  his  back,  and,  by  a  discipline  which 
never  fails,  reduces  the  horse  to  such  complete  obedience  that  he  is  soon  trained 
to  lend  his  whole  speed  and  strength  to  the  capture  of  his  companions." 

These  animals  possess  much  of  the  form  of  the  Spanish  horse,  from  which  they 
sprung-;  they  are  tamed,  as  has  been  seen,  with  far  less  difficulty  than  could  be 
thought  possible;  and,  although  theirs  is  the  obedience  of  fear,  and  enforced  at 
first  by  the  whip  and  spui",  there  are  no  horses  who  so  soon  and  so  perfectly  exert 
their  sagacity  and  their  power  in  the  service  of  man.  They  are  possessed  of  no 
extraordinary  speed,  but  they  ai-e  capable  of  enduring  immense  fatig-ue.  They  are 
frequently  ridden  60  or  70  miles  without  drawing'  bit,  and  have  been  urged  on  by 
the  cruel  spur  of  tlie  Gaucho  more  than  a  hundred  miles,  and  at  the  rate  of  twelve 
miles  in  the  hour. 

Like  the  Arab  horses,  they  know  no  intermediate  pace  between  the  walk  and 
the  gallop.  Although  at  the  end  of  a  day  so  hard,  their  sides  are  horribly  man- 
gled, and  they  completely  exhausted,  there  iS  this  consolation  for  them,  they  are 
immediately  tui-ned  loose  on  the  plains,  and  it  will  be  their  own  fault  if  they  are 
speedily  caught  again.  The  mare  is  occasionally  killed  for  food,  and  especially  on 
occasions  of  unusual  festivity.  General  San  Martin,  dui'ingthe  war  for  independence, 
gave  a  feast  to  the  Indian  allies  attached  to  his  army,  and  mares'  flesh,  and  the 
blood  mixed  with  gin,  formed  the  whole  of  the  entertainment. 

On  such  diy  and  sultry  plains,  the  supply  of  v/ater  is  often  scanty,  and  then  a 
species  of  madness  seizes  on  the  horses,  and  their  generous  and  docile  qualities  are 
no  longer  recognized.  They  rush  violently  into  every  pond  and  lake,  savagely 
mangling  and  trampling  upon  one  another;  and  the  carcasses  of  many  thousands  of 
them,  destroyed  by  their  fellows,  have  occasionally  been  seen  in  and  around  a 
considerable  pool.  This  is  one  of  the  means  by  which  the  too  rapid  increase  of 
this  quadruped  is,  by  the  ordinance  of  natiu-e,  there  prevented. 

The  wild  horses  of  Tahtart,  although  easily  domesticated,  materially  differ  in 
character  from  those  on  the  plains  of  South  America.  They  will  not  suffer  a 
stranger  to  join  them.  If  a  domesticated  horse  comes  in  their  way,  unprotected 
by  his  master,  they  attack  him  with  their  teeth  and  their  heels,  and  speedily  de- 
stroy him.  They  readily  submit,  however,  to  tlie  dominion  of  man,  and  become 
perfectly  docile  and  faithful. 

Among  the  Tartars,  the  flesh  of  the  horse  is  a  frequent  article  of  food;  and,  al- 
though they  do  not,  like  the  Indians  of  the  Pampas,  eat  it  raw,  their  mode  of  cook- 
ery would  not  be  very  inviting  to  the  European  epicure.  They  cut  the  muscular 
parts  into  slices,  and  place  them  under  their  saddles,  and  after  they  have  galloped 
thirty  or  forty  miles,  the  meat  becomes  tender  and  sodden,  and  fit  for  theu*  table; 
and,  at  all  their  feasts,  the  first  and  last,  and  most  favorite  dish,  is  a  horse's  head. 

When  water  was  not  at  hand,  the  Scythians  used  to  draw  blood  from  their 
horses,  and  drink  it;  and  the  dukes  of  Muscovy,  for  nearly  two  hundred  and  sixty 
years,  presented  Tartar  ambassadors  with  the  milk  of  mares.  If  any  of  this  milk 
fell  upon  the  mane  of  the  horse,  the  duke,  by  custorn,  was  bound  to  lick  it  off. 

Troops  of  wild  horses  are  occasionally  met  with  in  the  centi-al  parts  of  Africa, 
in  the  island  of  St.  Domingo,  on  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  and  in  a  few  other  parts  of 
the  world;  but  no  where  do  they  equal  the  domesticated  horse  in  form,  strength, 
or  even  speed. 

It  has  already  been  stated,  that  the  earliest  records  we  have  of  the  horse  trace 
him  to  Egypt,  whence  he  gradually  found  his  way  to  Arabia  and  Persia,  and  the 
provinces  which  were  colonized  from  Egypt;  and  thence  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
old  world.  But  Egypt  Is  not  now  a  breeding  country,  and  it  does  not  appear  to 
possess  those  requisites  which  could  ever  have  constituted  it  one.  Without,  how- 
ever, entering  into  the  question  whether  the  horse  \vas  primarily  the  inhabitant  of 
some  particular  region,  whence  other  parts  were  gradually  supplied,  or  whether  it 
was  common  to  many  countries,  but  differing  in  each,  we  have  stated  it  to  be  pro- 
bable that  the  horses  of  Egj'pt,  the  earliest  on  record,  were  derived  from  the 
neighboring  and  interior  districts  of  Africa.  Therefore,  in  giving  a  very  summary 
account  of  the  most  celebrated  and  useful  breeds  of  different  countries,  it  Is  natural 
to  begin  with  those  of  Africa. 

At  the  head  of  these  is  the  Barb,  from  Barbary,  and  partlculai-ly  from  Morocco 
and  Fez,  and  the  interior  of  Tripoli;  and  remaikable  for  his  fine  and  graceful  ac- 
tion. It  is  rather  lower  than  the  Arabian,  seldom  exceeding  fourteen  hands  and  an 
inch.  The  shoulders  are  flat,  the  chest  round,  the  joints  Inclined  to  be  long,  and 
the  head  particularly  beautiful.  The  Barb  Is  decidedly  superior  to  the  Arab  in 
form,  but  has  not  his  spirit,  or  speed,  or  countenance. 


THE  BARB— DONGOLA. 

THE     BARB. 


The  Godolphin  Arabian. 

The  Barb  has  chiefly  contributed  to  the  excellence  of  the  Spanish  horse;  and, 
when  the  improvement  of  the  breed  of  horses- beg-an  to  be  systematically  pursued 
in  Great  Britain,  the  Barb  was  very  early  introduced.  The  Godolphin  Arabian, 
as  he  is  called,  of  whom  we  have  presented  our  readers  with  a  cut,  and  who  was 
the  orig-in  of  some  of  out  best  racing*  blood,  was  a  Barb;  and  others  of  our  most 
celebrated  turf-horses  trace  their  descent  from  African  mares. 

More  in  the  centre  of  Africa,  in  the  kingdom  of  Bournou,  is  a  breed,  which  Mr. 
Tully,  in  his  almost  romantic  history  of  Tripoli,  reckons  superior  even  to  those  of 
Arabia  or  Bai'bary;  it  possesses  the  best  qualities  of  both  those  breeds,  being  as 
serviceable  as  that  of  Arabia,  and  as  beautiful  as  that  of  Barbary. 

In  the  more  southern  and  western  districts  of  Africa,  and  particularly  in  the 
neighborhood,  of  the  Guinea  Coast,  the  breed  of  horses  is  very  inferior.  They  are 
small,  weak,  unsafe,  and  untractable.  But  neither  horses,  nor  any  other  produce 
of  value,  can  be  looked  for  in  those  unhappy  countries,  so  long  as  they  are  deso- 
lated by  the  infernal  slave-trade  inflicted  upon  them  by  the  most  civilized,  but  truly 
unchristian,  nations  of  Europe. 

THE    DONGOLA    HORSE. 

The  kingdom  of  Dongola,  and  the  neiglAoHng  districts  lying  between  Egypt 
and  Abyssinia,  contain  a  horse  not  at  all  like  any  other  oriental. 

The  "  Dongola  horses  stand  full  sixteen  hands  high,  but  the  length  of  the  body, 
from  the  shoulders  to  the  quarter,-  is  considerably  less'.  Their  form,  therefore,  is 
opposite  to  that  of  the  Arabian,  or  English  thorough-bred,  which  are  longer  by 
some  inches  than  they  are  high.  The  neck  is  long  and  slender,  the  crest  fin«,  and 
the  withers  sharp  and  high,  giving  a  beautiful  forehand;  but  the  breast  is  too  nar- 
row, the  quarters  and  flanks  too  flat,  and  the  back  carped.  They  constitute  ex- 
cellent war-horses,'  from  their  speed,  durability,  and  size.  Sevei-al  of  them  have 
lately  been  imported  into  Europe,  but  they  are  little  valued.  Possibly,  with  three- 
part-bred  m'ares,  they  might  improve  our  cavalry  horses." 

Bosman,  whose  descriptions  prove  him  to  be  no  bad  horseman,  thus  speaks  of 
them,  but  in  somewhat  too  flattering  a  manner.  "  The  Dongola  horses  are  the 
most  perfect  in  the  world,  being  beautiful,  symmetrical  in  their  parts,  nervous  and 
elastic  in  their  movements,  and  docile  and  affectionate  in  their  manners.  One  of 
these  horses  was  sold  in  1816,  at  Grand  Cairo,  for  a  sum  equivalent  to  1000/.'* 

Ml".  Bruce  tells  us,  that  the  best  African  horses-  are  said  to  be  descended  froiTF 
oiire  of  the  five  on  which  Mahomet  and  his  four  immediate  successors  fled  fromr 
Mecca  to  Medina  on  the  night  of  the  Hegira.  He  thus  accounts  for  very  singular 
and  opposite  customs  among  the  Arabs  and  Africans. 

"  No  Arab  ever  mounts  a  stallion:  on  the  contrary,  in  Africa,  they  never  ride 
mares.  The  reason  is  plain.  The  Arabs  are  constantly  at  war  with  their  neigh- 
bors, and  always  endeavor  to  take  their  enemies  by  sui'prise  in'  the  grey  of  the 


8  THE  HORSE. 

evening,  or  the  dawn  of  day.  A  stallion  no  sooner  smells  the  stale  of  the  mare  in 
the  enemy's  quartei-s,  than  he  begins  to  neigh,  and  that  would  give  tlie  alarm  to 
the  party  intended  to  be  surprised.  No  such  thing  can  ever  happen  when  they 
ride  mares  only.  On  the  contrary,  the  Funge  trust  only  to  superior  force.  They 
are  in  an  open,  plain  country — must  be  discovered  at  many  miles  distance — and  aU 
such  surprises  and  stratagems  are  useless  to  them." 

THE    ARABIAN. 


The  Wellesley  Arabian. 

Going  further  eastward  ve  arrive  at  Arabia,  whose  horses  deservedly  occupy 
the  very  highest  rank. 

A  few  wild  horses  are  5'^et  seen  on  some  of  the  deserts  of  Arabia.  They  are 
hunted  by  the  Bedouins  for  their  flesh,  which  is  considered  a  delicacy,  if  the  animal 
be  young;  and  also  to  increase  their  stock  of  inferior  horses,  which  they  often  palm 
on  the  merchant  as  descended  from  the  sacred  breed.  They  are  said  to  be  even 
swifter  than  the  domesticated  horse,  and  are  usually  taken  by  traps  hidden  in  the 
sand.  Mr.  Bruce,  however,  doubts  whether  any  wild  horses  are  now  found  in 
Arabia  Deserta.* 

Although  in  the  seventh  century  the  Arabs  had  no  horses  of  value,  yet  the  Cap- 
padocian  and  other  horses,  which  they  had  derived  from  their  neighbors,  were 
preserved  with  so  much  care,  and  propagated  so  uniformly  and  strictly  from  the 
finest  of  the  breed,  that  in  the  thirteenth  century  the  Arabian  horse  began  to  as- 
sume a  just  and  unrivalled  celebrity. 

There  are  ^id  to  be  three  breeds  or  varieties  of  Arabian  horses:  the  Attechi,  or 
inferior  breed,  on  which  they  set  little  value,  and  which  are  found  wild  on  some 
parts  of  the  desert;  the  Kadisehi,  literally  horses  of  an  unknown  race,  answering 
to  our  half-bred  horses — a  mixed  breed;  and  tlie  Kochlani,  horses  whose  genealogy, 
according  to  the  Arab  account,  is  known  for  two  thousand  years.  Many  of  them 
have  written  and  attested  pedigrees  extending  more  than  four  hundred  years,  and, 
with  true  eastern  exaggeration,  traced  by  oral  tradition  from  the  stud  of  Solomon. 
A  more  careful  account  is  kept  of  these  genealogies  than  belongs  to  the  most  an- 
cient family  of  the  proudest  Arab  chief,  and  very  singular  precautions  are  taken 
to  prevent  the  possibility  of  fraud,  so  far  as  the  written  pedigree  extends. 

The  Kochlani  ai'e  principally  reared  by  the  Bedouin  Arabs,  in  the  remoter  de- 
serts. A  stallion  may  be  procured  without  much  difficulty,  although  at  a  great 
price.  A  mare  is  rarely  to  be  obtained,  except  by  fraud  and  excessive  bribery. 
The  Arabs  have  found  out  that  which  the  English  breeder  should  never  forget, 
that  the  female  is  more  concerned  than  the  male  in  the  excellence  and  value  of  the 
produce;  and  the  genealogies  of  their  horses  are  always  reckoned  from  the  mothers. 

•  Bruce V  Travels,  vol.  vi.  p.  430. 


THE  ARABIAN.  9 

The  Arabian  horse  would  not  be  acknowledged  by  every  judge  to  possess  a  per- 
fect form :  his  head,  however,  is  inimitable.  The  broadness  and  squareness  of  the 
forehead,  the  shortness  and  fineness  of  the  muzzle,  the  prominence  and  briUiancy 
of  the  eye,  the  smallness  of  the  ears,  and  the  beautiful  course  of  the  veins,  will 
always  characterize  the  head  of  the  Arabian  horse. 

His  body  may  be  considered  as  too  light,  and  his  chest  as  too  naiTOw:  but  behind 
the  arms  tlie  barrel  generally  swells  out,  and  leaves  sufficient  room  for  the  play 
of  the  lungs. 

In  the  formation  of  the  shoulder,  next  to  that  of  the  head,  the  Arab  is  superior 
to  any  otlier  breed.  The  withers  are  high,  and  the  slioulder-blade  inclined  back- 
ward, and  so  nicely  adjusted,  that  in  descending  a  liill  the  point  or  edge  of  the  ham 
never  ruffles  the  skin.  He  may  not  be  thought  sufficiently  high;  he  seldom  stands 
more  than  fourteen  h:inds  two  inclies. 

The  fineness  of  his  legs,  and  the  oblique  position  of  his  pasterns,  may  be  sup- 
posed to  lessen  his  apparent  strength;  but  the  leg,  although  small,  is  flat  and  wiry; 
anatomists  know  that  the  bone  has  no  common  density,  and  the  starting  muscles  of 
the  fore-arm  and  the  thigh  indicate  that  he  is  fully  capable  of  accomplishing  many 
of  the  feats  which  are  recorded  of  him. 

The  Barb  alone  excels  him  in  noble  and  spirited  action;  and  if  there  be  defects 
about  him,  he  is  perfect  for  that  for  which  he  was  designed.  He  presents  the  true 
combination  of  speed  and  bottom — strength  enough  to  carry  more  than  a  light 
weight,  and  courage  that  would  cause  him  to  die  rather  than  to  give  up. 

We  may  not,  perhaps,  believe  all  that  is  told  us  of  the  Arabian.  It  has  been 
remai'ked,  that  there  are  on  the  deserts  which  this  horse  traverses  ik)  mile-stones 
to  mark  the  distance,  or  watches  to  calculate  the  time;  and  the  Bedouin  is  natural- 
ly given  to  exaggeration,  and,  most  of  all,  when  relating  the  prowess  of  the  ani- 
mal which  he  loves  as  dearly  as  his  children:  yet  it  cannot  be  denied  that,  at  the 
introduction  of  the  Arabian  into  the  European  stables,  there  was  no  other  horsei 
comparable  to  him. 

The  Arab  horse  is  as  celebrated  for  his  docility  and  good  temper  as  for  his  speed 
and  coui'age.  In  that  delightful  book,  'Bishop  Heber's  Narrative  of  a  Journey 
through  the  Upper  Provinces  of  India,'  the  following  interesting  character  is  given 
of  him.  "My  morning  rides  are  very  pleasant.  My  horse  is  a  nice,  quiet,  good- 
tempered  little  Arab,  who  is  so  fearless,  that  he  goes,  without  starting,  close  to  an 
elephant,  and  so  gentle  and  docile  that  he  eats  bread  out  of  my  hand,  and  has-  al- 
most as  much  attachment  and  coaxing  ways  as  a  dog.  This  seems  the  general 
character  of  the  Arab  horses,  to  judge  from  what  I  have  seen  in  this  country.  It 
is  not  the  fiery  dashing  animal  I  had  supposed,  but  with  more  rationality  about  him, 
and  more  apparent  confidence  in  his  rider,  than  the  majority  of  English  horses." 

The  kindness  with  which  he  is  treated  from  a  foal,  gives  him  an  afiection  for  his 
master,  a  wish  to  please,  a  pride  in  exerting  every  energy  in  obedience  to  his 
commands,  and,  consequently,  an  apparent  sagacity  which  is  seldom  seen  in  other 
breeds.  The  mare  and  her  foal  inhabit  the  same  tent  with  the  Bedouin  and  his 
children.  The  neck  of  tlie  mare  is  often  the  pillow  of  the  rider,  and,  more  fre- 
quently, of  the  children,  who  are  rolling  about  upon  her,  and  the  foal;  yet  no  ac- 
cident ever  occurs,  and  the  animal  acquires  that  friendship  and  love  for  man  which 
occasional  ill-treatment  will  not  cause  him  for  a  moment  to  forget. 

When  the  Arab  falls  from  his  mare,  and  is  unable  to  rise,  sne  will  immediately 
stand  still,  and  neigh  until  assistance  arrives.  If  he  lies  down  to  sleep,  as  fatigue 
sometimes  compels  him,  in  the  midst  of  the  desert,  she  stands  watchful  over  him, 
and  neighs  and  rouses  him  if  either  man  or  beast  approaches.  An  old  Arab  had 
a  valuable  mare  that  had  carried  him  for  fifteen  years  in  miuiy  a  hard-fought  battle, 
and  many  a  rapid  weary  march;  at  length,  eiglity  years  old,  and  unable  longer  to 
ride  her,  he  gave  her,  and  a  scimitar  tliut  had  been  his  father's,  to  iiis  eldest  son, 
and  told  him  to  appreciate  their  value,  and  never  lie  down  to  i-est  until  he  had 
rubbed  them  both  as  bright  as  a  looking-glass.  In  the  first  skirmish  in  which  the 
young  man  was  engaged  he  was  killed,  and  the  mare  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy.     When  the  news  reached  the  old  man,  he  exclaimed  that  "hfe  was  no 


longer  worth  preserving,  for  he  had  lost  both  his  son  and  his  mare,  and  he  grieved 
for  one  as  mucii  as  the  other;"  and  he  immediately  sickened  and  died.* 

Inconsistent  being.     The  Aral 

g  them  as  liis  most  valuable 

♦  Smith  on  Breeding,  p.  80. 


Man,  however,  is  an  inconsistent  being.     The  Arab  who  thus  lives  with  and 
loves  his  horses,  regarding  them  as  liis  most  valuable  treasui*e,  sometimes  treats 


10  THE  HORSE. 

them  with  a  ci-uelty  scarcely  to  be  believed,  and  not  at  all  to  be  justified.  The 
beverest  ti'eatment  which  the  English  race-horses  endures  is  g-entleness  compared 
with  the  trial  of  tlie  young  Arabian.  Probably  the  filly  has  never  before  been 
mounted;  she  is  led  out;  her  owner  springs  on  her  back,  and  goads  her  over  tlie 
sand  and  rocks  of  the  desert  at  full  speed  for  fifty  or  sixty  miles  without  one  mo- 
ment's respite.  She  is  tlien  forced,  steaming  aiKl  panting,  into  water  deep  enough 
for  her  to  swim.  If,  immediately  after  this,  slie  will  eat  as  if  notliing  had  occur- 
red, her  character  is  established,  and  she  is  acknowledged  to  be  a  genuine  de- 
scendant of  tlie  Kochlani  breed.  The  Arab  is  not  coiiscious  of  the  cruelty  which 
he  thus  inflicts.  It  is  an  invariable  custom,  and  custom  will  induce  us  to  inflict 
many  a  pang  on  those  whom,  after  all,  we  love. 

Tlie  following  anecdote  of  the  attachment  of  an  Arab  to  his  mare  has  often  been 
told,  but  it  comes  home  to  the  bosom  of  every  one  possessed  of  common  feehng. 
"The  whole  stock  of  an  Arab  of  the  desert  consisted  of  a  mare.  The  French 
consul  oflTered  to  purchase  her  in  order  to  send  her  to  his  sovereign,  Louis  XIV. 
The  Arab  woidd  have  rejected  the  proposal  at  once  with  indignation  and  scorn; 
but  he  was  miserably  poor.  He  bad  no  means  of  supplying  his  most  urgent  wants, 
or  procxuung  the  barest  necessaries  of  life.  Still  he  hesitated;  he  had  scarcely  a 
rag  to  cover  him — and  his  wife  and  his  children  were  starving.  The  sum  offered 
was  great — it  would  provide  him  and  his  family  with  food  for  life.  At  length,  and 
reluctantly,  he  consented.  He  brought  Uie  mare  to  the  dwelling  of  the  consul — 
he  dismounted — he  stood  leaning  upon  her;  he  looked  now  at  the  gold,  and  tlien 
at  his  favorite;  he  siglied — he  wept.  'To  whom  is  it,'  said  he,  'I  am  going  to 
yield  tliee  up  ?  To  Europeans,  who  will  tie  thee  close — who  will  beat  thee — who 
will  render  thee  miserable.  Return  with  me,  my  beauty,  my  jewel,  and  rejoice 
the  hearts  of  my  cliildren.'  As  he  pronounced  the  last  words,  he  sprung  upon  her 
back,  and  was  out  of  sight  in  a  moment." 

The  next  anecdote  is  scarcely  less  touching,  and  not  so  well  known:  "  Ibrahim, 
a  poor  but  worthy  Arab,  unable  to  pay  a  sum  of  money  which  he  owed,  was  com- 
pelled to  allow  a  merciiant  of  Rama  to  become  partner  with  him  in  a  valuable 
mare.  When  the  time  came,  he  could  not  redeem  his  pledge  to  tliis  man,  and  the 
mare  was  sold.  Her  pedigree  could  be  ti-aced  on  the  side  of  su-e  and  dam  for  full 
five  hundi-ed  years.  The  price  was  tiiree  hundi-ed  pounds;  an  enormous  sum  in 
that  countiy.  Ibrahim  went  frequently  to  Rama  to  inquire  after  the  mare:  he 
would  embi-ace  her — wipe  her  eyes  with  his  handkerchief — rub  her  with  his  sliu-t 
sleeves — and  give  her  a  thousand  benedictions  during  whole  hours  that  he  remain- 
ed talking  to  her.  'My  eyes!'  would  he  say  to  her,  'my  soul!  my  heart!  must  I 
be  so  unfortunate  as  to  have  thee  sold  to  so  many  masters,  and  not  keep  tliee  my- 
self ?  I  am  poor,  my  antelope!  I  brought  thee  up  in  my  dwelhng  as  my  child. 
I  did  never  beat  nor  chide  thee;  I  caressed  thee  in  the  proudest  manner.  God 
preserve  thee,  my  beloved!  thou  art  beautiful,  tliou  art  sweet,  thou  art  lovely!  God 
defend  thee  from  envious  eyes!'" 

Sir  John  Malcolm  gives  two  anecdotes  to  the  same  purpose,  but  of  a  more 
amusing  natiu-e. 

"  When  the  envoy,  returning  from  his  former  mission^  was  encamped  near  Bag- 
dad an  Arab  rode  a  bright  bay  mare  of  extraordinary  shape  and  beauty  before  his 
tent,  until  he  atti-acted  his  attention.  On  being  asked  if  he  would  sell  her;  'What 
will  you  give  me?'  was  the  reply-  'That  depends  upon  her  age;  I  suppose  she 
is  past  five?'  'Guess  again,'  said  he.  'Four?'  'Look  at  her  mouth,'  said  the 
Arab,  with  a  smile.  On  examination  she  was  found  to  be  rising  three.  This,  from 
her  size  and  symmetry,  greatly  enhanced  her  value.  Tlie  envoy  said,  '  I  will  give 
you  fifty  tomans,'  (a  coin  nearly  of  the  value  of  a  pound  sterling,)  'A  little  more 
if  you  please,'  said  the  fellow,  apparently  entertained.  '  Eiglity.  A  hundi-ed/ 
He  shook  his  head,  and  smiled.  I'he  offer  at  last  came  to  two  hundred  tomans! 
«  Well,'  said  the  Arab,  '  you  need  not  tempt  me  fui-ther — it  is  of  no  use.  You  are 
a  rich  elcliee,  (nolileman.)  You  have  fine  horses,  camels,  and  mules;  and,  I  am 
told,  you  have  loads  of  silver  and  gold.  Now,'  added  he,  'you  want  my  mare, 
but  you  sliall  not  have  her  for  all  you  have  got.'  "* 

"  An  Arab  shcick  or  chief,  who  hved  within  fifty  miles  of  Bussorah,  had  a  favor- 
ite breed  of  horses.  He  lost  one  of  his  best  mares,  and  could  not  for  a  long  while 
discover  whether  she  was  stolen  or  had  strayed.  Some  time  after,  a  young  man 
of  a  different  tribe,  who  had  long  wished  to  marry  his  daughter,  but  had  always 

*  Malcolm's  Sketches  in  Persia,  vol.  1.,  p.  41. 


/: 

THE  EAST  INDIAN.  U 

been  rejected  by  the  slieick,  obtained  the  lady's  consent,  and  eloped  with  her. 
The  sheick  ajid  his  followers  pursued,  but  the  lover  and  his  mistress,  mounted  on 
one  horse,  made  a  wonderful  march,  and  escaped.  The  old  chief  swore  that  tlie 
fellow  was  either  mounted  upon  the  devil,  or  the  favorite  mare  he  had  lost.  After 
his  return,  lie  found  the  latter  was  the  case;  that  tlie  lover  was  the  thief  of  his 
mare  as  well  as  his  daughter;  and  that  he  stole  the  one  to  carry  off  the  other. 
The  chief  was  quite  gratified  to  think  he  had  not  been  beaten  by  a  mare  of  another 
breed;  and  was  easily  reconciled  to  the  young-  man,  in  order  that  he  might  recover 
the  mare,  which  appeared  an  object  about  which  he  was  more  sohcitous  tlian  about 
his  daughter."* 

One  of  our  own  countrymen,  the  enterprising  traveller.  Major  Denham,  affords  us 
a  pleasing  instance  of  the  attachment  with  which  the  docility  and  sagacity  of  the 
horse  may  inspire  the  owner.  He  thus  relates  the  death  of  his  favorite  Arabian, 
in  one  of  the  most  desert  spots  of  Central  Africa.  His  feelings  needed  no  apology. 
We  naturally  honor  the  man  in  whom  true  sensibility  and  undaunted  courage, 
exerted  for  useful  purposes,  were  thus  united. 

"  There  are  a  few  situations  in  a  man's  life  in  which  losses  of  this  nature  are 
felt  most  keenly;  and  this  was  one  of  them.  It  was  not  grief,  but  it  was  some- 
thing very  nearly  approaching  to  it;  and  though  I  felt  ashamed  of  the  degree  of 
derangement  I  suffered  from  it,  yet  it  was  several  days  before  I  could  get  over  the 
loss.  Let  it,  however,  be  remembered  that  the  poor  animal  had  been  my  sup- 
port and  comfort;  nay,  I  may  say,  companion,  through  many  a  dreaiy  day  and 
night;  liad  endured  both  hunger  and  thirst  in  my  service;  and  was  so  docile,  that 
he  would  stand  still  for  hours  in  the  desert  while  I  slept  between  his  legs,  his  body 
.affording  me  the  only  shelter  that  could  be  obtained  from  the  powerful  influence 
of  a  noon-day  sun:  he  was  yet  the  fleetest  of  the  fleet,  and  ever  foremost  in  the 
chase." 

Our  horses  would  fare  badly  on  the  scanty  nourishment  afforded  the  Arabian. 
The  mare  usually  has  but  one  or  two  meals  in  twenty-four  hours.  During  the  day 
she  is  tied  to  the  door  of  the  tent,  ready  for  the  Bedouin  to  spring,  at  a  moment's 
warning,  into  the  saddle;  or  she  is  turned  out  before  the  tent  ready  saddled,  the 
bridle  merely  taken  off,  and  so  trained  tliat  she  gallops  up  immediately  at  her 
master's  call.  At  night  she  receives  a  little  water;  and  with  her  scanty  provender 
of  five  or  six  pounds  of  barley  or  beans,  and  some  times  a  little  straw,  she  lies 
down  content  in  the  midst  of  her  master's  family.  She  can,  however,  endure 
great  fatigue;  she  will  travel  fifty  miles  without  stopping;  she  has  been  pushed, 
on  emergency,  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles;  and,  occasionally,  neither  she  nor 
her  rider  has  tasted  food  for  three  whole  days. 

To  the  Arabian,  principally,  England  is  indebted  for  her  improved,  and  now 
unrivalled  breed  of  horses  for  the  turf,  the  field,  and  the  road,  as  will  be  shown 
when  we  presently  treat  of  the  English  horse. 

THE    EAST    INDIAN    HORSE. 

We  will  now  travel  farther  eastward,  and  look  at  the  breeds  of  horses  in  our 
Indian  possessions.  First  we  have  the  Toorky,  originally  from  a  Toorkoman  and 
a  Persian,  beautiful  in  his  form,  graceful  in  his  action,  and  docile  in  his  temper. 
It  is  said  that,  when  skilfully  managed,  the  grandeur  and  stateliness  of  his  carriage 
are  equal  to  what  the  warmest  imagination  can  conceive  of  the  horse:  his  spirit 
rising  as  his  exertions  are  required,  he  exhibits  to  his  beholders  an  appearance  of 
fui-y  in  the  performance  of  his  task,  yet  preserving  to  liis  rider  the  utmost  playful- 
ness and  gentleness. 

Next  comes  the  Irante,  well  limbed,  and  his  joints  closely  knit,  and  particularly 
powerful  in  the  quarters,  but  with  scarcely  sufficient  spirit,  and  his  ears  large  and 
loose. 

The  patient  and  docile  Cozakee  is  deep  in  the  girth,  powerful  in  the  fore-arm, 
but  with  large  head,  and  sadly  eat-hammedj  hardy,  and  calculated  for  long  journeys 
and  severe  service. 

The  Mojinniss  have  spirit,  beauty,  speed,  and  perseverance. 

The  Tazsee  is  shght,  hollow-backed,  and,  for  that  reason  perhaps,  although  de- 
ficient in  sti-ength,  and  leaving  as  it  were  his  hind  legs  behind  him,  and  likewise 
iiTitable  in  temper,  yet  sought  after  on  account  of  tlie  peculiar  easiness  of  his  pace. 

*  Malcolm's  Sketches  in  Persia,  vol.  i.,  p.  45. 


12  V  THE  HORSE. 

A  sale  of  horses  near  the  Company's  stud,  at  Hissar,  is  thus  described  by  an  ex- 
cellent judge.  '*  Not  less  than  one  thousand  horses  were  shown.  They  were  all 
above  fourteen  hands  and  a  half  in  height,  high-crested,  and  showy  looking  horses. 
The  great  defect  seemed  the  want  of  bone  below  the  knee,  which  is  indeed  ge- 
neral to  all  the  native  horses  throughout  India;  and  also  so  great  a  tendency  to  ful- 
ness in  the  hocks,  that,  in  England,  it  would  be  thought  half  of  them  had  blood 
spavins." 

THE   CHINESE   HORSE, 

This  breed  is  small,  weak,  ill-formed,  without  spirit,  and  altogether  undeserving 
of  notice. 

THE  PERSIAN   HORSE. 

Returning  westward  we  find  the  Persian  next  in  estimation,  and  deservedly  so, 
to  the  Arabian.  The  head  is  almost  equally  beautiful,  the  crupper  superior;  he  is 
equal  in  speed,  but  far  inferior  in  endurance.  The  whole  frame  is  more  developed 
than  in  the  Arabian. 

The  Persian  horses  were  celebrated  for  many  a  centuiy  before  the  Arabians 
were  known,  or  even  existed.  They  constituted,  in  ancient  times,  the  best  caval- 
ry of  the  east.  The  native  Persian  was  so  highly  prized,  that  Alexander  consid- 
ered one  of  them  the  noblest  gift  he  could  bestow;  and  when  the  kings  of  Parthia 
would  propitiate  their  divinities  by  the  most  costly  sacrifice,  a  Persian  horse  was 
oflTered  on  the  altar.  An  entertaining  traveller  (Sir  R.  Ker  Porter)  beai-s  testimony 
that  they  have  not  now  degenerated.  He  gives  the  following  account  of  this 
breed. 

"  The  Persian  horses  never  exceed  fourteen  or  fourteen  and  a  half  hands  high, 
yet  certainly,  in  the  whole,  are  taller  than  the  Arabs.  Those  of  the  desert  and 
country  about  Hillah  run  very  small,  but  are  full  of  bone,  and  of  good  speed. 
General  custom  feeds  and  waters  them  only  at  sun-rise  and  sun-set,  when  they  are 
cleaned.  Their  usual  provender  is  barley  and  chopped  straw,  which,  if  the  ani- 
mals are  piqueted,  is  put  into  a  nose  bag,  and  hung  from  their  heads;  but  if  sta- 
bled, it  is  thrown  into  a  small  lozenge-shaped  hole  left  in  tlie  thickness  of  the  mud 
wall  for  that  purpose,  but  much  higher  up  than  the  line  of  our  mangers,  and  there 
the  animal  eats  at  his  leisure.  Hay  is  a  kind  of  food  not  known  here.  The  bed- 
ding of  the  horse  consists  of  his  dung.  After  being  exposed  to  the  drying  influ- 
ence of  the  sun  during  the  day,  it  becomes  pulverized,  and,  in  that  state,  is  nightly 
spread  under  him.*  Little  of  it  touches  his  body,  that  being  covered  by  his  cloth- 
ing, a  large  nummud  from  the  ears  to  the  tail,  and  bound  firmly  round  his  body 
by  a  very  long  surcingle.  But  this  apparel  is  only  for  cold  weather;  in  the  warmer 
season  the  night-clothes  are  of  a  lighter  substance,  and  during  the  heat  of  the  day 
the  animal  is  kept  entirely  under  shade. 

"At  night  he  is  tied  in  the  court  yard.  The  horses'  heads  are  attached  to  the 
place  of  security  by  double  ropes  from  their  halters,  and  the  heels  of  their  hinder 
legs  are  confined  by  cords  of  twisted  hair,  fastend  to  iron  rings  and  pegs  driven 
into  the  earth.  The  same  custom  prevailed  in  the  time  of  Xenophon,  and  for  the 
same  reason,  to  secure  them  from  being  able  to  attack  and  maim  each  other,  the 
whole  stud  generally  consisting  of  stallions.  Their  keepers,  however,  always 
sleep  on  their  rugs  amongst  them  to  prevent  accident,  and  sometimes,  notwith- 
standing all  this  care,  they  manage  to  break  loose,  and  then  the  combat  ensues. 
A  general  neighing,  screaming,  kicking,  and  snorting,  soon  rouses  the  grooms, 
and  the  scene  for  awhile  is  terrible.  Indeed  no  one  can  conceive  the  sudden 
uproar  of  such  a  moment  who  has  not  been  in  eastern  countries  to  hear  it,  and 
then  all  who  have  must  bear  me  witness  that  the  noise  is  tremendous.  They  seize, 
bite,  and  kick  each  other  with  the  most  determined  fury,  and  frequently  cannot  be 
separated  before  their  heads  and  haunches  stream  with  blood.  Even  in  sku'mishes 
with  the  natives,  their  horses  take  part  in  the  fray,  tearing  each  other  with  their 
teeth,  while  their  masters  are  in  similar  close  quarters  on  their  backs." 

•  It  is  the  usual  flooring  of  the  stable  and  the  tent.  The  united  influence  of 
the  sun  and  air  deprive  it  of  all  unpleasant  odor;  and  when  from  use  it  becomes  a 
second  time  offensive,  it  is  again  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  all  unpleasant  smell  once 
more  taken  away. 


THE  PERSIAN— TOORKOMAN— TARTAR  AND  CALMUCK.  13 

His  description  of  a  Persian  race  does  not  altogether  remind  us  of  Newmarket 
or  Doncaster. 

"  My  cui'iosity  was  fully  on  the  spur  to  see  the  races,  which  I  could  not  doubt 
must  have  been  chosen  from  the  best  in  the  nation  to  exhibit  the  perfection  of  its 
breed  before  the  sovereign.  The  rival  horses  were  divided  into  tliree  sets,  in  order 
to  lengthen  the  amusement.  They  had  been  in  training  for  several  weeks,  going 
over  the  ground  very  often  during  tliat  time;  and  when  I  did  see  them,  I  found 
so  much  pains  had  been  taken  to  sweat  and  reduce  their  weight,  that  their  bones 
were  nearly  cutting  the  skin.  The  distance  marked  for  the  race  was  a  stretch  of 
four  and  twenty  miles,  and,  that  his  majesty  might  not  have  to  wait  when  he  had 
reached  the  field,  the  horses  had  set  forward  long  before,  by  tlirce  divisions,  from 
the  starting  point,  (a  short  interval  of  time  passing  between  each  set,)  so  that  they 
might  begin  to  come  in  a  few  minutes  after  the  king  had  taken  his  seat.  The  dif- 
ferent divisions  arrived  in  regular  order  at  the  goal,  but  all  so  fatigoied  and  ex- 
hausted, that  their  former  boasted  fleetness  hardly  exceeded  a  moderate  canter 
when  they  passed  before  the  royal  eyes." 

In  Circassia  almost  every  family  of  distinction,  whether  of  princes  or  nobles, 
boasts  of  possessing  a  pecuhar  race  of  horses,  which,  when  young,  are  burned  on 
the  buttock  with  a  particular  mark.  On  this  occasion  they  act  with  the  most  scru- 
pulous adherence  to  custom,  so  that  a  person  who  should  attempt  to  burn  a  cha- 
racter expressing  noble  descent,  on  a  filly  of  a  common  race,  would,  for  such  for- 
gery, forfeit  his  life.  The  most  celebrated  race  of  Circassian  horses  has  received 
the  name  of  Shalokh,  and  is  in  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  Tau  Sultan  family. 
This  race  is  valuable  for  its  strength  and  swiftness  more  than  its  peculiar  beauty. 
Its  distinguishing  mark  is  a  full  horse-shoe,  without  an  arrow. 

THE     TOORKOMAN     HORSE. 

Turkistan  is  that  part  of  South  Tartaiy  northeast  of  the  Caspian  sea,  and  has 
been  celebrated,  from  very  early  times,  for  producing  a  pure  and  valuable  breed  of 
horses.  They  are  called  Toorkomans.  They  are  said  to  be  preferable  even  to  the 
pure  Persians  for  service.  They  are  large,  standing  from  fifteen  to  sixteen  hands 
high;  swift,  and  inexhaustible  under  fatigue.  Some  of  them  have  travelled  nine 
hundred  miles  in  eleven  successive  days.  They,  however,  are  somewhat  too  small 
in  the  barrel — too  long  on  the  legs — occasionally  ewe-necked,  and  always  have  a 
head  out  of  proportion  large:  yet,  such  are  the  good  quahties  of  the  horse,  that 
one  of  the  pure  blood  is  worth  two  or  three  hundred  pounds  even  in  that  country. 

Captain  Traser,  who  is  evidently  a  good  judge  of  the  horse,  (in  his  Journey  to 
Khorasan,)  thus  relates  the  impression  which  they  made  on  him:  "  They  are  defi- 
cient in  compactness.  Their  bodies  are  long  in  proportion  to  theu'  bulk.  They 
are  not  well-ribbed  up.  They  are  long  on  tlie  legs — deficient  in  muscle — falling 
off  below  the  knee — narrow  chested — long  necked — head  large,  uncouth,  and  sel- 
dom well  put  on.  Such  was  the  impression  I  received  from  the  first  sight  of  them, 
and  it  was  not  for  some  time  that  their  .superior  valuable  qualities  were  apparent 
to  me." 

THE  TARTAR  AND  CALMUCK  HORSE 

The  horses  of  the  other  parts  of  Tartary,  comprehending  the  immense  plains  of 
Central  Asia,  and  a  considerable  part  of  European  Russia,  are  little  removed  from 
a  wild  state:  they  are  small  and  badly  made,  but  capable  of  supporting  the  longest 
and  most  rapid  journey,  on  the  scantiest  fare.  The  foals,  from  the  earliest  period, 
are  exposed  to  the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  have  little  to  eat,  and  follow  their 
dams  in  the  longest  excursions,  and,  therefore,  soon  acquire  a  very  great  power  of 
sustaining  fatigue.  They  must  be  hardy  for  another  reason.  The  Tartars  live 
much  on  the  flesh  of  horses,  and,  consequently,  those  arumals  that  are  unable  to 
support  the  labor  of  their  frequent  rapid  emigrations  are  soon  desti-oyed,  and  only 
the  more  vigorous  preserved. 

The  horses,  which  range  at  large  over  the  plains,  are  divided  into  herds;  at  the 
head  of  which  are  placed  two  stallions,  who  carefully  prevent  them  from  inter- 
mingling with  each  other,  and  it  is  rarely  that  a  foal  is  lost.  On  the  approach  of 
a  strange  herd,  the  stallions  drive  their  own  into  a  close  body,  place  themselves  in 
front,  and,  if  necessary,  attack  and  drive  off  the  others.  As  the  stallion-foals  grow 
up,  they  are  driven  away  from  the  hei'd,  and  are  seen  straggling  about  at  a  distance, 
until  they  are  strong  enough  to  form  herds  of  wild  mares  for  themselves. 


14  THE  HORSE. 

These  horses,  or  those  of  a  similar  breed  and  habits,  were  beaten  by  not  the 
first-race  Enghsh  blood-horses,  in  a  race  which  fairly  put  to  the  test  both  their 
speed  and  stoutness.  On  the  4th  of  August,  1825,  a  race  of  the  cruel  distance  of 
more  than  forty-seven  miles  was  run  between  two  Cossack  and  two  thorough-bred 
English  horses — Sharper  and  Mina.  The  most  celebrated  Cossack  horses  from  the 
Don,  tlie  Black  Sea,  and  the  Ural,  were  sent;  and,  after  numerous  trials,  the  best 
were  selected.  On  starting,  the  Cossacks  took  the  lead  at  a  moderate  pace,  the 
English  following  at  about  three  or  four  lengths,  but  before  they  had  gone  half  a 
mile,  the  stirrup-leather  of  Sharper  broke,  and  he  ran  away  with  his  rider,  follow- 
ed by  Mina,  and  they  went  more  than  a  mile,  and  up  a  steep  hill,  before  they  could 
be  held  in. 

Half  the  distance  was  run  in  an  hour  and  four  minutes.  Both  the  English  horses 
were  then  fresh,  and  one  of  Hie  Cossacks.  On  their  return,  Mina  fell  lame,  and 
was  taken  awu}-.  The  Cossack  horse,  likewise,  began  to  flag,  when  the  accompa- 
nying Russians  began  to  drag  him  on  by  the  bridle,  throwing  away  the  saddle,  and 
putting  a  mere  child  on  his  back.  Sharper,  likewise,  evidently  showed  the  effects 
of  the  pace  at  which  he  had  gone  when  running  away,  and  was  much  distressed. 
The  Cossacks  then  had  recourse  to  foul  play,  and  actually  carried  o«.  their  horse; 
some  dragging  him  on  by  a  rope,  and  the  bridle  at  his  head;  and  others  pulling 
him  on  by  the  tail,  and  riding  along  side  of  his  quarters  to  support  him,  and  re- 
lieving each  other  at  this  fatiguing  work.  Sharper  did  the  whole  distance  in  two 
hours  and  forty-eight  minutes,  and  the  Cossack  horse  was  warped  in  eight  minutes 
after  him.  At  starting,  the  English  horses  carried  full  three  stone  more  than  the 
Cossacks,  and,  diu-ing  the  latter  half  of  the  race,  a  mere  cliild  had  ridden  tlxe  Cos- 
sack. 

THE    TURKISH    HORSE. 

The  Turkish  horses  are  descended  principally  from  the  Arab,  crossed  by  the 
Persian  and  certain  other  bloods.  The  body,  however,  is  even  longer  than  the 
Arabian's,  and  the  crupper  more  elevated.  They  have  contributed  materially  to 
the  improvement  of  the  English  breed.  The  Byerley  and  the  Helmsley  Turk  are 
names  familiar  to  every  one  conversant  with  horses,  and  connected  with  our  best 
blood. 

The  learned  and  benevolent  Busbequius,  who  was  ambassador  at  Constantinople 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  gives  the  following  account  of  the  Turkish  horses. 
Our  grooms,  and  their  masters  too,  may  learn  a  lesson  of  wisdom  and  humanity 
from  his  words. 

"  There  is  no  creature  so  gentle  as  a  Turkish  horse,  nor  more  respectful  to  his 
master,  or  the  groom  that  dresses  him.  The  reason  is,  because  they  treat  their 
horses  with  great  lenity.  I  myself  saw,  when  I  was  in  Pontus,  passing  through  a 
part  of  Bithinia  called  Axilos,  towards  Cappadocia,  how  indulgent  the  countrymen 
were  to  young  colts,  and  how  kindly  they  used  them  soon  after  they  were  foaled. 
They  would  stroke  them,  bring  them  into  their  houses,  and  almost  to  their  tables, 
and  use  them  even  like  children.  They  hung  something  like  a  jewel  about  their 
necks,  and  a  garter,  which  was  full  of  amulets  against  poison,  which  they  are  most 
afraid  of.  1  he  grooms  that  dress  them  are  as  indulgent  as  their  masters;  they  fre- 
quently sleek  them  down  with  their  hands,  and  never  use  a  cudgel  to  bang  their 
sides  but  in  cases  of  necessity.  This  makes  their  horses  great  lovers  of  mankind; 
and  they  are  so  far  from  kicking,  wincing,  or  growing  untractable  by  this  gentle 
usage,  that  you  will  hardly  find  a  masterless  horse  amongst  them. 

"But,  alas!  our  Christian  grooms'  horses  go  on  at  anotlier  rate.  They  never 
think  them  rightly  curried  till  they  thunder  at  tliem  with  their  voices,  and  let  their 
clubs  or  horse-whips,  as  it  were,  dwell  on  their  sides.  This  makes  some  horses 
even  tremble  when  their  keepers  come  into  their  stable;  so  that  they  hate  and 
fear  them  too.  But  the  Turks  love  to  have  their  horses  so  gentle,  that  at  the 
-  word  of  command  tliey  may  fall  on  theii-  knees,  and  in  this  position  receive  their 
riders. 

"  They  will  take  up  a  staff"  or  club  upon  the  road  with  their  teeth,  which  their 
rider  has  let  fall,  and  hold  it  up  to  him  again;  and  when  they  are  perfect  in  this 
lesson,  then,  for  credit,  they  have  rings  of  silver  hung  on  tlieir  nostrils  as  a  badge 
of  honor  and  good  discipline.  I  saw  some  horses  when  their  master  was  fallen 
from  the  saddle  stand  stock  still  without  wagging  a  foot  till  he  got  up  again. 
Another  time  I  saw  a  groom  standing  at  a  distance  in  the  midst  of  a  whole  ring  of 
horses,  and,  at  the  word  of  eoijimand,  they  would  either  go  round  or  stand  still. 


THE  GERMAM— SWEDISH,  &c.— ICELAND.  15 

Once  I  saw  some  horses,  when  their  master  was  at  dinner  with  me  in  an  upper 
room,  prick  up  theii"  eai-s  to  hear  his  voice,  and,  when  they  did  so,  they  neighed  for 
joy." 

THE    GERMAN    HORSE. 

The  German  horses  are  general!}'  large,  heavy,  and  slow.  The  Hungarian  may 
be  an  exception,  being  lighter,  speedier,  and  giving  greater  proof  of  eastern  blood.* 
Every  part  of  the  continent,  however,  following  the  example  of  England,  has 
been  diligently  engaged  in  the  improvement  of  its  breed,  and  the  German  and 
Prussian  horses  are  now  better  proportioned,  and  have  considerable  endurance, 
but  are  still  deficient  in  speed.  The  Prussian,  German,  and  the  gi'eater  part  of 
the  French  cavalry  are  procured  from  Holstein.  They  are  of  a  dark,  glossy,  bay 
color,  with  small  heads,  large  nostrils,  and  full  dark  eyes,  the  fire  and  clearness 
of  which  seem  to  denote  the  inwai'd  spirit  of  the  aniiual.  They  are  beautiful, 
active,  and  strong. 

THE  SWEDISH,  FINLAND,  AND  NORWEGIAN  HORSE. 

of  the  Swedish  horses,  Clark,  in  his  "Scandinavia,"  says,  "that  they  are  small 
but  beautiful,  and  remarkable  for  their  speed  and  spirit.  Those  of  Finland  he 
describes  as  yet  smaller,  not  more  than  twelve  hands  high,  beautifully  formed,. 
and  very  fleet  The  peasants  take  them  from  the  forests  when  they  are  wanted 
for  travellers.  Although  apparently  wild,  they  are  under  perfect  control,  and  they 
trot  along  with  ease  at  the  rate  of  twelve  miles  an  hom\" 

The  following  story  is  told  of  one  of  the  Norwegian  horses.  His  master  had 
been  dining  at  a  neighboring  town,  and,  when  it  was  time  to  return,  had  exceeded 
so  much,  that  he  could  not  keep  a  firm  seat  in  his  saddle.  The  horse  regulated 
himself,  as  well  as  he  could,  according  to  the  unsettled  motion  of  his  rider,  but» 
happening  to  make  a  false  step,  tlie  peasant  was  thrown,  and  hung  with  one  foot 
entangled  in  the  stirrup.  The  horse  immediately  stopped,  and,  twisting  his  body  in 
various  directions,  endeavored  to  extricate  his  master,  but  in  vain.  The  man  was 
severely  hurt,  and  almost  lielpless;  but  the  shock  had  brought  him  to  his  senses. 
The  horse  looked  at  him  as  he  lay  on  the  ground,  and,  stooping,  laid  hold  of  the 
brim  of  his  hat,  and  raised  his  head  a  little;  but  the  hat  coming  off,  he  fell  again. 
The  animal  then  laid  hold  of  the  collar  of  his  coat,  and  raised  him  by  it  so  far  from 
the  ground  that  he  was  enabled  to  draw  his  foot  out  of  the  stirrup.  After  resting, 
awhile,  he  regained  the  saddle,  and  reached  his  home.  Grateful  to  his  preserver^ 
the  man  did  what  every  good  feeUng  bid  him — he  cherished  the  animal  until  it 
died  of  old  age. 

Many  an  English  farmer  owes  a  considerable  debt  of  gi-atitude  to  his  intelligent 
and  faithful  servant,  who  has  taken  care  of  him  when  he  was  unable  to  take  care 
of  himself,  and,  possibly,  has  preserved  his  life.  Let  him  repay  the  debt  by 
khider  usage. 

THE    ICELAND   HORSE. 

There  are  numerous  troops  of  horses  in  this  cold  and  inhospital  country,  de- 
scended, according  to  Mr.  Anderson,  from  the  Norwegian  horse,  but,  according 
to  Mr.  Horrebow,  being  of  Scottish  origin.  They  are  very  small,  strong,  and 
swift.  There  are  tliousands  of  them  in  the  mountains  which  never  enter  a  stable, 
but  instinct  or  habit  has  taught  them  to  scrape  away  the  snow,  or  break  the  ice, 
in  search  of  their  scanty  food.  A  few  are  usually  kept  in  the  stable,  but  when  the 
peasant  wants  more  he  catches  as  many  as  he  needs,  and  shoes  them  himself,  and 
that  sometimes  with  a  sheep's  horn.-j- 

*  M.  de  Buffon  strangely  affirms,  that  the  Hussars  and  Hungarians  slit  the  nos- 
trils of  their  horses  with  a  view  to  increase  their  wind,  and  to  prevent  their  neigh 
ing;  and  tiiat  Hungai'ian,  Croatian,  and  Polish  hoj-ses,  continue  to  old  age  to  have 
the  mark  in  all  tlieir  fore-teeth. 

f  Kerguelen's  Voyage  to  the  North. 


16  THE  HORSE.  » 

THE    FLEMISH    AND    DUTCH    HORSE. 

The  Flemish,  and  Dutch  horses  are  larg-e,  and  strongly  and  beautifully  formed. 
We  are  indebted  to  them  for  some  of  the  best  blood  of  our  draught-horses,  and 
we  still  have  frequent  recourse  to  them  for  keeping  up  and  improving  the  breed. 
They  will  be  more  particularly  described  when  the  cart-horse  is  spoken  of. 

THE    FRENCH    HORSE. 

France  contains,  like  England,  numerous  breeds  of  horses,  and  considerable  at- 
tention has  lately  been  paid  to  their  improvement;  but  they  are  far  inferior  to  ours 
in  beauty,  fleetness,  and  strength.  The  provinces  of  Auvergne  and  Poitou  pro- 
duce good  ponies  and  galloways;  but  the  best  French  horses  are  bred  in  Limousin 
and  Normandy.  From  the  former  district  come  excellent  saddle-horses  and  hun- 
ters; and  from  the  latter  a  stronger  species,  for  the  road,  the  cavalry,  or  the  car- 
riage. The  Norman  horses  are  now  much  crossed  by  our  hunters,  and  occasionally 
by  the  thorough-bred;  and  the  English  roadster  and  light  draught-horse  has  not 
suffered  by  a  mixtiu-e  with  the  Norman. 

THE     SPANISH    HORSE. 

Spain  was  early  celebrated  for  her  breed  of  horses.  The  Andalusian  charger 
and  the  Spanish  jennet  are  familiar  to  all  readers  of  romance.  The  subjugation  of 
so  great  a  portion  of  the  peninsula  to  the  Moorish  sway,  by  introducing  so  much 
of  the  Barbaiy  blood,  mainly  contribxited  to  the  undisputed  excellence  of  the  Spa- 
nish horse.  One  breed,  long  in  the  limbs,  and  graceful  in  all  its  motions,  was  the 
favorite  war-horse  of  the  knight;  while  another  race,  carrying  the  esquire,  although 
inferior  in  elegance,  possessed  far  more  strength  and  endurance.  The  Spanish 
horse  of  tlie  present  day  is  not  much  imlike  the  Yorksliire  half-bred;  perhaps  witli 
flatter  legs  and  better  feet,  but  far  inferior  figure. 

THE    ITALIAN    HORSE. 

The  Italian  horses  were  once  in  high  repute,  particularly  the  Neapolitans;  but 
like  every  thing  else  in  those  mismanaged  countries,  they  have  sadly  degenerated. 
One  circumstance  has  mainly  contributed  to  this  falling  off  in  reputation  and  value, 
viz.  tliat  the  breed  has  been  kept  up  by  occasional  intermixture,  not  of  eastern, 
but  of  European  blood.  A  few  of  the  Neapolitan  horses,  from  their  superior  size 
and  stateliness,  are  well  adapted  for  the  carriage. 

THE    AMERICAN    HORSE. 

In  the  extensive  territory  and  varied  climate  of  the  United  States,  several  breeds 
of  horses  are  found. 

The  Canadian  is  found  principally  in  Canada,  and  the  Northern  States.  He  is 
supposed  to  be  of  French  descent,  and  many  of  the  celebrated  American  trotters 
are  of  this  breed.  We  will  speak  of  some  of  them  when  we  describe  the  paces 
of  the  horse. 

The  Conestogo  horse  is  found  in  Pennsylvania,  and  the  middle  States — long  in  the 
leg  and  light  in  the  carcase — sometimes  rising  seventeen  hands;  used  pnncipally 
for  the  carriage;  but  when  not  too  high,  and  with  sufficient  substance,  useful  for 
hunting  and  the  saddle. 

The  English  horse,  with  a  good  deal  of  blood,  prevails  in  Virginia  and  Ken- 
tucky; and  is  found,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  in  all  the  States.  The  Americans 
have,  at  different  times,  imported  some  of  the  best  English  blood.  It  has  been 
most  diligently  and  purely  preserved  in  the  southern  States.  The  celebrated  Shark, 
the  best  horse  of  his  day,  and  equalled  by  few  at  any  time,  was  the  sire  of  the  best 
Virginia  horses;  and  Tally-ho,  a  son  of  Highflyer,  peopled  the  Jerseys. 

In  the  back  settlements,  and  in  the  southwestern  States,  is  a  horse  resembling 
the  wild  horse  of  the  Pampas  already  described,  and  evidently  of  the  same  origfin. 


THE  ENGLISH.  17 

CHAPTER    III. 

HISTORY    OF    THE    ENGLISH    HORSE. 

The  earliest  record  of  the  horse  in  Great  Britain  is  contained  in  the  history  given 
by  Jidius  Csesar  of  his  invasion  of  our  island.  The  British  army  was  accompanied 
by  numerous  war-chariots,  drawn  by  horses.  Short  scythes  were  fastened  to  the 
ends  of  the  axletrees,  sweeping-  down  every  thin.e^  before  them,  and  cai-rying  terror 
and  devastation  into  the  ranks  of  their  enemies.  The  conqueror  gives  a  most  ani- 
mated description  of  the  dexterity  with  which  the  horses  were  managed. 

What  kind  of  liorse  the  Britons  then  possessed,  it  would  be  useless  to  inquire; 
but,  from  tlie  cumbrous  structure  of  the  car,  and  the  fury  with  which  it  was  driven, 
and  from  the  badness  or  nonexistence  of  the  roads,  they  must  have  been  both  ac- 
tive and  powerful  in  an  extraordinary  degree.  Csesar  deemed  them  so  valuable, 
that  he  carried  many  of  them  to  Rome;  and  the  British  horses  were,  for  a  consi- 
derable period  afterwards,  in  great  request  in  various  parts  of  the  Roman  empire. 

Horses  must  at  that  time  have  been  exceedingly  numerous  in  Britain,  for  we  are 
told  that  when  the  British  king,  Cassibellaunus,  dismissed  the  main  body  of  his 
army,  he  retained  foiu*  thousand  of  his  war-chariots  for  the  purpose  of  harassing 
the  Romans  when  they  attempted  to  forage. 

The  British  horse  now  received  its  first  cross;  but  whether  the  breed  was  thereby 
improved  cannot  be  ascertained.  The  Romans  having  established  themselves  in 
Britain,  found  it  necessary  to  send  over  a  numerous  body  of  cavalry  to  n>aintain  a 
chain  of  posts,  and  check  the  frequent  insurrections  of  the  natives.  The  Roman 
hoi*ses  would  breed  with  those  of  the  country^  and,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,- 
change  their  character;  and  from  this  time,  the  English  horse  would  consist  of  a 
compound  of  the  native  and  those  from  Gaul,  Italy,  Spain,  and  every  province 
from  which  the  Roman  cavalry  was  supplied.  Many  centuries  afterwards  passed 
by,  and  we  have  no  record  of  the  character  or  value,  improvement  or  deteriora- 
tion, of  the  animal. 

It  woxild  appear  probable,  however,  that  Atltelstan,  the  natural  son  of  Alfred 
the  Great,  and  the  second  in  succession  to  him,  paid  some  attention  to  the  im^ 
provement  of  the  horse,-  for,  having  subdued  all  the  rebellious  portions  cf  the  Hep- 
tarchy, he  was  congratulated  on  his  success  by  some  of  the  continental  princesy 
and  received  from  Hugh  Capet,  of  France,  who  solicited  his  sister  in  marriage,  va- 
rious presents,  doubtless  of  a  nature  that  would  be  thought  most  acceptable  tc  himj 
and  among  them  several  Gern>an  running  horses.  Hence  our  breed  received 
another  cross,  and  probably  an  improvement. 

Athelstan  seems  to  have  seriously  devoted  himself  to  this  important  object,  for' 
he  soon  afterwards  decreed  (A.  D.  930)  that  no  horses  should  be  sent  abroad  for 
sale,  or  on  any  account,  except  as  royal  presents.  This  proves  his  anxiety  to  pre- 
serve the  breed,  and  likewise  renders  it  probable  that  that  breed  was  beginning  to 
be  esteemed  by  our  neighbors.  In  a  document  bearing  date  A.  D.  1000,  we  have 
an  interesting  account  of  the  relative  value  of  the  horse.  If  a  horse  was  de- 
stroj'^ed,  or  negligently  lost,  the  compensation  to  be  demanded  was  thirty  shillings; 
a  mare  or  colt,  twenty  shilHngs;  a  nmle  or  young  ass,  twelve  shillings;  an  ox,  thirty 
pence;  a  cow,  twenty -four  pence;  a  pig,  eight  pence;  and,  it  sti-angely  follows,  a 
man,  one  pound.* 

In  the  laws  of  Howell  the  Good,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  passed  a  little  before  this 
tiiAe,  there  are  some  curious  particulars  respecting  the  value  and  sale  of  horses. 
The  value  of  a  foal  not  fourteen  days  old  is  fixed  at  four  pence;  at  one  year  and 
a  day  it  is  estimated  at  forty -eight  pence;  and  at  three  years  sixty  pence.  It  was 
then  to  be  tamed  with  the  bridle,  and  brought  up  either  as  a  palfrey  or  a  serving 
horse,  when  its  value  became  one  hundred  aini  twenty  pence;  and  that  of  a  wild 
or  u-nbroken  nvare,  sixty  pence. 

Even  in  those  early  days,  the  frauds  of  dealers  were  too  notorious,  and  the  fol- 
lowing singular  regulations  were  established.  The  buyer  was  allowed  time  to  as- 
certain whether  the  horse  were  free  from  three  diseases.     He  had  three  nights  to 

*  According  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  computation  forty-eight  shillings  made  a  pound, 
equal  in  silver  to  about  thi-ee  pounds  of  our  present  money,  in  value  to  fifteen  or 
sixteen  pounds,  and  five  pence  made  one  shilling. 


18  THE  HORSE. 

prove  him  for  the  staggers;  three  months  to  prove  the  soundness  of  his  lungs; 
and  one  year  to  ascertain  whether  he  was  infected  with  glanders.  For  every 
blemish  discovered  after  the  purchase,  one-tliird  of  the  money  was  to  be  returned, 
except  it  should  be  a  blemish  of  the  eai's  or  tail. 

The  practice  of  letting  horses  for  hire  was  then  known,  and  then,  as  now,  the 
services  of  the  poor  hack  were  too  brutally  exacted.  The  benevolent  Howell 
disdains  not  to  legislate  for  the  protection  of  this  abused  and  valuable  servant. 
•'  Whoever  shall  borrow  a  horse,  and  rub  the  hair  so  as  to  gall  the  back,  shall  pay 
four  pence;  if  the  skin  is  forced  into  the  flesh,  eight  pence;  if  the  flesh  be  forced 
to  the  bone,  sixteen  pence." 

One  circumstance  deserves  to  be  remarked,  that  in  none  of  the  earliest  histori- 
cal records  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  or  the  Welsh,  is  there  any  allusion  to  the  use  of 
the  horse  for  the  plough.  Until  a  comparatively  recent  period,  oxen  alone  were 
used  in  England,  as  in  other  countries,  for  this  purpose,  but  about  this  time  (the 
latter  part  of  the  tenth  century)  some  innovation  on  this  point  was  creeping  in, 
and,  therefore,  a  Welsh  law  forbids  the  farmer  to  plough  w^ith  horses,  mares,  or 
cows,  but  with  oxen  alone.  On  one  of  the  pieces  of  tapestry  woven  at  Bayonne 
in  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror,  (A.  D.  1U66,)  there  is  the  figure  of  a  man 
driving  a  horse  attached  to  a  harrow.  This  is  the  earliest  notice  we  have  of  the 
use  of  the  horse  in  field  labor. 

With  William  the  Conqueror  came  a  marked  improvement  in  the  British  horse. 
To  his  superiority  in  cavalry  this  prince  was  chiefly  indebted  for  the  victory  of 
Hastings.  The  favorite  charger  of  William  was  a  Spaniard.  His  followers,  both 
the  barons  and  the  common  soldiers,  came  principally  from  a  country  in  which 
agriculture  had  made  more  rapid  progress  than  in  England.  A  very  considerable 
portion  of  the  kingdom  was  divided  among  these  men;  and  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that,  however  unjust  was  the  usurpation  of  the  Norman,  England  benefitted  in  its 
husbandry,  and  particularly  in  its  horses,  by  the  change  of  masters.  Some  of  the 
barons,  and  particularly  Roger  de  Boulogne,  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  introduced  the 
Spanish  horse  on  their  newly  acquired  estates.  The  historians  of  these  times, 
however,  principally  monks,  knowing  nothing  about  horses,  gives  us  very  little 
information  on  the  subject. 

In  the  reign  of  Henry  I.,  (A.  D.  1121,)  the  first  Arabian  horse,  or,  at  least,  the 
first  on  record,  was  introduced.  Alexander  I.,  king  of  Scotland,  presented  to  the 
church  of  St.  Andrew's,  an  Arabian  horse,  with  costly  fui-nitui-e,  Turkish  armor, 
man)'  valuable  trinkets,  and  a  considerable  estate. 

Forty  years  afterwards,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  Smithfield  was  celebrated  as 
a  horse-market.  Fitz-Stephen,  who  lived  at  that  time,  gives  the  following  ani- 
mated account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  hackneys  and  charging-steeds  were  tried 
there,  by  racing  against  one  another.  "  When  a  race  is  to  be  run  by  tliis  sort  of 
horses,  and  perhaps  by  others,  which  also  in  their  kind  are  strong  and  fleet,  a 
shout  is  immediately  raised,  and  the  common  horses  are  ordered  to  withdraw  out 
of  the  way.  Tliree  jockeys,  or  sometimes  only  two,  as  the  match  is  made,  prepare 
themselves  for  the  contest.  The  horses  on  their  part  are  not  without  emulation; 
they  tremble,  and  are  impatient,  and  are  continually  in  motion.  At  last,  tlie  sig- 
nal once  given,  they  start,  devour  the  course,  and  huri-y  along  with  unremitting 
swiftness.  The  jockeys,  inspired  with  tlie  thought  of  applause,  and  the  hope  of 
victory,  clap  spurs  to  their  willing  horses,  brandish  theu*  whips,  and  cheer  them 
with  their  cries."  This  description  reminds  us  of  the  more  lengthened  races  of 
the  present  day,  and  proves  the  blood  of  tlie  EngHsh  horse,  even  before  the  east- 
em  breed  was  tried. 

Close  on  tliis  followed  the  crusades.  The  champions  of  the  Cross  certainly  had  it 
in  their  power  to  enrich  their  native  country  with  some  of  the  choicest  specimens  of 
eastern  horses,  but  they  were  completely  under  the  influence  of  superstition  and 
fanaticism,  and  common  sense  and  usefulness  were  forgotten. 

An  old  metrical  romance,  however,  records  the  excellence  of  two  horses  belong- 
ing to  Richai-d  Coeur  de  Lion,  which  he  purchased  at  Cyprus,  and  were  tlierefore, 
probably,  of  eastern  origin. 

Yn  this  worlde  they  hadde  no  pere,* 

Dromedary  nor  destrere,f 

Stede,  Rabyte,t  ne  Cammele, 

Goeth  none  so  swifte,  without  fayle: 

For  a  thousand  pownd  of  golde, 

Ne  should  the  one  be  solde. 
*  Peer,  equal.  ■\  War  horse.  +  Arabian. 


THE  ENGLISH.  19 

The  war-steed  was  defended  by  mail  or  plate,  much  on  the  plan  of  the  harness 
of  the  knig-ht  himself.  His  head  was  ornamented  with  a  crest.  The  head,  chest, 
and  flanks,  were  wholly  or  partially  protected;  and  sometimes  he  was  clad  in  com- 
plete steel,  with  the  arms  of  his  master  enj^i-avcd  or  embossed  on  liis  bardingn. 
The  bridle  of  the  horse  was  always  as  splendid  as  the  circumstances  of  the  knig'ht 
allowed,  and  thus  a  horse  was  often  called  Brigliadore,  from  brig/la  d'oro,  a  bridle 
of  g'old.  Bells  were  a  very  favorite  addition  to  the  eqnipmeiit  of  the  horse.  The 
old  Troubadour,  Arnold  of  Marson,  says  that  "nothing  is  so  proper  to  Inspire  con- 
fidence in  a  knig-ht,  and  terror  in  an  enemy." 

The  price  of  horses  at  this  period  was  sing-ularly  uncertain.  In  1185,  fifteen 
breeding'  mares  sold  for  two  pounds  twelve  shilling's  and  six  pence.  They  were 
purchased  by  the  monarch,  and  distributed  among-  his  tenants,  and,  in  order  to  g-et 
something-  by  the  bargain,  he  charged  them  the  great  sum  of  four  shillings  each. 
Twenty  years  afterwards,  ten  capital  horses  brought  no  less  than  twenty  pounds 
each;  and,  twelve  years  later,  a  pair  of  horses  were  imported  from  Lombardy,  for 
which  the  extravagant  price  of  thirty-eight  pounds  thirteen  shillings  and  four  pence 
was  given.  The  usual  price  of  good  handsome  horses  was  ten  pounds,  and  the 
hire  of  a  car  or  cart,  with  two  horses,  was  ten  pence  a-day. 

To  King  John,  hateful  as  he  was  in  all  other  respects,  we  are  yet  much  indebted 
for  the  attention  which  he  paid  to  agriculture  generally,  and  particularly  to  im- 
proving the  breed  of  horses.  He  imported  one  hundred  chosen  stallions  of  the 
Flanders  kind,  and  thus  mainly  contributed  to  prepare  our  noble  species  of  draught- 
horses,  as  unrivalled  as  the  horses  of  the  turf. 

John  accumulated  a  very  numerous  and  valuable  stud.  He  was  eager  to  possess 
himself  of  every  horse  of  more  than  usual  power;  and,  at  all  times,  gladly  received, 
from  the  tenants  of  the  crown,  horses  of  a  superior  quality,  instead  of  money,  for 
the  renewal  of  grants,  or  the  payment  of  forfeitures  belonging  to  the  crown.  It 
was  his  pride  to  render  his  cavalry,  and  the  horses  for  the  tournament  and  for  plea- 
sure, as  perfect  as  possible.  It  could  not  be  expected  that  so  haughty  a  tyrant 
would  concern  himself  much  with  the  inferior  kinds;  yet  while  the  superior  was 
becoming  rapidly  more  valuable,  the  others  would,  in  an  indirect  manner,  partake 
of  the  improvement. 

One  hundred  years  afterwards,  Edward  II.  purchased  thirty  Lombardy  war-horses, 
and  twelve  heavy  draught-horses.  Lombardy,  Italy,  and  Spain,  were  the  countries 
whence  the  greater  part  of  Europe  was  then  supplied  with  the  most  valuable  ca- 
valry or  parade  horses.  Horses  for  agricultural  purposes  were  chiefly  procured 
from  Flanders. 

Edward  III.  devoted  one  thousand  marks  to  the  purchase  of  fifty  Spanish  horses; 
and  of  such  importance  did  he  conceive  this  addition  to  the  English,  or  rather 
mingled  blood,  then  existing,  that  formal  application  was  made  to  the  kings  of 
France  and  Spain  to  grant  safe  conduct  to  the  troop.  When  they  had  safely  ar- 
rived at  the  royal  stud,  it  was  computed  that  they  had  cost  the  monarch  no  less 
than  thirteen  pounds  six  shillings  and  eight  pence  per  horse,  equal  in  value  to  one 
hundred  and  sixty  pounds  of  our  present  money. 

This  monarch  had  many  running  horses.  The  precise  meaning  of  the  term  is 
not,  however,  clear.  It  might  be  light  and  speedy  horses  in  opposition  to  the  war- 
horse,  or  those  that  were  literally  used  for  the  purpose  of  racing.  The  average 
price  of  these  running  horses  was  twenty  marks,  or  three  pounds  six  shillings  and 
eight  pence.  Edward  was  devoted  to  the  sports  of  the  turf  or  the  field,  or  he 
began  to  see  the  propriety  of  crossing  our  stately  and  heavy  breed  with  those  of 
a  lighter  structure  and  greater  speed. 

There  was,  however,  one  impediment  to  this,  which  was  not  for  a  very  long 
period  removed.  The  soldier  was  cased  in  heavy  armor.  The  knight,  with  all 
his  accoutrements,  often  rode  more  than  twenty-five  stone.  No  little  bulk  and 
strength  were  required  in  the  animal  destined  to  carry  this  back-breaking  weight. 
When  the  musket  was  substituted  for  the  cross-bow  and  battle-axe,  and  this  iron 
defence,  cumbrous  to  the  wearer  and  destructive  to  the  horse,  was  useless,  and 
laid  aside,  the  improvement  of  the  British  horse  in  reality  commenced. 

While  Edward  was  thus  eager  to  avail  himself  of  foreign  blood,  with  the  too 
frequent  selfishness  of  the  sportsman,  he  would  let  no  neighbor  share  in  the  ad- 
vantage. The  exportation  of  horses  was  forbidden  under  very  heavy  penalties. 
One  case  in  which  he  relaxed  from  his  severity  is  mentioned,  when  he  permitted  a 
German  merchant  to  re-export  some  Flanders  horses  which  he  had  bought  on  spe- 
culation; but  he  was  strictly  forbidden  to  send  them  to  Scotland.     Nay,  so  jealous 


20  THE  HORSE. 

were  these  sister  kingdoms  of  each  other's  prosperity,  that  so  late  as  the  time  of 
Elizabeth,  it  was  felony  to  export  horses  from  England  to  Scotland. 

The  English  horse  was  advancing,  although  slowly,  to  an  equahty  with,  or  even 
superiority  over  those  of  neighboring  countries.  His  value  began  to  be  more  ge- 
nerally and  highly  estimated,  and  his  price  rapidly  increased— so  much  so,  that 
breeders  and  the  dealers,  then,  as  now,  skilfid  in  imposing  on  the  inexperienced, 
obtained  from  many  of  our  young  grandees  enornious  prices  for  them.  This  evil 
magnified  to  such  an  extent,  that  Richard  II.  (1386)  interfered  to  regulate  and  de- 
ternjine  the  price.  The  proclamation  which  he  issued  is  interesting  not  only  as 
proving  the  increased  vfilue  of  the  horse,  but  showing  what  were,  four  hundred 
and  fifty  years  ago,  and  what  ai-e,  still,  thp  chief  breeding  districts,  It  was  order- 
ed to  be  published  in  the  counties  of  Lincoln  and  Cambridge,  and  the  East  and 
North  Ridings  of  Yorkshire;  and  the  price  of  the  horse  was  restricted  to  that  which 
had  been  determined  by  former  sovereigns.  A  more  enlightened  policy  has  at 
length  banished  all  such  absurd  interferences  with  agriculture  and  commerce. 

We  can  now  collect  but  little  of  the  history  of  the  horse  until  the  reign  of  Henry 
Vn.,  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  continued  to  prohibit  the  exporta- 
tion of  stallions,  but  allowed  that  of  mares  when  more  than  two  years  old,  and 
under  the  value  of  six  shillings  and  eight  pence.  This  regulation  was,  however, 
easily  evaded,  for  if  a  mare  could  be  found  worth  more  than  six  shillings  and  eight 
pence,  she  might  be  freely  exported  on  the  payment  of  that  sum. 

Henry  VIII.,  a  tyrannical  and  cruel  prince,  but  fond  of  show  and  splendor,  was 
very  anxious  to  produce  a  valuable  breed  of  horses;  and  the  means  which  he  adopt- 
ed were  both  perfectly  in  unison  yi^ith  his  arbitrary  disposition,  and  very  little  cal- 
culated to  effect  his  object.  He  affixed  a,  certain  standard,  below  which  no  horse 
should  be  kept.  The  lowest  height  for  the  stallion  was  fifteen  hands,  and  for  the 
mare  thirteen  hands;  and  even  before  they  had  arrived  at  their  fiill  growth,  no 
stallion  above  two  years  old,  and  under  fourteen  hands  and  a  half,  was  permitted 
to  run  on  any  forest,  moor,  or  common,  where  there  were  mares.  At  "  Michael- 
mastide"  the  neighboring  ipagistrates  were  ordered  to  "drive"  all  forests  and  com- 
mons, and  not  only  destroy  such  stallions,  but  all  "  unlikely  tits,"  whether  mares 
or  gpldings,  or  foals,  which  they  might  deem  not  calculated  to  produce  a  valuable 
breed.  He  like\vise  ordained,  that  in  every  deer-park  a  certain  number  of  mares, 
in  proportion  to  its  size,  and  each  at  least  thirteen  hands  high,  should  be  kept;  and 
that  all  his  prelates  ai)d  nobles,  and  ''all  those  whose  wives  wore  velvet  bonnets," 
should  keep  staUions  for  the  saddle  at  least  fifteen  hands  high.  These  ordinances 
perished  with  the  tyrar>t  by  whoR)  they  were  promulgated. 

The  r,eign  of  Henry  VIII.  produced  the  earliest  English  treatise  on  agriculture, 
and  the  management  of  horses  and  cattle.  It  was  written  by  Sir  A.  Fitzherbert, 
judge  of  the  common  pleas,  and  contains  much  useful  information.  It  is  entitled 
"  Boke  of  Husbandry;"  and,  being  now  exceedingly  rare,  an  extract  from  it  may 
not  be  unacceptable.  It  would  seem  that  the  mare  had  been  but  lately  employed 
in  husbandry,  for  he  says,  •'  a  husbande  may  not  be  without  horses  and  mares,  and 
specially  if  he  goe  with  a  horse-ploughe  he  must  have  both;  his  horses  to  draive, 
his  mares  to  brynge  colts  to  upholde  his  stocke,  and  yet  at  many  times  they  may 
draive  well  if  they  be  well  handled."  The  learned  judge  ^hareavhe  common  fate 
of  those  who  have  to  do  witli  the  horse.  "  Thou  grasyer,  that  mayst  fortune  to 
be  of  myne  opinion  or  condytipu  to  love  horses,  and  young  coltes  and  foles  to  go 
among  thy  cattle,  take  hede  that  thou  be  not  beguiled  as  I  have  been  a  hundred 
tymes  and  more.  And  first  thou  shalt  knowe  that  a  good  horse  has  54  properties, 
that  is  to  say,  2  of  a  man,  2  of  a  badger,  4  of  a  lion,  9  of  an  ox,  9  of  a  hare,  9  of 
a  foxe,  9  of  an  asse,  and  10  of  a  woman."* 

The  tyrannical  edicts  of  Henry  VIII.  had  thp  effect  which  comipon  sense  would 
have  anticipated — the  breed  of  horses  was  not  materially  improved,  and  their  num- 

*  Later  writers  have  pirated  from  Sir  A-f  but  have  not  ipiproved  upon  him. 
The  following  description  of  the  horse  is  well  knowi).  "  A  good  horse  should  have 
three  qualities  of  a  woman — ^^a  broad  breast,  round  hips,  and  a  long  mane;  three 
of  a  lion — countenance,  courage,  and  fire;  three  of  a  bullock— the  eye,  the  nostril, 
and  joints;  three  of  a  sheep — the  nose,  gentleness,  and  patience;  three  of  a  mule — 
strength,  constancy,  and  foot;  three  of  a  deer — head,  legs,  and  short  hair;  three 
of  a  wolf — throat,  neck,  and  hearing ;  three  of  a  fox — ear,  tail,  and  trot  5  three  of 
a  serpent — memory,  sight,  and  turning;  and  three  of  a  hare  or  cat-r-running, 
walking,  and  suppleness." 


THE  ENGLISH.  21 

bers  were  sadly  diminished.  When  the  bigot,  Philip  of  Spain,  threatened  Eng- 
land in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  with  his  Invincible  Armada,  that  princess  could 
muster  in  her  whole  kingdom  only  three  thousand  cavalry  to  oppose  him;  and 
Blundeville,  who  wrote  at  this  time  a  very  pleasant  and  excellent  book  on  the  art 
of  riding,  speaks  contemptuously  of  tlie  qualities  of  these  horses.  The  secret  of 
improving  the  breed  had  not  been  then  discovered;  it  had  been  attempted  by  ar- 
bitrary power;  and  it  had  extended  only  to  those  crosses  from  wliich  little  good 
could  have  been  expected:  or,  rather,  it  had  more  reference  to  the  actual  situation 
of  the  country,  and  the  heavy  carriages,  and  the  bad  roads,  and  the  tedious  travel- 
ling which  then  prevailed,  than  to  tlie  wonderful  change  in  these  which  a  few 
centuries  were  destined  to  effect. 

Blundeville  describes  the  majority  of  our  horses  as  consisting  of  strong  sturdy 
beasts,  fit  only  for  slow  draught,  and  the  few  of  a  lighter  structure  being  weak, 
and  without  bottom.  There  were,  however,  some  exceptions;  for  he  relates  a  case 
of  one  of  these  lighter  horses  travelling  eighty  miles  in  a  day — a  task  which  in 
later  times  has  been  too  often  and  cruelly  exacted  from  our  half-bred  nags. 

An  account  has  been  given  of  the  racing  trial  of  the  horses  in  Smithfield  market. 
Regular  i-aces  were  now  estabhshed  in  various  parts  of  England.  Meetings  of  this 
kind  were  first  held  at  Chester  and  Stamford;  but  there  was  no  acknowledged 
system  as  now,  and  no  breed  of  racing  horses.  Hunters  and  hackneys  mingled 
together,  and  no  description  of  horse  was  excluded. 

There  was  at  first  no  course  marked  out  for  the  race,  but  the  contest  generally 
consisted  in  the  running  of  train-scent  across  the  country,  and  sometimes  the  most 
difficult  and  dangerous  part  of  the  country  was  selected  for  the  exhibition.  Occa- 
sionally our  present  steeple  chase  was  adopted  with  all  its  dangers,  and  more  than 
its  present  barbarity;  for  persons  were  appointed  cruelly  to  flog  along  the  jaded 
and  exhausted  horses. 

It  should,  however,  be  acknowledged  that  the  races  of  that  period  were  not  dis- 
graced by  the  system  of  gambling  and  fraud  which  seems  to  have  become  almost 
inseparable  from  the  amusements  of  the  turf.  The  prize  was  usually  a  wooden 
bell  adorned  with  flowers.  This  was  afterwards  exchanged  for  a  silver  bell,  and 
••  given  to  him  who  should  run  the  best  and  farthest  on  horseback  on  Shrove 
Tuesday."     Hence  the  common  phrase  of  "bearing  away  the  bell." 

Horse-racing  became  gradually  more  cultivated;  but  it  was  not  until  the  last  year 
of  the  reign  of  James  I.  that  rules  were  promulgated  and  generally  subscribed  to 
for  their  regulation.  That  prince  was  fond  of  field  sports.  He  had  encouraged, 
if  he  did  not  establish,  horse-racing  in  Scotland,  and  he  brought  with  him  to  Eng- 
land his  predilection  for  it;  but  his  races  were  more  often  matches  against  time,  or 
trials  of  speed  and  bottom,  for  absurdly  and  cruelly  long  distances.  His  favorite 
courses  were  at  Croydon  and  on  Enfield  Chase. 

Although  the  Turkish  and  Barbary  horses  had  been  freely  used  to  produce  with 
the  English  mare  the  breed  which  was  best  suited  to  this  exercise,  little  improve- 
ment had  been  effected.  James,  with  great  judgment,  determined  to  try  the  Arab 
breed.  Probably  he  had  not  forgotten  the  story  of  the  Arabian,  which  had  been 
presented  to  one  of  his  Scottish  churches  five  centuries  before.  He  purchased, 
from  a  merchant  named  Markham,  a  celebrated  Arabian  horse,  for  which  he  gave 
the  extravagant  sum  of  five  hundred  pounds.  Kings,  however,  like  their  subjects, 
are  often  thwarted  and  governed  by  their  servants,  and  the  Duke  of  Newcastle 
took  a  dislike  to  this  foreign  animal.  He  wrote  a  book,  and  a  very  good  one,  on 
horsemanship,  and  described  this  Arabian  as  a  little  bony  horse,  of  ordinary  shape, 
setting  him  down  as  good  for  nothing,  because,  after  being  regidarly  trained,  he 
could  not  race.  The  opinion  of  the  duke,  probably  altogether  erroneous,  had,  for 
nearly  a  century,  great  weight;  and  the  Arabian  horse  lost  its  reputation  among 
the  English  turf-breeders. 

A  southeastern  horse  was  afterwards  brought  into  England,  and  purchased  by 
James  of  Mr.  Place,  who  was  afterwards  stud-master  or  groom  to  Oliver  Cromwell. 
This  beautiful  animal  was  called  the  White  Turk,  and  his  name  and  that  of  his 
keeper  will  long  be  remembered.  Shortly  afterwards  appeared  the  Helmsley 
Turk,  introduced  by  Villiers,  the  first  duke  of  Buckingham.  He  was  followed  by 
Fairfax's  Morocco  Barb.  These  horses  speedily  effected  a  considerable  change  in 
the  character  of  our  breed,  so  that  Lord  Harleigh,  one  of  the  old  school,  com- 
plained that  the  great  horse  was  fast  disappearing,  and  that  horses  were  now  bred 
light  and  fine  for  the  sake  of  speed  only. 

Charlea  I.  ardently  pursued  this  favorite  object  of  English  gentlemen,  and,  a 


22  THE  HORSE. 

llttie  before  his  rupture  with  the  parliament,  established  races  in  Hyde  Park  and 
at  Newmarket.  The  civil  wars  somewliat  suspended  the  improvement  of  the 
breed;  yet  the  advantage  which  was  derived  by  both  parties  from  a  light  and  ac- 
tive cavalry,  sufficiently  proved  the  importance  of  the  change  which  had  been  ef- 
fected; and  Cromwell  perceiving,  with  his  wonted  sagacity,  how  much  these 
pursuits  were  connected  with  tlie  prosperity  of  the  country,  had  his  stud  of  race- 
horses. 

At  the  restoration  a  new  impulse  was  given  to  the  cultivation  of  the  horse  by 
the  inclination  of  the  court  to  patronize  gaiety  and  dissipation.  The  races  at  New- 
market were  i-estored,  and,  as  an  additional  spur  to  emulation,  royal  plates  were 
now  given  at  each  of  tlie  principal  courses.  Charles  11.  sent  his  master  of  the 
horse  to  the  Levant,  to  purchase  bi'ood  mares  and  stallions.  These  were  princi- 
pally Bai'bs  and  Turks. 

From  that  pei'iod  to  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  the  system  of  improvement 
was  zealously  pursued:  every  variety  of  eastern  blood  was  occasionally  engrafted 
on  ours,  and  the  superiority  of  the  engrafted,  above  the  very  best  of  the  original 
stock,  began  to  be  evident. 

Man  is  rarely  satisfied  with  any  degree  of  perfection  in  the  object  on  which  he 
has  set  his  lieart.  The  sportsman  had  now  beauty  of  form,  and  speed,  and  stout- 
ness, scarcely  an  approacli  to  which  had  been  observed  in  the  original  breed. 
Still  some  imagined  that  this  speed  and  stoutness  might  possibly  be  increased;  and 
Mr.  Darley,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  had  recourse  to  the 
discarded  and  despised  Arabian.  lie  had  mucli  prejudice  to  contend  with,  and  it 
was  sometime  before  the  Darley  Arabian  attracted  notice.  At  length  the  value  of 
his  produce  began  to  be  recognized,  and  to  him  we  are  greatly  indebted  for  a 
breed  of  horses  of  unequalled  lieauty,  speed,  and  strength.  >■ 

This  last  improvement  now  furnishes  all  that  can  be  desired:  nor  is  this  true 
only  of  the  thorough-bred  or  turf-horse;  it  is,  to  a  very  material  degree,  the  case 
with  every  description  of  hoi'se.  By  a  judicious  admixture  and  proportion  of 
blood,  we  have  rendered  our  hunters,  our  hackneys,  our  coach,  nay,  even  our 
cart-horses,  much  stronger,  more  active,  and  more  enduring,  than  they  were  before 
the  introduction  of  the  race-horse. 


CHAPTER    IV 


THE    DIFFERENT   BREEDS    OF    ENGLISH   HORSES. 

The  reader  is  now  prepared  for  the  history  and  distingaiishing  character  of  the 
various  breeds  of  Englisli  horses.  If  we  were  composing  a  treatise  on  the  horse 
adapted  for  general  readers,  we  should  commence  with  the  racer,  or  thorough- 
bred horse,  wliich,  if  it  be  not  considered  as  the  parent  of  every  other  breed,  yet 
enters  into,  and  adds,  or  often  gives,  tlie  only  value  to  it.  Remembering,  how- 
ever, the  title  of  our  work,  we  will  begin  with  those  which  are  occasionally  or 
chiefly  employed  for  agricultural  purposes.  First  stands  the  roadster,  or  hackney, 
whether  used  by  the  farmer  to  ride  over  his  grounds,  or  for  tlie  longer  journeys 
of  business  or  pleasure. 

The  roadster  varies  much  in  different  districts,  and  according  to  the  whim  or 
caprice  of  the  rider.  We  have  presented  our  readers  with  a  portrait  of  the  old 
English  hackney  now  fortunately,  little  known,  yet  the  origin  of  our  best  saddle- 
horses,  whether  for  the  road  or  the  field.  The  modern  liorseman  will  find  some 
fault  with  him.  We  give  him  as  he  was,  and  shall  proceed  to  describe  a  much 
superior  animal. 

The  road  horse !  more  difficult  to  meet  with  in  perfection  than  even  the  hunter 
or  the  courser.  There  are  many  reasons  for  this.  The  price  of  the  hackney,  or 
the  horse  of  all-work,  is  so  low,  that  he  who  has  a  good  one  will  not  part  with 
him;  and  it  is  by  mere  accident  that  he  can  be  obtained.  There  are  also  several 
faults  that  can  be  overlooked  in  the  hunter,  but  which  the  road-horse  must  not 
have.    The  hunter  may  start,  may  be  awkward  in  his  walk,  or  even  his  trot;  he 


THE  ROAD. 


23 


may  have  tlirushes  or  corns;  but  if  he  can  go  a  good  slapping  pace,  a;nd  has  wind 
and  bottom,  we  can  put  up  with  him,  or  prize  him:  but  the  hackney,  if  he  be 
worth  having,  must  have  good  fore  legs,  and  good  hinder  ones  too;  he  must  be 
sound  on  his  feet;  even-tempered;  no  starter;  quiet  in  whatever  situation  he  may 
be  placed;  not  heavy  in  hand;  and  never  disposed  to  say  his  prayers. 

if  there  be  one  thing  more  than  any  other,  in  which  the  possessor,  and,  in  his 
own  estimation  at  least,  the  tolerable  judge  of  the  horse,  is  in  error,  it  is  the  action 
of  the  road-horse:  "Let  him  lift  his  legs  well,"  it  is  said,  "and  he  will  never 
come  down." 

In  proportion,  however,  as  he  lifts  his  legs  well,  will  be  the  force  with  which 
he  puts  them  down  again;  the  jar  and  concussion  to  the  rider;  and  the  battering 
and  wear  and  tear  of  the  feet.  A  horse  with  too  great  "  knee  action"  will  not 
always  be  speedy;  he  will  rarely  be  pleasant  to  ride,  and  he  will  not,  in  the  long 
run,  be  safer  than  others.  The  careless  daisy-cutter,  however  pleasant  on  the 
turf,  should  indeed  be  avoided,  unless  the  neck  of  the  rider  be  previously  insured,, 
yet  it  is  a  rule,  not  often  understood,  and  sometimes  disputed,  but  wliich  experi-- 
ence  will  fully  confirm,  that  the  safety  of  the  horse  depends  a  great  deal  more  on 
the  manner  in  which  he  puts  his  feet  down,  than  on  that  in  which  he  lifts  them 
up — more  on  the  foot  being  placed  at  once  flat  on  the  ground,  or  perhaps  the  heel 
coming  first  in  contact  with  it,  than  on  the  highest  and  most  splendid  action. 

When  the  toe  first  touches  tlie  gi'ound,  it  may  be  easily  supposed  that  the  horse 
M'lU  occasionally  topple  over.  An  unexpected  obstacle  will  throw  the  centre  of 
gravity  forward,  and  down  he  will  come.  If  the  toe  dig  into  the  ground  before 
tlie  foot  is  fti-mly  placed,  a  little  thing  will  cause  a  trip  and  a  fall. 

Let  the  farmer  who  has  a  stumbler  look  at  the  shoes  of  his  horse.  In  what  part 
is  the  wear  and  tear?  The  toe  of  the  shoe  will  become  round,  or  even  be  altogether 
gone,  before  the  heel  is  scarcely  touched. 

For  pleasant  riding,  and  for  safety  also,  a  hackney  should  not  carry  his  legs  too 
high.  His  going  a  httle  too  near  to  the  gi-ound  is  not  always  to  be  considered  as 
an  insuperable  objection.      The  question  is,  does  he  dig  his  toe  into  the  gi-ound? 

Mount  him,  and  put  him  to  the  test.  Take  up  his  feet  and  examine  them.  If 
the  shoe,  after  having  been  on  a  week,  or  a  fortnight,  is  not  unnecessarily  worn 
at  the  toe,  and  you  feel  him  put  his  foot  flat  on  the  ground,  do  not  scruple  to  buy 
him,  nay,  esteem  him  a  "choice-gifted  hackney,"  although  he  may  not  have  the 
lofty  action  which  some  have  erroneously  thought  so  necessary. 

Every  horse,  however,  is  liable  to  fall,  and  therefore  comes  the  golden  rule  of 
riding,  "never  trust  to  your  horse," — always  feel  his  mouth  lightly.  He  does  wrong 
who  constantly  pulls  might  and  main;  he  will  soon  spoil  his  liorse's  mouth,  and 
render  the  arm-aching  work  always  necessary.  He  does  worse  who  carelessly 
throws  the  reins  on  the  neck  of  the  horse.  Always  feel  the  mouth  lightly,-  you 
win  thus  be  able  to  give  the  animal  assistance  immediately,  before  he  is  too  much 
off  his  centre,  and  when  a  little  check  will  save  him.  By  this  constant  gentle 
feeling  you  will  hkewise  induce  him  to  carry  his  head  well,  than  which  few  things 
are  more  conducive  to  the  beautiful,  safe,  and  easy  going  of  the  horse. 

The  road-horse  may,  and  should,  like  the  hunter,  possess  different  degrees  of 
blood,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  country,  and  the  work  required  of  him. 


24  THE  HORSE. 

When  approaching  to  thoroughbred,  he  may  be  a  splendid  animal,  but  he  will  be 
scarcely  fitted  for  his  duty.  His  legs  will  be  too  slender;  his  feet  soo  small;  his 
stride  too  long;  and  he  will  rarely  be  able  to  trot.  Three  parts,  or  half,  and  for 
the  horse  of  all-work,  even  less  than  that,  will  make  a  good  and  useful  animal. 

The  hackney  should  be  a  hunter  in  miniature,  with  these  exceptions.  His  height 
should  rarely  exceed  fifteen  hands  and  an  inch.  He  wiU  be  sufficiently  strong  and 
more  pleasant  for  general  work  below  tliat  standard.  He  should  be  of  a  more 
compact  form  than  the  hunter— inore  bulk  according  to  his  height,  for  he  has  not 
merely  to  stand  an  occasional  although  severe  burst,  but  a  great  deal  of  every -day 
work. 

It  is  of  essential  consequence  that  the  bone^  beneath  the  knee  should  be  deep 
and  flat,  and  the  tendon  not  tied  in. 

The  pastern  should  be  short,  and  although  oblique  or  slanting,  yet  far  less  so 
than  that  of  the  race-horse,  and  considerably  less  than  that  of  the  hunter.  There 
should  be  obliquity  enough  to  give  pleasant  action,  but  not  enough  to  render  the 
horse  incapable  of  the  wear  and  tear  of  constant,  and  sometimes  hard  work. 

The  foot  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  consequence  in  a  hackney.  It  should  be  of 
a  size  corresponding  with  the  bulk  of  the  animal,  neither  too  hollow,  nor  too  flat; 
open  at  the  heels;  and  free  from  corns  and  thrushes. 

The  fore  legs  should  be  perfectly  straight,  Tliere  needs  not  a  moment's  con- 
sideration to  be  assured  that  a  horse  witii  his  knees  bent  will,  from  a  slight  cause, 
and  especially  if  he  be  overweighted,  come  down. 

The  back  should  be  straight  and  short,  yet  sufficiently  long  to  leave  comfortable 
room  for  the  saddle  between  the  shoulders,  and  the  huck,  without  pressing  on  either. 
Some  persons  pi-efer  a  hollow-backed  horse.  It  Is  generally  an  easy  one  to  go. 
It  will  canter  weU  with  a  lady;  but  It  will  not  carry  a  heavy  weight,  or  stand  much 
hard  work. 

The  road-horse  should  be  high  in  the  forehand,  round  in  the  barrel,  and  deep 
in  the  chest;  the  saddle  will  not  then  press  too  forward,  but  the  girths  will  rem^n, 
without  crupper,  firmly  fixed  in  their  proper  place. 

A  hackney  is  far  more  valuable  for  the  pleasantness  of  his  paces,  and  his  safety, 
good  temper,  and  endurance,  than  for  his  speed.  We  rarely  want  to  go  more  than 
eight  or  ten  miles  in  an  hour;  and,  on  a  journey,  not  more  than  six  or  seven.  The 
fast  horses,  and  especially  the  fast  trotters,  are  not  often  easy  in  their  paces,  and 
although  they  may  perform  very  extraordinary  feats,  are  disabled  and  worthless 
when  the  slower  horse  Is  in  his  prime. 

Most  of  our  readers  probably  are  horsemen.  Their  memories  will  supply  them 
with  many  an  Instance  of  Intelligence  and  fidehty  in  the  horse,  and  particularly  in 
the  hackney — the  every-day  companion  of  man.  A  friend  of  ours  rode  thirty  miles 
from  home  on  a  young  horse  which  he  had  bred,  and  which  had  never  before  been 
in  that  part  of  the  country.  The  road  was  difficult  to  find,  but  hy  dint  of  Inquiry 
he  at  length  reached  the  place  he  sought.  Two  years  passed  over,  and  he  had 
again  occasion  to  take  the  same  journey.  No  one  rode  tms  horse  but  himself,  and 
he  was  perfectly  assured  that  the  animal  had  not  since  been  in  that  direction. 
Three  or  four  miles  before  he  reached  his  journey's  end  he  was  benighted.  He 
had  to  traverse  moor  and  common,  and  he  could  scarcely  see  his  horse's  head. 
The  rain  began  to  pelt.  "Well,"  thought  he,  "here  I  am,  far  from  any  house, 
and  know  not,  nor  can  I  see  an  inch  of  my  road.  I  have  heard  much  of  the  me- 
mory of  the  horse — it  Is  my  only  hope  now — so  my  fine  feUow,"  throwing  the 
reins  on  his  horse's  neck,  "  go  on."    In  half  an  hour  he  was  safe  at  his  friend's  gate. 

The  following  anecdote,  given  on  the  authority  of  Professor  Ko-uger,  of  Halle, 
proves  both  the  sagacity  and  fidelity  of  the  hoi-se.  A  friend  of  his,  riding  home 
through  a  wood  in  a  dark  night,  struck  his  head  against  the  branch  of  a  tree,  and 
fell  from  Ills  horse  stunned.  The  steed  immediately  returned  to  the  house  which 
they  had  lately  left,  and  which  was  now  closed,  and  the  family  in  bed,  and  pawed 
at  the  door  until  some  one  rose  and  opened  it.  He  tui-ned  about,  and  the  man 
wondering  at  the  affair,  followed  liim:  the  faithful  and  intelligent  animal  led  liim 
to  tlie  place  where  Ills  master  lay  senseless  on  tiie  ground. 

Cunningham,  in  his  valuable  account  of  New  South  Wales,  vol.  i,,-  p.  298,  says, 
"a  friend  of  mine  in  the  habit  of  riding  a  good  deal,  found  that  whenever  he  ap- 
proached a  gully,  his  sagacious  horse  Invariably  opposed  his  wishes  to  cross  at  the 
particular  spot  he  had  been  accustomed  to,  always  endeavoring  to  lead  ofl'  to  another 
part  of  the  gully,  where  no  passage  was  known  to  exist  by  his  rider.  Resolving 
to  see  whither  the  cunning  rogue  would  go,  he  gave  him  the  rein,  and  soon  found 


THE  ROAD  AND  FARMER'S.  25 

himself  carried  over  the  gully  by  a  route  he  had  never  before  followed.  Still, 
however,  thinking-  that  the  former  way  was  the  nearest,  he  was  curious  enough  to 
have  both  measured,  when  he  found  the  horse's  judgment  correct;  that  way  being 
the  nearest  by  several  hundred  yards." 

Of  the  paces  of  the  hackney,  and  of  horses  generally,  and  the  principle  of  the 
walk,  the  trot,  the  canter,  and  the  gallop,  we  shall  be  better  able  to  speak  when 
the  structure  of  the  horse,  varying  in  different  breeds,  has  been  explained. 

The  points  of  shape  most  essential  to  be  attended  to  in  the  choice  of  a  hack- 
nev,  are  the  shoulders,  and  the  fore  legs,  and  feet:  because  a  horse  whose  shoul- 
ders are  properly  formed  and  placed  is  not  liable  to  fall  down;  and  because  his 
soundness  depends  chiefly  upon  his  legs  and  feet.  The  shoulders  should  not  be 
too  upright,  but  should  slope  backwards  from  the  shoulder  point  to  the  withers. 
It  is  desirable,  if  the  horse  is  intended  to  carry  a  man  of  much  weiglit,  that  the 
shoulders  should  be  rather  thick  than  thin;  but  it  is  essential  that  they  should  not 
be  too  large  at  the  points.  A  horse  whose  shoulders  are  good,  stands,  when  in  a 
natural  position,  with  his  fore  legs  in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  ground;  it  is, 
therefore,  very  desirable  that  the  purchaser  should  see  him  in  the  stable,  and  be- 
fore he  has  been  moved,  for  he  will  then  find  him  in  his  natural  position,  in  which 
it  may  be  difficult  to  place  him  after  he  has  been  once  disturbed.  Another  mode 
of  ascertaining  whether  the  shoulders  are  properly  placed,  is  by  allowing  the  horse 
to  walk  past  you,  and  to  observe  whether  he  places  his  fore  foot  more  forward 
than  the  shoulder  point  when  he  puts  it  on  the  ground.  A  horse  whose  shoulders 
ai'e  properly  formed  will  always  do  so;  one  whose  shoulders  are  upright  can- 
not. The  fore  quarters  of  a  horse  intended  to  be  used  as  a  hackney  constitute  an 
essential  point:  his  carcase  should  be  round,  and  his  ribs  deep.  A  horse's  fore 
leg,  of  the  proper  form,  should  be  flat,  and  as  large  under  the  knee  as  it  is  just 
above  the  fetlock.  The  pastern  should  be  so  joined  to  the  leg  at  the  fetlock,  that 
the  horse  should  neither  turn  his  feet  out  or  in;  but  it  is  less  objectionable  that  a 
horse  should  turn  his  feet  a  little  outwards,  provided  it  is  not  so  much  as  to  mak* 
him  hit  his  fetlocks,  than  that  he  should  turn  them  inwards. 

THE   FARMER'S    HORSE. 

The  fakweu's  horse  is  an  animal  of  all-work;  to  be  ridden  occasionally  to 
market  or  for  pleasure,  but  to  be  ])rincipally  employed  for  draught.  He  should 
be  higher  than  the  road-horse:  about  fifteeen  hands  and  two  inches  may  be  taken 
as  the  best  standard.  A  horse  with  a  shoulder  thicker,  lower,  and  less  slanting, 
than  would  be  chosen  in  a  hackney,  will  better  suit  the  collar;  and  collar-work 
will  be  chiefly  required  of  him.  A  stout  compact  horse  should  be  selected,  yet 
not  a  heavy  cloddy  one.  Some  blood  will  be  desirable,  but  the  half-bred  horse 
will  gfenerally  best  suit  the  farmer's  purpose.  He  should  have  weight  enough  to 
throw  into  the  collar,  and  sufficient  activity  to  get  over  the  ground. 

Farmers  are  now  beginning  to  be  aware  of  the  superiority  of  the  moderate-sized, 
strong,  active  horse,  over  the  bulkier  but  slower  animal  of  former  days.  It  is  not 
only  in  harvest,  and  when  a  frosty  morning  must  be  seized  to  cart  manure,  that 
this  is  perceived,  but,  in  the  every -day  work  of  the  farm,  the  saving  of  time,  and 
the  saving  of  provender  too,  will  be  very  considerable  in  the  course  of  a  year. 

It  tias  often  been  said  that  a  horse  used  much  for  draught  is  neither  pleasant  nor 
safe  for  the  saddle.  The  little  farmer  does  not  want  a  showy,  complete  hackney. 
He  will  be  content  if  he  is  tolerably  well  carried;  and  (if  he  has  taken  a  littJe 
care  in  the  clioice  of  his  horse;  has  selected  one  with  sound  feet,  shoulders  not 
too  thick,  and  legs  not  too  much  under  him;  and,  if  he  keeps  liim  in  good  condi- 
tion, and  does  not  scandalously  overweight  him,)  the  five  days  carting  or  harrow- 
work  will  not,  to  any  material  degree,  unfit  him  for  the  saddle;  especially  if  the 
rider  bear  in  mind  what  we  have  termed  the  golden  rule  of  horsemanship,  always 
a  little  to  feel  the  mouth  of  the  animal  he  is  upon. 

A  farmer,  and,  more  particularly,  a  small  farmer,  will  prefer  a  mare  to  a  geld- 
ing, both  for  riding  and  driving.  She  will  not  cost  him  so  much  at  first;  and  he 
will  get  a  great  deal  more  work  out  of  her.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  taking 
bulk  for  bulk,  a  mare  is  stronger  and  more  lasting  than  a  gelding;  and,  in  addition 
to  this,  the  farmer  has  her  to  breed  from.  This,  and  the  profit  which  is  attached 
to  it,  is  well  known  in  the  breeding  counties;  but  why  the  breeding  of  horses  for 
sale  should  be  alnjost  exclusively  confined  to  a  few  northern  districts  it  is  not  easy 
4 


26  THE  HORSE. 

to  explain.  Wherever  there  are  g'ood  horses,  with  convenience  for  rearing  the 
cohs,  the  farmer  may  start  as  a  breeder  with  a  good  chance  of  success. 

If  he  has  a  few  useful  cart  mares,  and  crosses  them  with  a  well-knit,  half-bred 
horse,  he  will  certainly  have  colts  useful  for  every  purpose  of  agriculture,  and 
some  of  them  sufficiently  light  for  the  van,  post-chase,  or  coach.  If  he  has  a  su- 
perior  mare,  one  of  the  old  Cleveland  breed,  and  puts  her  to  a  bony,  three  fourths- 
bred  horse,  or,  if  he  can  find  one  stout  and  compact  enough,  a  seven-eighths,  or  a 
thorough  bred  one,  he  will  have  a  fair  chance  to  rear  a  coU  that  will  amply  repay 
him  as  a  himter  or  carriage  horse. 

The  mare  needs  not  be  idle  while  she  is  breeding.  She  may  be  worked 
moderately  almost  to  the  period  of  her  foaling,  and  with  benefit  rather  than  other- 
wise: nor  is  there  occasion  that  much  of  her  time  should  be  logt  even  while  she  is 
suckling.  If  she  is  put  to  horse  in  June,  the  foaling  time  will  fall,  and  the  loss 
of  labor  will  occur,  in  the  most  leisure  time  of  the  year. 

There  are  two  rocks  on  which  the  farmer  often  strikes:  he  pays  little  attention 
to  the  kind  of  mare,  and  less  to  the  proper  nourishment  of  tlie  foal.  It  may  be 
laid  down  as  a  maxim  in  breeding,  however  general  may  be  the  prejudice  against 
it,  that  the  value  of  the  foal  depends  a  great  deal  more  on  the  dam  than  on  the  sire. 
The  Arabs  are  convinced  of  this,  for  no  price  will  buy  from  them  a  likely  mare  of 
the  highest  blood;  and  they  trace  back  the  pedigree  of  their  horses,  not  through 
the  sire,  but  the  dam.  The  Greek  sporting-men  held  the  same  opinion  long 
before  the  Arab  horse  was  known.  ?•  What  chance  of  winning  have  I?''  inquired 
a  youth  whose  horse  was  about  to  start  on  the  Olympic  course.  *•  Ask  the  dam  of 
your  horse"  was  the  reply,  founded  on  experience.* 

The  farmer,  however,  too  frequently  thinks  that  any  mare  will  do  to  breed 
from;  and,  if  he  can  find  a  great  prancing  stallion,  with  a  high-sounding  name, 
and  loaded  with  fat,  he  reckons  on  having  a  vi^luable  colt:  and  should  he  fail,  he 
attributes  the  fault  to  the  horse,  and  not  to  his  own  want  of  judgment.  Far 
more  depends  on  the  mare  than  is  dreamt  of  in  his  philosophy. 

If  he  has  an  undersized,  or  a  blemished,  or  unsound  mare,  let  him  continue  to 
use  her  on  his  farm:  she  probably  did  not  cost  him  much,  and  she  will  beat  any 
gelding;  but  let  him  not  think  of  breeding  from  her.  A  roomy  mare,  with  some 
blood  in  her,  and  with  most  of  the  good  points,  will  alone  answer  his  purpose. 
She  may  bear  about  her  the  marks  of  honest  work,  (the  fewer  of  these,  however, 
the  better,)  but  she  must  not  have  any  disease.  There  is  scarcely  a  malady  to 
which  the  horse  is  subject  that  is  not  hereditary.  Contracted  feet,  curb,  spavin, 
roaring,  thick  wind,  bUndness,  notoriously  descend  from  the  sire  or  dam  to  the 
foal.  Mr.  Roberts,  in  that  useful  publication,  "The  Veterinarian,"  says,  "last 
summer  I  was  asked  my  opinion  of  a  horse.  I  approved  of  his  formation  with  the 
exception  of  the  hocks,  where  there  happened  to  be  two  curbs.  I  was  then  told 
his  sister  was  in  the  same  stable:  she  also  had  two  curbs.  Knowing  the  sire  to  be 
free  from  these  defects,  I  inquired  about  the  dam:  she  also  had  two  confirmed 
curbs.  She  was  at  this  time  running  with  a  foal  of  hers,  two  years  old,  by  another 
horse,  and  he  also  had  two  curbs." 

The  foal  should  be  well  taken  care  of  for  the  first  two  years.  It  is  bad  policy  to 
stint  or  half-starve  the  growing  colt, 

The  colt,  whether  intended  for  a  hunter  or  carriage-horse,  may  be  earlier  han- 
dled, but  should  not  be  broken-in  until  three  years  old;  and  then  the  very  best 
breaking-in  for  the  carriage-horse  is  to  make  him  earn  a  little  of  his  living.  Let 
him  be  put  to  harrow  or  light  plough.  Going  over  the  rough  ground  will  teach 
him  to  lift  his  feet  well,  and  give  him  that  high  and  showy  action,  excusable  in  a 
carriage-horse,  but  excusable  in  no  other.  In  the  succeeding  winter  he  will  be 
perfectly  ready  for  the  town  or  country  market. 

•  Bishop  Hall,  who  wrote  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  intimates  that  such  was  the 
opinion  of  horsemen  at  that  period.     He  asks,  in  one  of  his  satires,  (Lib.  iv.) 

" dost  thou  prize 

Thy  brute  beasts'  worth  by  their  dams'  qualities? 
Say'st  thou  this  colt  shall  prove  a  swift-pac'd  steed 
Only  because  a  jennet  did  him  breed? 
Or  say'st  thou  this  same  horse  shall  win  the  prize, 
Because  his  dam  was  swiftest  Tranchefice?" 


THE  HORSE.  27 

THE    COACH-HORSE.* 

This  animal  has  fully  shared  in  the  progress  of  improvement,  and  is  as  different 
from  what  he  was  fifty  years  ag'o  as  it  is  possible  to  conceive.  The  clumsy-bar- 
relled, cloddy-shouldei-ed,  round-legged,  black  family  horse,  neither  a  coach  nor 
a  drav-horse,  but  something'  between  both,  as  fat  as  an  ox,  and,  with  all  his  pride 
and  prancing  at  first  starting,  not  equal  to  more  than  six  miles  an  hour,  and  knock- 
ing-up  with  one  hard  day's  work,  is  no  more  seen;  and  we  have,  instead  of  him, 
an  animal  as  tall,  deep-chested,  rising  in  the  withers,  slanting  in  the  shoulders,  flat 
in  the  legs,  with  even  more  strength,  and  with  treble  the  speed. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  deception,  however,  even  in  the  best  of  these  improved 
coach-horses.  They  prance  it  nobly  through  the  streets;  and  they  have  more 
work  in  them  than  the  old  clumsy,  sluggish  breed:  but  they  have  not  the  endu- 

*  Wheel  carriages,  bearing  any  resemblance  to  chariots,  first  came  into  use  in 
the  reign  of  Richard  II.,  about  the  year  1381;  they  were  called  wkirlicoies,  and 
were  little  better  than  litters  or  cafes  {cots)  placed  on  wheels.  We  are  told  by 
Master  John  Stowe  that  "Richard  II.,  being  threatened  by  the  rebels  of  Kent, 
rode  from  the  Tower  of  London  to  the  Miles  End,  and  with  him  his  mother,  be- 
cause she  was  sick  and  weak,  in  a  whirlicote;"  and  this  is  described  as  an  ugly 
vehicle  of  four  boards  put  together  in  a  clumsy  manner. 

In  the  following  year  he  married  Anne  of  Luxembourg,  who  introduced  the 
riding  upon  side-saddles;  and  so  "was  the  riding  in  those  whirlicotes  forsaken, 
except  at  coronations,  and  such  like  spectacles." 

Coaches  wei-e  not  used  until  the  time  of  Elizabeth,-  when  we  are  told  (Stowe's 
Survey  of  London  and  Westminster,  book  i.)  "divers  great  ladies  made  them 
coachesj  and  rode  in  them  up  and  down  the  countries  to  the  great  admiration  of 
all  the  beholders."  The  fashion  soon  spread,  and,  he  adds,  what  is  often  too  true 
in  the  present  day,  "  the  world  ruivs  on  wheels  with  many  whose  parents  \Vere 
glad  to  go  on  foot." 

These  coaches  were  heavy  and  unwieldy,  and  probably  bore  some  rough  resem.^ 
blance  to  the  state  coaches  now  used  occasionally  in  court  processions. 

The  rate  of  travelling  was  as  slow  as  the  clumsiness  of  tlie  horses  and  vehicle 
would  naturally  incUcate.  King  George  II.  died  early  on  Saturday  morning,  Oct. 
21,  1760:  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  who  was  lord  chamberlain,  airived  in  town 
from  Chatsworth  in  three  days;  but  a  fourth  and  a  fifth  day  passing  over,  and  the 
lord  steward,  the  Duke  of  Rutland,  not  making  his  appearance,  although  he  had 
not  so  far  to  travel  by  more  than  thirty  miles,  Mr.  Speaker  Onslow  made  this 
apology  for  him,  that  "the  Duke  of  DevonsWe  travelled  at  a  prodigious  rate, 
not  less  Xha.n  fifty  miles  a  day.'" 

To  travel  in  tlie  stage-coach  from  London  to  Epsom,  sixteen  miles,  then  took 
nearly  the  whole  day,  and  the  passengers  dined  on  the  road.  The  coach  from 
Edinburgh  to  London  started  once  a  month,  and  occupied  sixteen  or  eighteen  days 
on  the  journey.  A  person  may  now  start  from  Edinburgh  on  Saturday  evening, 
have  two  spare  days  in  London,  and  be  back  again  at  the  Scotch  metropolis  to 
breakfast  on  the  next  Saturday.  Including  short  stages,  one  thousand  four  hun- 
dred coaches  now  set  out  from  London  every  day;  the  expense  of  each  of  which, 
with  four  horses,  cannot  be  less  than  two  shillings  and  sixpence  per  mile. 

Hackney  coaches  first  appeared  in  London  in  1625,  the  first  year  of  the  reign 
of  Charles  I.:  sedan-chau-s-had  been  mtroduced  by  the  Duke  of  Buckingham  six 
years  before. 

Among  the  numerous  benefits  arising  from  the  sei-vices  of  the  horse,  and  the  im- 
provement of  public  roads  and  carnages,  is  the  speedy  and  regular  correspond- 
ence by  post.  The  invention  of  this  useful  estabfisliment  is  ascribed  to  Cyrus 
the  Great.  It  was  adopted  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  It  was  introduced  into 
France  by  Louis  XI,  in  1462,  and  we  first  read  of  it  in  English  history  about  the 
year  1550,  under  Edward  V[.,  when  post-houses  were  established,  and  horses  pro- 
vided at  the  rate  of  one  penny  per  mile.  Under  Elizabeth  a  postmaster  was 
nominated  by  government,  aiKl  under  Charles  I.,  in  16j4,  the  system  assumed  its 
present  form.  The  charge  of  postage  was  then  fixed  at  two  pence,  if  under  eighty 
miles;  four  pence  between  eigtity  and  one  liundred  and  forty;  and  six  pence  if 
under  two  hundred  and  forty  miles;  but  this  charge  rapidly  increased  with  the  in- 
creasing price  of  horses,  and  the  other  expenses  of  conveyance;  and  afterwards  it 
was  further  raised  by  taxation,  like  almost  every  thing  else. 


28  THE  HORSE. 

ranee  that  could  be  wished;  and  a  pair  of  poor  post-horses  would,  at  the  end  of 
the  second  day,  beat  them  hollow. 

The  knee-action,  and  high-lifting  of  the  feet  in  the  carriage-horse,  is  deemed  an 
excellence,  because  it  adds  to  the  grandeur  of  his  appearance;  but,  as  hxs  already 
been  stated,  it  is  necessarily  accompanied  by  much  wear  and  tear  of  the  legs  and 
feet,  and  this  is  veiy  soon  apparent. 

The  principal  points  in  the  coach-horse  are  substance  well  placed,  a  deep  and 
well-proportioned  body,  bone  under  the  knee,  and  sound,  open,  tough,  feet. 

The  origin  of  the  better  kind  of  coach-horse  is  the  Cleveland  Bay,  confined  prin- 
cipally to  Yorkshire  and  Durham,  with,  perhaps,  Uncolnshire  on  one  side,  and 
Northumberland  on  the  other,-  but  difficult  to  meet  with  pure  in  either  county. 
The  Cleveland  mare  is  crossed  by  a  three-fourtl^  or  thoroughbred  horse  of  suifi« 
cient  substance  and  height,  and  the  produce  is  the  coach-horse  most  in  repute, 
with  his  arched  crest  and  high  action.  From  tlie  thoi-oughbred  of  sufficient  height, 
but  not  of  so  much  substance,  we  obtained  the  four-in-hand  and  superior  curricle- 
horse. 

From  less  height  and  more  substance  we  have  the  hunter  and  better  sort  of 
hackney;  and  from  the  half-bred  we  derive  the  machineer,  the  poster,  and  the 
common  carriage-horse:  indeed,  Cleveland,  and  the  Vale  of  Pickering,  in  the  East 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  may  be  considered  as  the  most  decided  breeding  country  in 
England  for  coach-horses,  hunters,  and  hackneys.  The  coach-horse  is  nothing 
more  than  a  tall,  strong,  oversized  hunter.  The  hackney  lias  many  of  the  qualities 
of  the  hunter  on  a  small  scale. 

How  far  we  are  carrying  supposed  improvement  too  far,  and  sacrificing  strength 
and  usefulness  to  speed,  is  a  question  not  difficult  to  resolve.  Tlie  rage  for  rapid 
travelling  is  the  bane  of  the  postmaster,  the  destruction  of  the  horse,  and  a  di* 
grace  to  the  English  character. 

There  is  no  truth  so  easily  proved,  or  so  painfully  felt  by  the  postmaster,  at  least 
in  his  pocket,  as  that  it  is  the  pace  that  kills.  A  horse  at  a  dead  pull,  or  at  the  be- 
ginning of  his  pull,  is  enabled,  by  the  force  of  his  muscles,  to  throw  a  certain 
weight  into  the  collar.  If  he  walk  four  miles  in  the  hour,  some  part  of  that  mus- 
cular energy  must  be  expended  in  the  act  of  walking;  and,  consequently,  the 
power  of  drawing  must  be  proportionably  diminished.  If  he  trot  eight  miles  in  the 
hour,  more  animal  power  is  expended  in  the  trot,  and  less  remains  for  the  draught; 
but  the  draught  continues  the  same,  and,  to  enable  him  to  accomplish  his  work, 
he  must  tax  his  energies  to  a  degree  that  is  cruel  in  itself,  and  that  must  speedily 
wear  him  out. 

Let  it  be  supposed — what  every  horse  cannot  accomplish — that  he  shall  be  able, 
by  fair  exertion  and  without  distress,  to  throw,  at  a  dead  pull,  a  weight  into  his 
collar,  or  exert  a  force  equal  to  two  hundred  and  sixteen  pounds;  or,  in  other 
words,  let  him  be  able  to  draw  a  load  which  requires  a  force  of  two  hundred  and 
sixteen  poimds  to  move.  Let  him  next  walk  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  in  an  hour: 
what  fbi'ce  will  he  then  he  able  to  employ?  We  have  taken  away  some  to  assist 
him  in  walking,  and  we  have  left  him  only  ninety-six  pounds,  being  not  half  of  that 
which  he  could  exei't  when  be  began  his  pull.  He  shall  quicken  his  pace  to  six 
miles  an  hour — more  energy  must  be  exerted  to  carry  him  over  this  additional 
ground.  How  much  has  he  remaining  to  apply  to  the  weight  behind  him?  Fifty- 
four  pounds  only.  We  will  make  the  six  miles  an  hour  ten;  for  it  seems  now  to 
he  the  fashion  for  the  fast  coach,  and  for  almost  every  coach,  and  every  vehicle,  to 
attempt  this  pace.  How  stands  the  account  with  the  poor  beast?  We  have  left 
him  a  power  equal  to  thirty-two  pounds  oidy  to  be  employed  for  the  purpose  of 
draught. 

The  load  which  a  horse  can  draw  is  about  fifteen  times  greater  than  the  power 
exerted,  supvposing  the  road  to  be  hai-d  and  level,  and  the  carriage  to  run  with 
little  friction;  and  the  horse  which  at  starting  can  throw  into  the  collar  a  weight  or 
force  equal  to  two  hundred  and  sixteen  pounds,  will  draw  a  load  of  three  thousand 
two  hundred.  Let  him,  however,  be  urged  on  at  the  rate  of  ten  miles  in  the  hour — 
deduct  the  power  used  in  swiftness  of  pace  from  the  sum  total  of  that  which  he 
possesses,  and  what  remains? — not  a  sixth  part — not  that  winch  is  equal  to  a  quarter 
of  a  ton — or,  if  it  be  a  stage-coach,  the  energy  exerted  in  di-aught  by  the  four 
horses  will  not  be  equal  to  a  ton. 

The  coach,  and  its  passengers  and  its  luggage,  weigh  more  than  this,  and  the 
whole  is  still  drawn  on,  and  must  be  so.  Whence  comes  the  power?  From  the 
over-strained  exertion,  the  injury,  the  torture,  the  destruction  of  the  hoi-se.     That 


THE  COACH  AND  HEAVY  DRAUGHT.  29 

which  is  true  of  the  coach-horse,  is  equally  true  of  every  other.  Let  each  reader 
apply  it  to  his  own  animal,  and  act  as  humanity  and  interest  dictate. 

Many  a  horse  used  on  our  public  roads  is  unable  to  throw  all  his  natural  power 
or  weight  into  the  collar.  He  is  tender-footed — lame;  but  he  is  boug-ht  at  little 
price,  and  he  is  worked  on  the  brutal  and  abominable  principle,  that  he  may  be 
"  whipped  sound."  And  so  apparently  he  is.  At  first  he  sadly  halts;  but,  urged 
by  the  torture  of  the  lash,  he  acquires  a  peculiar  habit  of  going.  The  favilty  limb 
appears  to  keep  pace  with  tlie  others,  but  no  stress  or  labor  is  thrown  upon  it,  and 
he  gradually  contrives  to  make  the  sound  limbs  perform  among  them  all  the  duties 
of  the  unsound  one;  and  thtis  he  is  barbarously  "whipped  sound,"  and  cruelty  is 
undeservedly  rewarded.  After  all,  however,  what  has  been  done?  Three  legs 
are  made  to  do  that  which  was  almost  too  hard  a  task  for  four.  Then  they  must 
be  most  injuriously  strained,  and  soon  worn  out,  and  the  general  power  of  the 
animal  must  be  rapidly  exhausted,  and,  at  no  great  distance  of  time,  exhaustion  and 
death  release  him  from  his  merciless  persecutors. 

It  is  said  that  between  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh,  a  carrier  in'  a  single  horse  cart, 
weighing  about  seven  hundred  weight,  will  take  a  load  of  a  ton,  and  at  the  rate  of 
twenty-two  miles  in  a  day.  The  Normandy  carriers  travel  with  a  team  of  four 
horses,  and  from  fourteen  to  twenty -two  miles  in  a  day,  with  a  load  of  ninety  hun- 
dred weight. 

An  unparalleled  instance  of  the  power  of  a  horse  when  assisted  by  art,  was 
shown  near  Croydon.  The  Surrey  iron  railway  being  completed,  a  wager  was  laid 
by  two  gentlemen,  that  a  common  horse  could  draw  thirty-six  tons  for  six  miles 
along  the  road,  and  that  he  should  draw  his  weight  from  a  dead  pull,  as  well  as 
turn  it  round  the  occasional  windings  of  the  road.  A  numerous  pai-ty  of  gentlemen 
assembled  near  Merstham  to  see  this  extraordinary  triumph  of  art.  Twelve  wagons 
loaded  with  stones,  each  wagon  weighing  above  three  tons,  were  chained  together;- 
and  a  horse,  taken  promiscuously  from  the  timber  cart  of  Mr.  Harwood,  was  yoked 
to  the  train.  He  started  from  the  Fox  public-house,  near  Merstham,  and  drew  the 
immense  chain  of  wagons,  with  apparent  ease,  almost  to  the  turnpike  at  Croydon, 
a  distance  of  six  miles,  in  one  hour  and  forty-one  minutes,  which  is  nearly  at  the 
rate  of  four  miles  an  hour.  In  the  couse  of  the  journey  he  stopped  four  times, 
to  show  that  it  was  not  by  any  advantag-e  of  descent  that  this  power  was  acquired; 
and,  after  each  stoppage,  he  again  drew  off  the  chain  of  wagons  with  great  ease. 
Mr.  Banks,  who  had  wagered  on  the  power  of  the  horse,  then  desired  that  four 
more  loaded  wagons  should  be  added  to  the  cavalcade,  with  which  the  same  horse 
set  off  again  with  undiminished  pace.  Still  further  to  show  the  effect  of  the  rail- 
way in  facilitating  motion,  he  directed  the  attending  workmen,  to  the  number  of 
fifty,  to  mount  on  the  wagons,  and  the  horse  proceeded  without  the  least  distress; 
and,  in  truth,  there  appeared  to  be  scarcely  any  limitation  to  the  power  of  his 
draught.  After  this  trial  the  wagons  were  taken  to  the  weighing  machine,  and  it 
appeared  that  tlie  whole  weight  was  as  follows: 

12  wagons  first  linked  together, 
4  ditto  afterwards  attached 
Supposed  weight  of  fifty  laborers 


HEAVY    DRAUGHT     HORSES. 

'  The  Cleveland  horses  have  been  known  to  carry  more  than  seven  hundred  pounds 
sixty  miles  in  tweiity-four  hours,  and  to  perform  this  journey  four  times  in  a  weekj 
and  mill-horses  have  carried  nine  hundred  and  ten  pounds  two  or  three  miles. 

Horses  for  slower  draught,  and  sometimes  even  for  the  carriage,  are  produced 
from  the  Suffolk  Punch,  so  called  from  his  round  punchy  make,  and  descended 
from  the  Noi-man  stalHon  and  the  Suffolk  cart  mare.  The  true  Suffolk,  like  the 
Cleveland,  is  now  nearly  extinct.  It  stood  from  fifteen  to  sixteen  hands  high,  of 
a  sorrel  color;  was  large  headed;  low  shouldered,  and  thick  on  the  top;  deep  and 
round  chested;  long  backed;  high  in  the  croup;  large  and  strong  in  the  quarters;- 
full  in  the  flanks;  round  in  the  legs;  and  short  in  the  pasterns.  It  was  the  very 
horse  to'  throw  his  whole  weight  into  the  collar,  with  sufficient  activity  to  do  it  ef- 
fectually, and  hardihood  to  stand  a  long  day's  work. 


Ton. 

Cwt. 

Qr. 

38 

4 

2 

13 

2 

0 

4 

0 

0 

55 

6 

2: 

so 


THE  HORSE. 


Cleveland. 


Suffolk. 


Clydesdale. 


Northamptonshire, 


The  present  breed  possesses  many  of  the  peculiarities  and  good  qualities  of  its 
ancestors.  It  is  more  or  less  inclined  to  a  sorrel  color;  it  is  a  taller  horse;  higher 
and  finer  in  the  shoulders;  and  is  a  cross  with  the  Yorkshire  half  or  three-fourths 
bred. 

The  excellencCj  and  a  rare  one,  of  the  old  Suffolk  (the  new  breed  has  not  quite 
lost  it,)  consisted  in  nimbleness  of  action,  and  the  honesty  and  continnance  with 
which  he  would  exert  himself  at  a  dead  pull.  Many  a  good  draught-horse  knows 
well  what  he  can  effect;  and,  after  he  has  attempted  it,  and  failed,  no  torture  of 
the  whip  will  induce  him  to  strain  his  powers  beyond  their  natural  extent.  The 
Suffolk,  however,  would  tug  at  a  de.ad  pull  until  he  dropped.  It  was  beautiful  to 
see  a  team  of  true  Suffolks,  at  a  signal  from  the  driver,  and  without  the  whip,  down 
on  their  knees  in  a  moment,  and  drag  every  thing  before  them.  Brutal  wagers 
were  frequently  laid  as  to  their  power  in  this  respect,  and  many  a  good  team  was 
injured  and  ruined.  The  immense  power  of  the  Suffolk  is  accounted  for  by  the 
low  position  of  the  shoulder,  which  enables  him  to  throw  so  much  of  his  weight 
into  the  collar. 

Although  the  Punch  is  not  what  he  was,  and  the  Suffolk  and  Norfolk  farmer  can 
no  longer  boast  of  plougliing  more  land  in  a  day  than  any  one  else,  this  is  un- 
doubtedly a  valuable  breed. 

The  Uuke  of  Richmond  obtained  many  excellent  carriage-horses,  with  strength, 
activity,  and  figure,  by  crossing  the  Suffolk  with  one  of  his  best  hunters. 

The  Suffolk  breed  is  in  great  request  in  the  neighboring  counties  of  Norfolk 
and  Essex.  Mr.  Wakefield,  of  Barnham,  in  Essex,  had  a  stallion  for  whichTie  was 
offered  four  hundred  guineas. 

The  Clydesdale  is  a  good  kind  of  draught  horse,  and  particularly  for  farming 
business  and  in  a  hilly  country.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  district  on  the  Clyde, 
in  Scotland,  where  it  is  principally  bred.  The  Clydesdale  horse  owes  its  origin  to 
one  of  the  Dukes  of  Hamilton,  who  crossed  some  of  the  best  Lanark  mares  with 
stallions  which  he  had  brought  over  from  Flanders.  The  Clydesdale  is  larger  than 
the  Suffolk,  and  has  a  better  head,  a  longer  neck,  a  lighter  carcase,  and  deeper 
legs;  strong,  hardy,  pulling  true,  and  rarely  restive.  The  southern  parts  of  Scot- 
land are  principally  supplied  from  this  district;  and  many  Clydesdales,  not  only  for 
agricultural  purposes,  but  for  the  coach  and  the  saddle,  find  their  way  to  the  cen- 
tral, and  even  southern  counties  of  England.  Dealers  from  almost  every  part  of 
the  United  Kingdom  attend  the  markets  of  Glasgow  and  Ilutherglen. 

The  Heavy  Black  Horse  is  the  last  variety  it  may  be  necessary  to  notice.  It 
is  bred  chiefly  in  the  midland  counties  from  Lincolnshire  to  Staffordshire.  Many 
are  bought  up  by  the  Surrey  and  Berkshire  farmers  at  two  years  old,  and  being 
worked  moderately  until  they  are  four,  earning  their  keep  all  the  while,  they  are 
then  sent  to  the  London  market,  and  sold  at  a  profit  of  ten  or  twelve  per  cent. 


HEAVY  DRAUGHT.  31 

It  would  not  answer  the  breeder's  purpose  to  keep  them  until  they  are  fit  for 
town  work.  He  has  plenty  of  fillies  and  mares  on  his  farm  for  every  purpose  that 
he  can  require;  he  therefore  sells  them  to  a  person  nearer  the  metropolis,  by  whom 
they  are  g-radually  trained  and  prepared.  Tlie  traveller  has  probably  wondered 
to  see  four  of  these  enormous  animals  in  a  line  before  a  plough  on  no  very  heavy 
soil,  and  where  two  lig'hter  horses  would  have  been  quite  sufficient.  The  farmer 
is  training'  them  for  their  future  destiny;  and  he  does  right  in  not  requiring  the  ex- 
ertion of  all  their  strength,  for  their  bones  are  not  yet  perfectly  formed,  nor  their 
joints  knit;  and  were  he  to  urge  them  too  severel}',  he  would  probably  injure  and 
deform  them.  By  the  gentle  and  constant  exercise  of  the  plough,  he  is  preparing 
them  for  that  continued  and  equable  pull  at  the  collar,  which  is  afterwards  so  ne- 
cessary. These  hoi'ses  are  adapted  more  for  parade  and  show,  and  to  gratify  the 
ambition  which  one  brewer  has  to  outvie  his  neighbor,  than  for  any  peculiar  utility. 
They  are  certainly  noble  looking  animals,  with  their  round  fat  carcases,  and  their 
sleek  coats,  and  the  evident  pride  which  tliey  take  in  themselves;  but  they  eat  a 
great  deal  of  hay  and  corn,  and  at  liard  and  long  continued  work  they  would  be 
completely  beaten  by  a  team  of  active  muscular  horses  an  inch  and  a  half  lower. 

The  only  plea  which  can  be  urged  in  their  favor,  beside  their  fine  appearance, 
is,  that  as  shaft-horses,  over  the  badly  paved  streets  of  the  metropolis,  and  with  the 
immense  loads  they  often  have  behind  them,  great  bulk  and  weight  are  necessary 
to  stand  the  unavoidable  shaking  and  battering.  Weight  must  be  opposed  to 
weight,  or  the  horse  would  sometimes  be  quite  thrown  off  his  legs.  A  large  heavy 
horse  must  be  in  the  shaf\s,  and  then  little  ones  before  him  would  not  look  well. 

Certainly  no  one  has  walked  the  streets  of  London  without  pitying  the  poor 
thill-horse,  jolted  from  side  to  side,  and  exposed  to  many  a  bruise,  unless,  with  ad- 
mirable cleverness,  he  accommodates  himself  to  every  motion;  but,  at  the  same 
time,  it  must  be  evident,  that  bulk  and  fat  do  not  always  constitute  strength,  and 
that  a  compact  muscular  horse,  approaching  to  sixteen  hands  high,  would  acquit 
himself  far  better  in  such  a  situation.  The  dray-horse,  in  the  mere  act  of  ascend- 
ing from  the  wharf,  may  display  a  powerful  effort,  but  he  afterwards  makes  little 
exertion,  much  of  his  force  being  expended  in  transporting  his  own  overgrown 
mass. 

These  heavy  horses  are  bred  in  the  highest  perfection,  as  to  size,  in  the  fens  of 
Lincolnshire,  and  few  of  them  are  less  than  seventeen  hands  high  at  two  and  a 
half  years  old.  Neither  the  soil,  nor  the  produce  of  the  soil,  is  better  than  in  other 
counties;  on  the  contrary,  much  of  the  lower  part  of  Lincolnshire  is  a  cold,  hungry 
clay.  The  true  explanation  of  the  matter  is,  that  there  are  certain  situations  better 
suited  than  others  to  different  kinds  of  farming,  and  the  breeding  of  different  ani- 
mals; and  that  not  altogether  depending  on  richness  of  soil  or  pasture.  The  prin- 
cipal art  of  the  farmer  is,  to  find  out  what  will  best  suit  his  soil,  and  the  produce 
of  it. 

A  dray-horse  should  have  a  broad  breast,  and  thick  and  upright  shoulders,  (the 
more  upright  the  collar  stands  on  him  the  better;)  a  low  forehand,  deep  and  round 
barrel,  loins  broad  and  high,  ample  quarters,  thick  fore-arms  and  thighs,  short 
legs,  round  hoofs,  broad  at  the  heels,  and  soles  not  too  flat.  The  great  fault  of 
the  large  dray-horse  is  his  slowness.  This  is  so  much  in  the  breed,  that  even  the 
discipline  of  the  ploughman,  who  would  be  better  pleased  to  get  through  an  ad- 
ditional rood  in  the  day,  cannot  permanently  quicken  him.  Surely  the  breeder 
might  obviate  this.  Let  a  dray  mare  be  selected  as  perfect  as  can  be  obtained. 
Let  her  be  put  to  the  strongest,  largest,  most  compact,  thorough-bred  horse.  If 
the  produce  be  a  filly,  let  her  be  covered  by  a  supei-ior  dray  horse,  and  the  result 
of  this  cross,  if  a  colt,  will  be  precisely  the  animal  required  to  breed  from. 

The  largest  of  this  heavy  breed  of  black  horses  are  used  as  dray-horses.  The 
next  in  size  are  sold  as  wagon-horses, ■  and  a  smaller  variety,  and  with  more  blood, 
constitute  a  considerable  part  of  our  cavalry,  and  is  likewise  devoted  to  underta- 
ker's work. 

All  our  heavy  draught-horses,  and  some  even  of  the  lighter  kind,  have  been 
lately  much  crossed  by  the  Flanders  breed,  and  with  evident  improvement.  Little 
has  been  lost  in  depth  and  bulk  of  carcase;  but  the  fore -hand  has  been  raised,  the 
legs  have  been  flattened  and  deepened,  and  very  much  has  been  gained  in  acti- 
vity. The  slow  heavy  black,  with  his  two  miles  and  a  half  an  hour,  has  been 
changed  into  a  lighter,  but  yet  exceedingly  powerful  horse,  who  will  step  four 
miles  in  the  same  time,  with  perfect  ease,  and  has  considerably  more  endurance. 


32 


THE  HORSE. 

THE    DRAY-HORSE 


This  cut  contains  the  portrait  of  a  favorite  dray-horse  belonging  to  Messrs.  Meux, 
and  painted  by  Mr.  Ward,  R.  A.,  to  whose  portfoho  we  hope  frequently  to  have 
recourse.  It  is  the  Suffolk  crossed,  altliough  not  so  deeply  as  some,  with  the 
Flanders. 

This  is  the  very  sj'stem,  as  we  shall  presently  describe,  which  has  been  adopted 
with  such  success  in  the  blood-horse,  and  has  made  the  English  racer  and  hunter, 
and  the  English  horse  generally,  what  it  is.  As  the  racer  is  principally  or  purely 
of  eastern  oingin,  so  has  the  English  draught-horse  sprung  chiefly  from  Flemish 
blood,  and  to  that  blood  the  agriculturist  has  recourse  for  the  perfection  of  the 
breed.  For  the  dray,  the  spirit  wagon,  and  not  too  heavy  loads,  and  for  road- 
work  generally,  a  cross  with  the  Flanders  vvil}  be  advantageous;  but  if,  in  London, 
the  enormous  heavy  horse  must  be  used  in  the  coal  wagon,  or  the  heavier  load  of 
the  wharf,  we  must  leave  our  midland  black,  with  all  his  unvvieldly  bulk,  un- 
touched. 

As  an  ordinary  beast  of  lighter  draught,  and  particularly  in  the  neighborhood 
of  London,  the  worn  out  hackney,  and  the  i-efuse  of  the  coach,  and  even  of  tlie 
hackney-coach,  is  used.  In  the- hay-markets  of  St.  James's  and  Whitechapel,  are 
continually  seen  wretched  teams,  which  would  disgi-ace  the  poorest  district  of  the 
poorest  country.  The  small  farmer  in  the  vicinity  of  the  meti-opolis,  himself 
sti-angely  inferior  to  the  small  farmer  elsewhere,  has  too  easy  access  to  Smitlifield, 
that  sink  of  cruelty.  They  who  are  unacquainted  with  this  part  of  the  country, 
would  scarcely  think  it  possible,  that,  on  the  forests  and  commons  within  a  few 
miles  of  London,  as  many  r.agged,  wild,  mongrel,  horses  are  to  be  found,  as  in  any 
district  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  a  good  horse  is  scarcely  by  any  chance  bred 
there. 

CAVALRY    HORSE. 

This  is  the  proper  place  to  speak  of  the  cavalry  horse.  That  noble  animal  whose 
varieties  we  are  describing,  so  admirably  adapted  to  conti-ibute  to  our  pleasure  and 
our  use,  was  at  a  vei-y  early  age  perverted  to  the  destructive  purposes  of  war;  and, 
as  if  he  had  been  destined  to  the  murderous  business,  seeiped  to  exult  and  triumph 
in  the  work  of  death, 

A  sacred  writer,  more  than  three  thousand  years  ago,  gives  us  a  sublime  account 
of  the  manner  in  which  the  horse,  at  that  time,  as  at  present,  entered  into  the 
spirit  of  the  battle,'  (Job  xxxix.,  19,  et  seq.)  "  Hast  thou  given  the  horse  strength? 
hast  tliou  clothed  his  neck  with  thunder?  Canst  thou  make  him  afraid  of  a  grass- 
hopper? The  glory  of  his  nostrils  is  terrible.  He  paweth  in  the  valley,  and  re- 
joiceth  in  his  strength;  he  goeth  on  to  meet  the  armed  men.  He  mocketh  at  fear, 
and  is  not  affrighted;  neither  turneth  he  back  frorp  the  sword-  The  quiver  rat- 
tleth  against  him,  the  glittering  spear,  and  the  shield.  He  svvalloweth  the  ground 
with  fierceness  and  rage.  He  saith  among  the  trumpets,  ha!  lia!  He  smelleth  the 
battle  afar  off,  the  thunder  of  the  captains  and  the  shouting." 


THE  CAVALRY  AND  RACE. 


S3 


The  cavalry  horses  contain  a  different  proportion  of  blood,  according  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  service  required,  or  the  caprice  of  the  commanding'  officer.  Those  of 
the  household  troops  are  from  half  to  three-fourths  bred.  Some  of  the  Hghter  regi- 
ments have  more  blood  in  them.  Our  cavalry  horses  were  formerly  large  and 
heavy.  To  his  imposing  size  was  added  action  as  imposing.  The  horse  was 
trained  to  a  peculiar,  and  grand  and  beautiful  method  of  going;  but  he  was  often 
found  deficient  in  real  service,  for  this  very  action  diminished  his  speed,  and 
added  to  his  labor  and  fatigue. 

A  considerable  change  has  taken  place  in  the  character  of  our  war-horses:  light- 
ness and  activity  have  succeeded  to  bulk  and  strength;  and,  for  skirmishing  and 
sudden  attack,  the  change  is  an  improvement.  It  is  particularly  found  to  be  so  in 
long  and  rapid  marches,  which  the  lighter  troops  scarcely  regard,  while  the 
heavier  horses,  with  their  more  than  comparative  additional  weight  to  carry,  are 
knocked  up.  There  was,  however,  some  danger  of  carrying  this  too  far;  for  it 
was  found  that,  in  the  engagements  previous  to,  and  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo, 
our  heavy  household  troops  alone  were  able  to  repulse  the  formidable  charge  of 
the  French  guard. 

The  following  anecdote  of  the  memory  and  discipline  of  the  troop-horse  is  re- 
lated on  good  authority.  The  Tyrolese,  in  one  of  their  insurrections  in  1809,  took 
fifteen  Bavarian  horses,  and  mounted  them  with  so  many  of  their  own  men;  but, 
in  a  skirmish  with  a  squadron  of  the  same  regiment,  no  sooner  did  these  horses 
hear  the  trumpet,  and  recognize  the  unifoi-m  of  their  old  masters,  than  they  set  off 
at  full  gallop,  and  carried  their  riders,  in  spite  of  all  their  efforts,  into  the  Bava- 
rian ranks,  where  they  were  made  prisoners. 

Pliny  relates  a  curious  story  about  the  war-horse,  but,  although  an  excellent 
naturalist  and  philosopher,  he  was  either  very  credulous  or  too  fond  of  the  mar- 
vellous. The  Sybarites  trained  their  horses  to  dance.  The  inhabitants  of  Cro- 
tona,  with  whom  they  were  at  war,  had  their  trumpeters  taught  the  tunes  to 
which  the  horses  were  accustomed  to  dance.  When  the  opposing  troops  were  in 
the  act  of  charging  upon  each  other,  the  Crotonian  trumpeters  began  to  play  these 
tunes;  the  Sybarite  horses  began  to  dance,  and  were  easily  defeated. 

THE    RACE-HORSE. 


There  is  much  dispute  with  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  thorottgh-bred  horse.  By 
some  he  is  traced  through  both  sire  and  dam  to  eastern  parentage;  others  believe 
him  to  be  the  native  horse,  improved  and  perfected  by  judicious  crossing  with  the 
Barb,  the  Turk,  or  the  Arabian.  "The  Stud  Book,"  which  is  an  authority  ac- 
knowledged by  every  English  breeder,  traces  all  the  old  racers  to  some  eastern 
origin;  or  it  traces  tliem  until  the  pedigree  is  lost  in  the  uncertainty  of  an  early 
period  of  breeding.  If  the  pedigree  of  a  racer  of  the  present  day  be  required,  it 
is  traced  back  to  a  certain  extent,  and  ends  with  a  well  known  racer;  or,  if  an 
earlier  derivation  be  required,  that  ends  either  with  an  eastern  horse  or  in  obscurity. 

It  must,  on  the  whole,  be  allowed,  tlwt  the  present  English  thorough-bred  horse 
is  of  foreip;'n  extraction,  improved  and  perfected  by  the  influence  of  the  climate, 
and  by  diligent  cultivation.  There  are  some  exceptions,  as  in  the  case  of  Samp- 
son and  Bay-Malton,  in  each  of  whom,  although  the  best  horses  of  their  day,  there 
was  a  cross  of  vulgar  blood;  but  they  are  only  exceptions  to  a  general  rule.     In 


34 


THE  HORSE 


our  best  racing  stables,  and,  particularly  in  the  studs  of  the  Earls  of  Grosvenor 
and  Egremont,  this  is  an  acknowledged  principle;  and  it  is  not,  when  properly 
considered,  a  principle  at  all  derogatory  to  tlie  credit  of  the  country.  The  British 
climate,  and  British  skilly  made  the  thorough-bred  hoi-se  what  he  is. 

The  beautiful  tales  of  eastern  countries,  and  somewhat  remoter  days,  may  lead 
us  to  imagine  that  the  Arabian  horse  possesses  marvellous  powers;  but  it  cannot 
admit  of  a  doubt,  that  the  English  trained  horse  is  more  beautiful,  and  far  swifter 
and  stouter  than  the  justly-famed  coursers  of  the  desert.  In  the  burning  plains  of 
the  east,  and  the  frozen  chmate  of  Russia,  he  has  invai-iably  beaten  every  antago- 
nist on  his  native  gi-ound.  A  few  years  ago.  Recruit,  an  English  horse  of  mo- 
derate reputation,  easily  beat  Pthamus,  the  best  Arabian  on  the  Bengal  side  of  India. 

It  must  not  be  objected,  that  the  number  of  eastern  horses  imported  is  far  too  small 
to  produce  so  numerous  a  progeny.  It  will  be  recollected,  that  the  thousands 
of  wild  horses  on  the  plains  of  South  America  descended  from  only  two  stallions 
and  four  mares,  which  the  early  Spanish  adventurers  left  there. 

Whatever  may  be  the  truth  as  to  the  origir,  of  the  race-horse,  the  sti'ictest  at- 
tention has,  for  the  last  fifty  years,  been  paid  to  pedigree.  In  the  descent  of 
almost  every  modern  racer,  not  the  slightest  flaw  can  be  discovered:  or  when,  with 
the  splendid  exception  of  Sampson  and  Bay-Malton,  one  drop  of  common  blood 
has  mingled  with  the  pure  stream,  it  has  been  immediately  detected  in  the  inferi- 
ority of  form,  and  deficiency  of  bottom,  and  it  has  required  two  or  three  genera- 
tions to  wipe  away  the  stain,  and  get  rid  of  its  consequences. 

The  racer  is  generally  distinguished  by  his  beautiful  Arabian  head;  his  fine  and 
finely-set-on  neck — his  oblong,  lengthened  shoulders — well  bent  hinder  legs — his 
ample  muscular  quarters — his  flat  legs,  rather  short  from  the  knee  downward,  al- 
though not  always  so  deep  as  they  should  be — and  his  long  and  elastic  pastern. 
These  are  separately  considered  where  the  structure  of  the  horse  is  treated  of. 

The  racer,  however,  with  the  most  beautiful  form,  is  occasionally  a  sorry  ani- 
mal. There  is  sometimes  a  want  of  energy  in  an  apparently  faultless  shape,  for 
which  there  is  no  accounting;  but  there  are  two  points  among  those  just  enume- 
rated, which  win  rai'ely  or  never  deceive — a  well-placed  shoulder,  and  a  well-bent 
hinder  leg. 

THE     DARLEY    ARABIAN. 

The  Darley  Arabian  was  the  parent  of  our  best  racing  stock.  He  was  purchased 
by  Mr.  Darley's  brother,  at  Aleppo,  and  was  bred  in  the  neighboring  desert  of 
Palmyra.  The  figure  here  given  of  him  is  supposed  to  be  an  accurate  delineation. 
It  contains  every  point,  without  much  show,  which  could  be  desu-ed  in  a  turf-horse. 


The  immediate  descendants  of  this  invaluable  horse,  were  the  Devonshire  op 
Plying  Childers;  tlie  Bleeding  or  Bai-tlett's  Childers,  who  was  never  trained;  Al- 
manzor,  and  others. 

The  two  Childers  were  the  means  through  which  the  blood  and  fame  of  {heir 
sire  were  wide\y  circulated,  and  from  them  descended  another  Childers,  Blaze, 
Snap,  Sampson,  Eclipse,  and  a  host  of  excellent  horses. 


THE  HORSE. 

FLYING     CHILDERS. 


35 


The  Devonshire  or  Fltino  Chilbehs,  so  called  from  the  name  of  his  breeder, 
Mr.  CJiilders,  of  Carr-House,  and  the  sale  of  him  to  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  was 
the  fleetest  horse  of  his  day.  He  was  at  first  trained  as  a  hunter,  but  the  superior 
speed  and  courage  which  he  discovered  cavised  him  to  be  soon  transferred  to  the 
turf.  Common  report  affirms  that  he  could  run  a  mile  in  a  minute,  but  there  is 
no  authentic  record  of  this.  Childers  ran  over  the  round  course  at  Newmarket 
(three  miles  six  furlongs  and  ninety-three  yards,)  in  six  minutes  and  forty  seconds; 
and  the  Beacon  course  (four  miles  one  furlong  and  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight 
yards,)  in  seven  minutes  and  thirty  seconds.  In  1772,  a  «iiie  was  run  by  Firetail 
in  one  minute  and  four  seconds. 

In  October,  1741,  at  the  CuiTagh  meeting  in  Ireland,  Mr.  Wilde  engaged  to  ride 
one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  miles  in  nine  hours.  He  performed  it  in  six  hours 
and  twenty-one  miiiutes.  He  employed  ten  horses,  and,  allowing  for  mounting  and 
dismounting,  and  a  moment  for  refreshment,  he  rode  for  six  hours  at  the  rate  of 
twenty  miles  an  hour. 

>t'.  Thornhill,  in  1745,  exceeded  this,  for  he  rode  fi-om  Stilton  to  London,  and 
back,  and  again  to  Stilton,  being  two  hundred  and  thirteen  miles,  in  eleven  hours 
and  thirty-four  minutes,  which  is,  after  allowing  the  least  possible  time  for  chang- 
ing horses,  twenty  miles  an  hour  for  eleven  hours,  and  on  the  turnpike  road  and 
uneven  ground. 

Mr.  Shaftoe,  in  1762,  with  ten  horses,  and  five  of  them  ridden  twice,  accom- 
plislxed  fifty  miles  and  a  quarter  in  one  hour  and  forty-nine  minutes.  In  1763,  Mr, 
Shaftoe  won  a  more  extraordinary  match.  He  was  to  procure  a  person  to  ride  one 
hundred  miles  a  day,  on  any  one  horse  each  day,  for  twenty-nine  days  together, 
and  to  have  any  number  of  horses  not  exceeding  twenty-nine.  He  accomplished 
it  on  fourteen  horses;  and  on  one  day  he  rode  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles,  on  ac- 
count of  the  tiring  of  his  first  horse. 

Mr.  Hull's  Quibbler,  however,  afforded  the  most  extraordinary  instance  on  re- 
cord of  the  stoutness  as  well  as  speed  of  the  race-horse.  In  December,  1786,  he 
ran  twenty-three  miles  round  tlie  flat  at  Newmarket,  in  fifty -seven  minutes  and  ten 
seconds. 

ECLIPSE. 

Eclipse  was  got  by  Marsk,  a  grandson  of  Bartlett's  Childers.  Of  the  beauty, 
yet  peculiarity  of  his  form,  much  has  been  said.  The  very  great  size,  obliquity, 
and  lowness  of  his  shoulders,  were  the  objects  of  general  remark — with  the  short- 
ness of  his  four-quarters,  his  ample  and  finely  proportioned  quarters,  and  the 
swelling  muscles  of  his  fore-arm  and  thigh.     Of  his  speed,   no  correct  estimate 


36 


THE  HORSE. 


can  be  formed,  for  lie  never  met  with  an  opponent  sufficiently  fleet  to  put  it  to 
the  test.*  He  was  bred  by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  and  sold  at  his  death  to  Mr. 
Wildman,  a  sheep  salesman,  for  seventy-five  guineas.     Colonel  O'Kelly  purchased 


•  The  pedigree  of  Eclipse  affords  a  singular  illustration  of  the  descent  of  our 
thorough-bred  horses  from  pure  eastern  blood. 

('Bartlett's  f  Darley  Arabian. 

Childers    I  Betty  Leeds  j  Careless   ^  Shanker   ]  Barb  Mare. 

Squirt  -^  f  Snake  T  Lister  Turk.  • 

Dam  of  I  <  Daughter    C  Haut-  C  D'Arcey  White  Turk, 

Caroline^  C^  of  Hautboy  i   boy  ^  Royal  Mare. 

Hutlon's    CHutton'sB^yTurt. 
Black  Legs ")  , 

{.  Daughter  of  ^  Hautboy. 

r Clumsy  -^Hautboy 
Fox  Cub  <  ^ 

^  Daughter  of  ^  Leeds  Arabian. 


3-< 


.Daughter  of    I  Coneyskins  ^ Lister  Turk. 


Daugh    . 
..  ter  of  ^ 


Pi 

a    . 


Daughter  of-< 


rConeyskins  5  Lister  Turk. 
^Daughter  of    <  ^ 

CI 


.  Daught'r  of  ^  Hutton's  Grey  Barb. 

{C  Godolphin  Arabian. 
Regulus  '-  <  C  Ball  Galloway. 

dD,ujh.erof    |  ^^^_^^,^^  ^,    r  Snake  ^  LUt^r  T„r1=. 
^  Old  Wilkes,  by  Hautboy 
r  Smith's  Son  of  Snake. 
Mother  Western  <  ^ 

t.  Old  Montague  i  Daughter  of  Hautboy. 

The  pedigree  of  Eclipse  will  likewise  afford  us  another  curious  illustration  of 
the  uncertainty  which  attends  thorough-bred  horses.  Marsk  was  sold  at  the  sale 
of  the  Duke  of  Cumberland's  stud  for  a  mere  trifle,  and  was  suffered  to  run  al- 
most wild  on  the  New  Forest.  He  was  afterwards  purchased  by  the  Earl  of  Ab- 
ingdon for  one  thousand  guineas,  and,  before  his  death,  covered  for  one  hundred 
guineas.  SatriRT,  when  the  property  of  Sir  Harry  Harpur,  was  ordered  to  be 
shot,  and,  while  he  was  actually  leading  to  the  dog-kennel,  he  was  spared  at  the 
intercession  of  one  of  Sir  Harry's  grooms;  and  neither  Barti.ett's  Childers  nor 
Snaks  was  ever  ti*ained.  On  the  side  of  the  dam,  Spilletta  never  started  but 
once,  and  was  beaten;  and  the  Godolphin  Arabian  was  purchased  from  a  water 
cart  in  Paris. — Smith's  Breeding  for  the  Turf,  p.  5. 


ECLIPSE.  37 

a  share  of  him  from  Wilclman.  In  the  spring-  of  the  following  year,  when  the 
reputation  of  this  wonderful  animal  was  at  its  heig-ht,  O'Kelly  wished  to  become 
sole  owner  of  him,  and  bought  the  remaining-  share  for  one  thousand  pounds. 

Eclipse  was  what  is  termed  a  thick-winded  horse,  and  puffed  and  roared  so  as  to 
be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance.  For  this  or  some  other  cause,  he  was  not 
brought  on  the  turf  until  he  was  five  years  old. 

O'Kelly,  aware  of  his  horse's  powers,  had  backed  him  freely  on  his  first  race,  in 
May,  1769.  This  excited  curiositj-,  or,  perhaps,  roused  suspicion,  and  some  per 
sons  attempted  to  watch  one  of  his  trials.  Mr.  John  Lawrence  says,  tliat  ♦'  they 
were  a  little  too  late;  but  they  found  an  old  woman  who  gave  them  all  the  infor- 
mation they  wanted.  On  inquiring  whether  she  had  seen  a  race,  she  replied  that 
she  could  not  tell  whether  it  was  a  race  or  not,  but  that  she  had  just  seen  a  horse 
with  white  legs  running  away  at  a  monstrous  rate,  and  anotlier  hors^  a  great  way 
behind,  trying  to  run  after  him;  but  she  was  sure  he  never  would  catch  the  white- 
legged  horse  if  he  ran  to  the  world's  end." 

The  first  heat  was  easily  won,  when  O'Kelly,  observing  that  the  rider  had  been 
pulling  at  Eclipse  during  the  whole  of  the  race,  offered  a  wager  that  he  placed 
the  horses  in  tlie  next  heat.  This  seemed  a  thing  so  highly  improbable,  that  he 
immediately  had  bets  to  a  large  amount.  Being  called  on  to  declare,  he  replied, 
•'  Eclipse  first,  and  the  rest  no  where!"  The  event  justified  his  prediction;  all  the 
others  were  distanced  by  Eclipse  witli  the  greatest  ease?  or,  in  the  language  of 
the  turf,  they  had  no  place. 

In  the  spring  of  the  following  year,  he  beat  Mr.  Wentworth's  Bucephalus,  who 
bad  never  before  been  conquered.  Two  days  afterwards  he  distanced  Mr.  Strode's 
Pensioner,  a  very  good  horse;  and,  in  the  August  of  the  same  year,  he  won  the 
great  subscription  at  York.  No  horse  daring  to  enter  against  him,  he  closed  his 
short  career  of  seventeen  months,  by  walking  over  the  Newmarket  course  for  the 
king's  plate,  on  October  the  18th,  1770.  He  was  never  beaten,  nor  eyer  paid  for- 
feit, and  won  for  his  owner  more  than  twenty-five  thousand  pounds. 

Eclipse  was  afterwards  employed  as  a  stallion,  and  produced  the  extraordinary 
number  of  three  hundred  and  thirty-four  winners,  and  these  netted  to  their  owners 
more  than  a  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  pounds,  exclusive  of  plates  and  cups. 
This  fine  animal  died  in  1789,  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  years.* 

More  than  twenty  years  after  the  Uarley  Arabian,  and  when  the  value  of  the 
Arabian  blood  was  fully  established.  Lord  Godolpiiin  possessed  a  beautiful,  but  sln-^ 
gularly  shaped  horse,  which  he  called  an  Arabian,  but  which  was  really  a  Barb, 
His  crest,  lofty  and  arched  almost  to  a  fault,  will  distinguish  him  from  every  other 
horse. 

It  will  likewise  be  seen  from  our  plate  (jvide  p.  7, )  that  he  had  a  sinking  behind 
his  shoulders  almost  as  peculiar,  and  a  corresponding  elevation  of  the  spine  tq-? 
wards  the  loins.  His  muzzle  was  uncommonly  fine,  his  head  beautifully  set  on,  his 
shoulders  capacious,  and  his  quarters  well  spread  out.  He  was  picked  up  in 
France,  where  he  was  actually  employed  in  drawing  a  cart;  and  when  he  was  af- 
terwards presented  to  Lord  Godolphin,  he  was  in  that  nobleman's  stud  a  conside- 
rable time  before  his  value  was  discovered.  It  was  not  until  the  birth  of  Lath,  one 
of  the  first  horses  of  that  period,  that  his  excellence  began  to  be  appreciated.  He 
was  then  styled  an  Arabian,  and  became,  in  even  a  greater  degree  than  the  Dai-ley, 
the  founder  of  the  modern  thorough-bred  horsps.  He  died  in  1753,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-nine. 

An  intimate  friendship  subsisted  between  him  and  a  cat,  which  either  sat  on  his 
back  when  he  was  in  the  stable,  or  nestled  as  closely  to  him  as  she  could.  At  his 
death,  the  cat  refused  her  food,  and  pined  away,  and  soon  died.  Mr.  Holcroft 
gives  a  similar  relation  of  the  attachment  between  a  race-horse  and  a  cat,  which 
the  courser  would  take  in  his  mouth,  and  place  in  his  manger  and  upon  his  back, 
without  hurting  her.  Chillaby,  called  from  his  great  ferocity  the  Mad  Arabian, 
whom  one  only  of  the  grooms  dared  to  approach,  and  who  savagely  tore  to  pieces 
the  image  of  a  man  that  was  purposely  placed  in  his  way,  had  his  peculiar  attach- 
ment to  a  lamb,  who  used  to  employ  himself  for  many  an  hour  in  batting  away 
the  flies  from  him. 

*  The  produce  of  King  Herod,  a  descendant  of  Flying  Childers,  was  even  more 
numerous.  He  got  no  less  than  four  hundred  and  ninety-seven  winners,  who  gain 
ed  for  their  proprietors  upwards  of  two  hundred  thousand  pounds.  Highflyer  was 
a  son  of  King  Herod. 


38  THE  HORSE. 

Another  foreign  horse,  whose  portrait  we  have  given,  (vide  p.  8,)  was  the  WEt- 
IKSLET  Arabian;  the  very  picture  of  a  beautiful  wild  horse  of  the  desert.  His 
precise  country  was  never  determined.  He  is  evidently  neither  a  perfect  Barb, 
nor  a  perfect  Arabian,  but  from  some  neighboring-  province,  where  both  the  Barb 
and  Arabian  would  expand  to  a  more  perfect  fullness  of  form.  This  horse  has 
been  erroneously  selected  as  the  pattern  of  a  superior  Arabian,  and  therefore  we 
have  introduced  him;  few,  however,  of  his  produce  were  trained  who  can  add  much 
to  his  reputation. 

It  has  been  imagined  that  the  breed  of  racing  horses  has  lately  very  considera- 
bly degenerated.  This  is  not  the  case.  Thorougb-bred  horses  were  formerly  fewer 
in  number,  and  their  performances  created  greater  wonder.  The  breed  has  now 
increased  twenty-fold,  and  superiority  is  not  so  easily  obtained  among  so  many  com- 
petitors. If  one  circumstance  coidd,  more  than  any  other,  produce  this  degene- 
racy, it  would  be  our  absurd  and  cruel  habit  of  bringing  out  horses  too  soon,  and 
the  frequent  failure  of  their  legs  before  they  have  come  to  their  full  power.  Chil- 
ders  and  Eclipse  did  not  appear  until  they  were  five  years  old;  but  many  of  our 
best  horses,  and  those,  perhaps,  who  would  have  shown  equal  excellence  with  the 
most  celebrated  racers,  are  foundered  and  desti'oyed  before  that  period. 

Whether  the  introduction  of  short  races,  and  so  young  horses,  be  advantageous, 
and  whether  stoutness  and  usefulness  may  not  thus  be  somewhat  too  much  sacri- 
ficed to  speed:  whether  there  may  be  danger  that  an  animal  designed  for  service 
may,  in  process  of  time,  be  frittered  away  almost  to  a  shadow  of  what  he  was,  in 
order  that  at  two  years  old,  over  the  one-mile-course,  he  may  astonish  the  crowd 
by  his  fleetness — are  questions  that  more  concern  the  sporting  man  than  the  agri- 
culturist; and  yet  they  concern  the  agriculturist  too,  for  racing  is  principally  valua- 
ble as  connected  with  breeding,  and  as  the  test  of  breeding. 

The  horse  enters  into  the  spirit  of  the  race  as  thoroughly  as  does  his  rider,  and, 
without  whip  or  spur,  will  generally  exert  his  energies  to  the  utmost  to  beat  his 
opponent.  It  is  beautiful  to  see  him  advancing  to  the  starting-post,  every  motion 
evincing  his  eagerness.  The  signal  is  given,  and  he  springs  away — he  settles  him- 
self in  his  stride — the  jockey  becomes  a  part  and  portion  of  him,  every  motion  of 
the  arms  and  body  corresponding  with,  and  assisting  the  action  of  the  horse.  On 
he  goes,  eager,  yet  husbanding  his  powers.  At  length,  when  he  arrives  at  that 
distance  from  which  the  rider  knows  that  he  will  live  home  at  the  top  of  his  speed, 
the  hint  is  given,  and  on  he  rushes.  Then  the  race  in  reality  begins,  and  every 
nerve  is  strained  to  head  his  competitor.  Then,  too,  comes  the  art  of  the  rider, 
to  keep  the  horse  within  his  pace,  and,  with  admirable  give  and  take,  add  to  the 
length  of  every  stride.  Then,  perhaps,  the  spur,  skilfully  applied,  may  be  neces- 
sary to  rouse  every  dormant  energy.  A  sluggish  lurching  horse  may  need  more 
punishment  than  the  humane  observer  would  tliink  justifiable.  But  the  natural 
ardor  of  the  race-horse,  roused  at  the  moment  of  the  grand  struggle  by  the  mode- 
rate application  of  the  whip  and  spur,  will  bring  him  through  if  he  can  win. 

Forrester  will  afford  sufficient  illustration  of  the  natural  emulation  of  the  cour- 
ser. He  had  won  many  a  hardly  contested  race;  at  length,  overweighted  and  over- 
matched, the  rally  bad  commenced.  His  opponent,  who  had  been  waiting  behind, 
was  gaining  upon  him;  he  overtook  him,  and  they  continued  quite  close  to  within 
the  distance.  It  was  a  point  that  could  scarcely  be  decided.  But  Forrester's 
strength  was  faihng.  He  made  one  desperate  plunge — seized  his  antagonist  by  the 
jaw  to  hold  him  back,  and  could  scarcely  be  forced  to  quit  his  hold.  In  like  man- 
ner, a  horse  belonging  to  Mr.  Quin,  in  1753,  finding  his  adversary  gi-adually  pass- 
ing him,  seized  him  by  the  leg,  and  both  riders  were  obliged  to  dismount,  in 
order  to  separate  the  animals.  Let  us  here  pause  and  ask,  would  the  butcherly 
whipping  and  cutting  which  seems  so  often  to  form  the  expected  and  necessary 
conclusion  of  the  race — the  supposed  display  of  the  skill  of  the  rider — the  exulta- 
tion of  the  thoughtless  or  unfeehng  spectator — would  these  have  carried  such  horses 
over  one  additional  inch  of  ground?  They  would  have  been  thrown  abroad — they 
would  have  shortened  their  stroke — and  perhaps  would  have  become  enraged,  and 
suspended  every  exertion.  The  horse  is  as  susceptible  of  pleasure  and  pain  as 
ourselves.  He  was  committed  to  us  for  our  protection,  and  our  use;  he  is  a  wil- 
ling, devoted  servant.  Whence  did  we  derive  the  right  to  abuse  him?  Interest 
speaks  the  saqie  language..  Many  a  race  has  been  lost  by  the  infiiction  of  wanton 
cruelty.* 

t  One  of  the  severest  plate^aees  on  record,  was  run  at  Carlisle  in  1761,  and  in 


THE  HUNTER. 


39 


There  are  few  agriculhirists  who  have  not  a  little  liking  for  the  sports  of  the 
field,  and  who  do  not  fancy  rich  music  in  the  cry  of  the  hounds.     To  what   ex- 

which  there  were  no  fewer  than  six  heats,  and  two  of  them  were  dead  heats,  each 
of  which  was  contested  by  the  winner  of  the  plate. 

In  1763,  at  Salisbury,  and  over  a  four-mile  course,  there  were  four  heats  be- 
tween two  horses,  the  Duke  of  Grafton's  Havana  and  Mr.  Wildman's  Paifti. 

The  following  table  of  the  abbreviations  used  in  designating  the  different  courses 
at  Newmarket,  and  the  length  of  these  courses,  may  not  be  unacceptable. 

Mbrev, 

B.  C.  is 
L.  T.  M, 
D.  I. 
T.  L.  I. 

C.  C. 
A.  F. 
T.  Y.  C. 
Y.  C. 
R.  C. 

D.  M. 
A.  M. 
R.  M. 
T.  M.  M. 

A  Distance  is  the  length  of  two  himdred  and  forty  yards  from  the  winning  post. 
In  the  gallery  of  the  winning  post,  and  in  a  little  gallery  at  the  distance  post,  are 
placed  two  men  holding  crimson  flags.  As  soon  as  the  first  horse  has  passed  the 
winning  post,  the  man  drops  his  fl^ag;  the  other  at  the  distance  post  drops  his  at 
the  same  moment,  and  the  horse  which  has  not  then  past  that  post  is  said  to  be 
distanced,  and  cannot  start  again  for  the  same  plate  or  prize. 

A  Feather-weight  is  the  lightest  weight  that  can  be  put  on  the  back  of  a 
horse. 

A  Give  and  Take  Plate  is  where  horses  carry  weight  according  to  their  height. 
Fourteen  hands  are  taken  as  the  standard  height,  and  the  horse  must  carry  nine 
stone  (the  horseman's  stone  is  fourteen  pounds.)  Seven  pounds  are  taken  from 
the  weight  for  every  inch  below  fourteen  hands,  and  seven  pounds  added  for  every 
inch  above  fourteen  hands.  A  few  pounds  additional  weight  is  so  serious  an  evil 
that  it  is  said  seven  pounds  in  a  mile  race  are  equivalent  to  a  distance. 

A  Post  Match  is  for  horses  of  a  certain  age,  and  the  parties  possess  the  privi- 
lege of  bringing  any  horse  of  that  age  to  the  post. 

A  Produce  Match  is  that  between  the  produce  of  certain  mares  in  foal  at  the 
time  of  the  match,  and  to  be  decided  when  thej^  arrive  at  a  certain  age  specified. 


The  Beacon  course 
Last  three  miles  of  ditto 
From  the  Ditch  in 
From  the  turn  of  the  lands  in 
Clermont  course     ... 
Across  the  Flat      ... 
Two-year  old  course 
Yearling  course      -         -         . 
Round  course  -         -         - 

Ditch  mile  .        .         . 

Abingdon  mile        .        -         . 
Rowley  mile  .         .        . 

Two  middle  miles  of  B.  C     - 


Miles. 

Furl 

Yds. 

4 

1 

138 

3 

0 

45 

2 

0 

97 

0 

s 

184 

1 

5 

2ir 

1 

1 

44 

0 

5 

136 

0 

2 

147 

3 

6 

93 

0 

7 

148 

0 

7 

211 

1 

0 

1 

1 

7 

115 

40  THE  HORSE. 

tent  it  may  be  prudent  for  them  to  indulge  in  these  sports,  circumstances  must 
decide,  and  they  deserve  the  most  serious  consideration.  Few  can,  or,  if  they 
could,  oug-ht  to  keep  a  hunter.  There  are  temptations  to  expense  in  the  field, 
and  to  expense  after  the  chase,  which  it  may  be  difficult  to  withstand.  The  hun- 
ter, however,  or  the  hunting  horse,  i.  e.  the  horse  on  which  a  farmer,  if  he  be  not 
a  professed  sportsman,  may  occasionally,  with  pleasure,  and  without  disgrace,  fol- 
low the  hounds,  is  in  value  and  beauty  next  to  the  racer. 

He  should  seldom  be  under  fifteen,  or  more  than  sixteen  hands  high;  below  this 
standard  he  cannot  always  sufficiently  measure  the  object  before  him,  and,  above 
this,  he  is  apt  to  be  leggy  and  awkward  at  his  work. 

In  proportion  as  the  agriculture  of  the  country  is  improved,  the  speed  of  the 
chase  is  increased*  The  scent  both  of  the  fox  and  the  hare  will  lie  better  in  in- 
closed and  well-cultivated  ground,  than  on  open,  barren  heaths;  and  there  is  more 
running  breast-high  than  when  the  hound  is  compelled  to  pick  out  the  scent,  car- 
rying his  nose  almost  close  to  the  ground,  and  consequently  going  more  slowly. 
The  character  of  the  hunter  is  consequently  gradually  changing.  Stoutness  is  still 
required,  but  speed  is  becoming  more  necessary,  and,  therefore,  for  the  fox  and 
the  deer,  and  even  for  the  hare,  blood  is  an  essential  quahty. 

In  strong,  thickly  inclosed  countries,  the  half-bred  horse  may  get  tolerably  well 
along;  but  for  general  use  the  hunter  should  be  at  least  three-quarters  bred;  per- 
haps seven-eighths.  If  he  could  be  obtained  with  bone  enough,  and  different  ac- 
tion, a  thorough-bred  horse  would  form  the  best  of  all  hunters:  but  the  thorough- 
bred horse,  with  the  usual  action  of  the  racer,  would  not,  even  at  three-quai-tei-s 
speed,  always  carry  himself  sufficiently  high  to  be  aware  of,  and  to  clear  his  fences. 

The  first  property  of  a  good  hunter  is  tliat  he  should  be  light  in  hand.  For  this 
purpose  his  head  must  be  small;  his  neck  thin;  and  especially  thin  beneath;  his 
crest  firm  and  arched,  and  his  jaws  wide.  The  head  will  then  be  well  set  on.  It 
will  form  that  angle  with  the  neck  which  gives  a  light  and  pleasant  mouth. 

Somewhat  of  a  ewe-neck,  however  it  may  lessen  the  beauty  of  the  race-horse, 
does  not  interfere  with  his  speed,  because,  as  is  shown  where  the  structure  of 
the  horse  is  considered,  more  weight  may  be  thrown  forward,  and  consequently 
the  whole  bulk  of  the  animal  more  easily  impelled;  at  the  same  time,  the  head  is 
more  readily  and  perfectly  extended,  the  windpipe  is  brought  almost  to  a  straight 
line  from  the  lungs  to  the  muzzle,  and  tl>e  breathing  is  freer.  Should  the  courser, 
in  consequence  of  this  form  of  the  neck,  bear  more  heavily  on  the  hand,  the  i-ace  is 
soon  over;  but  the  hunter  may  be  our  companion  and  our  servant  through  a  long 
day,  and  it  is  of  essential  consequence  that  he  shall  not  too  much  annoy  and  tii-e 
us  by  the  weight  of  his  head  and  neck. 

The  forehand  should  be  loftier  than  that  of  the  racer.  A  turf  horse  may  be  for- 
given if  his  hind  quarters  rise  an  inch  or  two  above  his  fore  ones.  His  principal 
power  is  wanted  from  behind,  and  the  very  lown^ss  of  the  forehand  may  throw 
more  weight  in  fi-ont,  and  cause  the  whole  machine  to  be  more  easily  and  speedily 
moved.  A  lofty  forehand,  however,  is  indispensable  in  the  hunter;  the  shoulder 
as  extensive  as  in  the  racer;  as  oblique,  and  somewhat  thicker;  the  saddle  will  then 
be  in  its  proper  place,  and  will  continue  so,  however  long  may  be  the  run. 

The  barrel  should  be  rounder  to  give  greater  room  for  the  heart  and  lungs  to 
play,  and  send  more  and  purer  blood  to  the  larger  frame  of  this  horse;  and  espe- 
cially more  room  to  play  when  the  run  may  continue  unchecked  for  a  time  that 
begins  to  be  distressing.  A  broad  chest  is  an  excellence  in  the  hunter.  In  the 
violent  and  long-continued  exertion  of  tiie  chase,  the  respiration  is  exceedingly 
quickened,  and  abundantly  more  blood  is  hurried  thi-ough  the  lungs  in  a  given 
time  than  when  the  animal  is  at  rest.  There  must  be  sufficient  room  for  this,  or 
the  horse  will  be  blown,  and  possibly  destroyed.  The  majority  of  the  horses  thai 
perish  in  the  field  are  narrow  chested. 

The  arm  should  be  as  muscular  as  that  of  the  courser,  or  even  more  so,  for  both 
strength  and  endurance  are  wanted. 

The  leg  should  be  deeper  than  that  of  the  race  horse,  (broader  as  you  stand  at 
the  side  of  the  horse,)  and  especially  beneath  the  knee.  In  proportion  to  the  dis- 
tance of  the  tendon  from  the  cannon  or  shank-bone,  and  more  particularly  just 
below  tlie  knee,  is  the  mechanical  advantage  with  which  it  acts.  A  racer  may  be 
tied  beneath  the  knee,  without  perfectly  destroying  his  power,  but  a  hunter  with 
this  defect  will  rarely  have  stoutness. 

If  any  objection  be  made  to  our  cut  of  the  hunter,  it  will  be  that  the  mare  was 
too  fine  below  the  knee.     It  was  the  only  bad  point  in  an  almost  perfect  form. 


THE  HUNTER.  41 

She  was  the  property  of  T.  Millington,  esq.,  to  whose  khidness  we  are  h\debted 
for  permission  to  copy  her  portrait.  She  would  go  oyer  any  tiling,  and  was  never 
tired. 

The  leg  should  be  shorter.  Higher  action  is  required  than  in  the  racer,  that 
the  legs  may  be  clearly  and  safely  lifted  over  many  an  obstacle,  and,  particularly, 
that  tliey  may  be  well  doubled  up  in  tlie  leap. 

The  pastern  should  be  shorter,  and  less  slanting,  yet  retaining  considerable  ob- 
liquity. The  long  pastern  is  useftd,  by  the  yielding  resistance  which  its  elasticity 
affords,  to  break  the  concussion  witli  which  the  race-horse,  from  his  immense  stride 
and  speed,  must  come  on  the  ground,-  and  the  oblique  direction  of  tlie  different 
bones  beautifully  contributes  to  effect  the  same  purpose.  With  this  elasticity, 
however,  a  considerable  degree  of  weakness  is  necessarily  connected,  and  the 
race-horse  occasionally  breaks  down  in  the  middle  of  his  course.  The  hunter, 
fi-om  his  different  action,  takes  not  this  length  of  stride,  and  tlierefore  wants  not 
all  this  clastic  mechanism;  he  more  needs  strength  to  support  his  own  heavier  car- 
case, and  the  greater  weight  of  his  rider,  and  to  undergo  the  fatigue  of  a  long  day. 
Some  obliquity,  however,  he  requires;  otherwise  the  concussion  even  of  his  shorter 
gallop,  and  more  particularly  of  his  frequently  tremendous  leaps,  would  inevitably 
lame  him. 

The  foot  of  the  hunter  is  a  most  material  point.  It  is  of  consequence  in  the 
racer,  yet  it  is  a  notorious  fact,  that  many  of  our  best  -thorough-bred  horses  have 
had  very  indifferent  feet.  The  narrow  contracted  foot  is  the  curse  of  much  of  the 
racing  blood.  I'he  work  of  the  racer,  however,-  is  all  performed  on  the  turf,  and 
his  bad  feet  may  scarcely  incommode  him;  but  the  foot  of  the  hunter  is  battered 
over  many  a  flinty  road  and  stony  field,  and,  if  not  particularly  good,  will  soon  be 
disabled  and  ruined. 

The  position  of  the  feet  requires  some  attention  in  the  hunter.  They  should,  if 
possible,  stand  straight.  If  they  turn  a  little  outward  there  is  no  serious  objection; 
but  if  they  turn  inward  his  action  cannot  be  safe,  particulaidy  when  he  is  fatigued 
or  over-weighted. 

The  body  should  be  short  and  compact,  compared  with  that  of  the  race-horse, 
that  he  may  not  in  his  gallop  take  too  extended  a  stride.  This  would  be  a  serious 
disadvantage  in  a  long  day  and  with  a  heavy  rider,  from  the  stress  on  the  pasterns; 
and  more  serious  when  going  over  clayey  poached  ground,  during  the  winter 
months.  The  compact  short-strided  horse  will  almost  skim  the  surface,  while  the 
feet  of  the  longer-reached  animal  will  sink  deep,  and  he  will  wear  himself  out  by 
efforts  to  disengage  himself 

Every  horseman  knows  how  much  more  enduring  is  a  short-bodied  horse  in 
climbing  hills,  although  perhaps  not  quite  so  much  in  descending  them.  This  is 
the  secret  of  suiting  the  racc-liorse  to  his  coiu-se,  and  unfolds  the  apparent  mystery 
of  a  decidedly  superior  horse  on  a  flat  and  sti-aight  course,  being  often  beaten  by 
a  little  horse,  with  far  shorter  stride  on  uneven  ground,  and  with  several  turnings. 

The  loins  should  be  broad;  the  quarters  long;  the  thighs  muscular;  the  hocks 
well  bent,  and  well  under  the  horse. 

The  reader  needs  not  be  tolihow  essential  temper  and  courage  are.  A  hot  ir- 
ritable brute  is  a  perfect  nuisaiice,  and  tlie  coward  that  will  scarcely  face  the  slight- 
est fence  exposes  his  owner  to  ridicule. 

The  ti-ainmg  of  the  race-horse  has  not  been  touched  upon.  It  contains  too  much 
myster}',  and  too  much  absurdity  for  common  understandings.  The  principle,  how- 
ever, of  preparing  both  the  race-horse  and  the  hunter  for  their  work  is  the  same, 
and  can  have  no  mystery  about  it,  viz.,  by  physic  a\id  b}^  exercise,  to  get  rid  of  all 
superfluous  fat  and  flesh,  without  too  much  lowering  the  animal;  and,  particularly 
to  bring  him,  b}"  dint  of  exercise,  into  good  wind,  and  accustom  him  to  the  full  trial 
of  his  powers,  without  over  straining  or  injuring  him.  Two  or  three  doses  of 
physic  as  the  season  appro-aches,  and  these  not  too  strong;  plenty  of  good  hard 
Hieat;  and  a  daily  gallop  of  a  couple  of  miles,  and  at  a  pace  not  too  quick,  will  be 
nearly  all  that  can  be  required.  Physic  must  not  be  omitted;  but  the  three  words, 
air,  exercise,  food,  contain  the  g"rand  secret  and  art  of  training". 

Some  think  that  even  the  simple  process  now  described  is  not  necessary,  and 
that  horses  that  are  taken  up  and  worked  in  the  day,  and  with  a  feed  or  two  of 
corn,  and  turned  out  at  night,  with  an  open  stable  or  shed  to  run  into  if  they  please, 
are  as  active,  healthy,  and  enduring,  as  those  who  are  most  carefully  trained,  and 
confined  to  the  stable  dtiring  the  hunting  season.  Many  a  fanner  has  boasted  that 
6 


43  THE  HORSE. 

he  can  beat  the  most  numerous  and  the  best-appointed  field,  and  that  his  horse 
never  wants  wind,  and  rarely  tires. 

It  is  true  that  the  farmer  may  enjoy  a  good  day's  sport  on  the  horse  that  carries 
him  to  market,  or,  possibly,  occasionally  performs  more  menial  drudgery;  but  the 
frothy  lather  with  which  such  a  horse  is  covered  in  tlie  early  part  of  the  day  evinces 
undeniable  inferiority.  There  is,  however,  one  point  on  which  the  untrained  horse 
has  the  advantage.  Accustomed  to  all  weathers,  he  rarely  suffers,  when,  after  a 
sharp  burst,  tliere  comes  a  sudden  check,  and  the  pampered  and  shivering  stabled 
horse  is  exposed  with  him  for  a  considerable  time  to  a  piercing  northeaster.  The 
one  cares  nothing  about  it;  the  other  may  carry  home  the  seeds  of  dangerous  disease. 

Tlie  hunter  may  be  fairly  ridden  twice,  or,  if  not  with  any  very  hard  days,  three 
times  in  the  week;  but,  after  a  thoroughly  hard  day,  and  evident  distress,  three  or 
four  days'  rest  should  be  allowed.  They  who  are  merciful  to  their  horses,  allow 
about  tliirty  days'  work  in  the  course  of  the  season;  with  gentle  exercise  on  each 
of  the  intermediate  days,  and  particularly  a  sweat  on  the  day  before  hunting. 
There  is  an  account,  however,  of  one  horse  who  followed  the  fox-hounds  seventy- 
five  times  in  one  season.     This  feat  has  never  been  exceeded. 

We  recollect  to  have  seen  the  last  Duke  of  Richmond  but  one,  although  an  old 
man,  and  when  he  had  the  gout  in  his  hands  so  severely  that  he  was  obliged  to  be 
lifted  on  horseback,  and  both  arms,  being  passed  tlirough  the  reins,  were  crossed 
on  his  breast,  galloping  down  the  steepest  part  of  IJow  Hill,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Goodwood,  almost  as  abrupt  as  the  ridge  of  an  ordinary  house,  and  cheering  on 
the  hounds  with  all  the  ardor  of  a  youth.* 

The  horse  fully  shares  in  the  enthusiasm  of  his  rider.  It  is  beautiful  to  watch 
the  old  hunter,  who,  after  many  a  winters'  hard  work,  is  turned  into  the  park  to 
enjoy  himself  for  life-  His  attitude  and  his  countenance  when,  perchance,  he 
hears  the  distant  cry  of  the  dogs,  are  a  study.  If  he  can  he  will  break  his  fence, 
and,  over  hedge,  and  lane,  and  brook,  follow  the  chase,  and  come  in  first  at  the 
death. 

A  horse  that  had,  a  short  time  before,  been  severely  fired  on  three  legs,  and  was 
placed  in  a  loose  box,  with  the  door,  four  feet  high,  closed,  and  an  aperture  over 
it  little  more  than  three  feet  square,  and  standuig  himself  nearly  sixteen  hands, 
and  master  of  fifteen  stone,  hearing  the  cheering  of  the  huntsman  and  the  cry  of 
the  dogs  at  no  great  distance,  sprung  ihi-ough  the  aperture  without  leaving  a  sin- 
gle mark  on  the  bottom,  the  top,  or  the  sides. 

•  Sir  John  Malcolm  (in  his  Sketches  of  Persia,)  gives  an  amusing  account  of  the 
impression  which  a  fox-hunt  in  the  English  style  made  on  an  Arab. 

"I  was  entertained  by  listening  to  an  Arab  peasant,  who,  with  animated  gestures, 
was  narrating  to  a  group  of  his  countrymen  all  he  had  seen  of  this  noble  hunt. 
♦There  came  tiie  fox,'  said  he,  pointing  with  a  crooked  stick  to  a  clump  of  date 
trees,  'there  he  came  at  a  great  rate.  I  hallooed,  but  nobody  heard  me,  and  I 
thought  he  must  get  away;  but  when  he  got  quite  out  of  sight,  up  came  a  large 
spotted  dog,  and  then  another  and  another.  They  all  had  their  noses  to  tlie  ground, 
and  gave  tongue — whow,  whow,  whow,  so  loud,  I  was  frightened.  Away  went 
these  devils,  who  soon  found  the  poor  animal.  After  them  galloped  the  Foringees, 
(a  corruption  of  Frank,  the  name  given  to  an  Eui-opean  over  all  Asia,)  shouting 
and  trying  to  make  a  noise  louder  than  the  dogs.  No  wonder  they  killed  the  fox 
among  them." 

The  Treasurer  Burleigh,  the  sage  councillor  of  Queen  Ehzabeth,  could  not  enter 
into  the  pleasure  of  the  chase.     Old  Andrew  Fuller  relates  a  quaint  story  of  him: 

•'When  some  noblemen  had  gotten  Wilham  Cecill  Lord  Burleigh  to  ride  with 
them  a  hunting,  and  the  sport  began  to  be  cold,  '  what  call  you  this.''  said  the  trea- 
surer. '  O!  now  the  dogs  are  at  fault,'  was  the  reply.  *  Yea,'  quoth  the  treasurer, 
•  take  me  again  in  such  a  fault,  and  I'll  give  you  leave  to  punish  me." 

In  former  times  it  was  the  fashion  for  women  to  hunt  almost  as  often  and  as 
keenly  as  the  men.  Queen  Elizabeth  was  extremely  fond  of  the  chase.  Rowland 
Whyte,  in  a  letter  to  Sir  Robert  Sidney,  says,  "  Her  majesty  is  well,  and  excel- 
lently disposed  to  hunting;  for  every  second  day  she  is  on  horseback,  and  conti- 
nues the  sport  long.' 

This  custom  soon  afterwards  began  to  decline,  and  the  jokes  and  sarcasms  of  the 
witty  court  of  Charles  II.  contributed  to  discountenance  it. 

It  is  a  curious  circumstance,  that  the  first  work  on  hunting  that  proceeded  from 
the  press,  was  from  the  pen  of  a  female,  Juliana  Barnes,  or  Berners,  the  sister  oi 
Lord  Berners,  and  prioress  of  the  nunnery  of  Sopewell,  about  the  year  1481 


THE  HUNTER.  43 

Then,  if  the  liorse  be  tlius  ready  to  exert  himself  for  our  pleasure — and  pleasure 
alone  is  here  the  object — it  is  indefensible  and  brutal  to  urg-e  him  be)'ond  his  own 
natural  ardor,  so  severely  as  we  sometimes  do,  and  even  unlil  nature  is  quite  ex- 
hausted. We  do  not  often  hear  of  a  "hard-day,"  without  being-  likewise  inform- 
ed that  one  or  more  horses  either  died  in  the  field,  or  scarcely  reached  home 
before  they  expired.  Some  have  been  thoug-htless  and  cruel  enough  to  kill  two 
horses  in  one  day.  One  of  the  severest  chases  on  record  was  by  the  King's  stag- 
hounds.  There  was  an  uninten-upted  burst  of  four  hours  and  twenty  minutes.  One 
horse  dropped  dead  in  the  field;  another  died  before  he  could  reach  the  stable; 
and  seven  more  within  a  week  afterwards. 

It  is  very  conceivable,  and  does  sometimes  happen,  that,  entering"  as  fully  as  his 
master  into  the  sports  of  the  day,  the  horse  disdains  to  yield  to  fatigue,  and  volun- 
tarily presses  on  until  nature  is  exhausted,  and  he  falls  and  dies;  but,  much  oftener, 
the  poor  animal  has,  intelligibly  enough,  hinted  his  distress;  unwilling  to  give  in, 
yet  painfully  and  faulteringly  holding  on.  The  merciless  rider,  rather  than  give 
up  one  hour's  enjoyment,  tortures  him  with  whip  and  spur  until  he  drops  and 
expires. 

Although  the  hunter  may  be  unwilling  to  relinquish  the  chase,  he  who  "  is  mer- 
ciful to  his  beast"  will  soon  recognize  the  symptoms  of  excessive  and  dangerous 
distress.  To  the  drooping  pace,  and  staggering  gait,  and  heaving  flank,  and  heavy 
bearing  on  hand,  will  be  added  a  very  peculiar  noise.  The  inexperienced  person 
will  fancy  it  to  be  the  beating  of  the  heart;  but  that  has  almost  ceased  to  beat,  and 
the  lungs  are  becoming  gorged  with  blood.  It  is  the  convulsive  motion  of  the 
muscles  of  the  belly,  called  into  violent  action  to  assist  in  the  now  laborious  office 
of  breathing.  The  man  who  proceeds  a  single  mile  after  this  ought  to  suffer  the 
punishment  he  is  inflicting.* 

Let  the  rider  instantly  dismount.  If  he  has  a  lancet,  and  skill  to  use  it,  let  him 
take  away  five  or  six  quarts  of  blood;  or,  if  he  has  no  lancet,  let  him  cut  the  burs 
with  his  pocket  knife  as  deeply  as  he  can.  The  lungs  may  be  thus  relieved,  and 
the  horse  may  be  able  to  crawl  home.  Then,  or  before,  if  possible,  let  some  pow- 
erful cordial  be  administered.  Cordials  are,  generally  speaking,  tlie  disgrace  and 
bane  of  the  stable;  but  here,  and  almost  here  alone,  they  are  truly  valuable.  They 
may  rouse  the  exhausted  powers  of  nature;  they  may  prevent  what  the  medical 
man  would  call  the  reaction  of  inflammation,  although  they  are  the  veriest  poison 
when  inflammation  has  commenced. 

A  favorite  hunter  fell  after  a  long  burst,  and  lay  stretched  out,  convulsed,  and 
apparently  dying.  His  master  procured  a  bottle  of  good  sherry  from  the  house 
of  a  neighboring  friend,  and  poured  it  down  the  animal's  throat.  The  horse  im- 
mediately began  to  revive;  soon  after  got  up;  walked  home,  and  gradually  reco- 
vered. The  sportsman  may  not  always  be  able  to  get  this,  but  he  may  obtain  a 
cordial-ball  from  the  nearest  farrier,  or  he  may  beg  a  little  ginger  from  some  good 
house  wife,  and  mix  it  with  warm  ale,  or  he  may  give  the  ale  alone,  or  strength- 
ened with  a  little  rum  or  gin.  When  he  gets  home,  or  if  he  stops  at  the  first  sta- 
ble he  finds,  let  the  horse  be  put  into  the  coolest  place,  and  then  well  clothed,  and 
diligently  rubbed  about  the  legs  and  belly.  The  practice  of  putting  the  animal, 
thus  distressed,  into  "a  comfortable  warm  stable,"  and  excluding  every  breath  of 
air,  has  destroyed  many  valuable  horses. 

*  We  should  almost  rejoice  if  the  abused  quadruped,  cruelly  urged  beyond  his 
powers,  were  to  inflict  on  his  rider  the  punishment  which  a  Spanish  ruffian  re- 
ceived when  mercilessly  torturing,  in  a  similar  way,  a  poor  Indian  slave,  who  was 
carrying  him  on  his  back  over  the  mountains.  It  is  thus  related  by  Captain  Coch- 
rane, (Columbia  ii.  ."57.)  "  Shortly  after  passing  tliis  stream,  we  arrived  at  an 
abrupt  precipice,  which  went  perpendicularly  down  about  fifteen  hundred  feet,  to 
a  mountain  torrent  below.  There  Lieutenant  Ortegas  narrated  to  me  the  follow- 
ing anecdote  of  the  cruelty  and  punishment  of  a  Spanish  officer.  This  inhuman 
wretch,  having  fastened  on  an  immense  pair  of  mule  spurs,  was  incessantly  darting 
the  rowels  into  the  bare  flesh  of  the  tortured  sillero,  who  in  vain  remonstrated 
with  his  persecutor,  and  assured  him  he  could  not  quicken  his  pace.  The  officer 
only  pUed  his  spurs  the  more,  in  proportion  to  the  murmurs  of  the  sillero.  At  last, 
the  man  roused  to  the  highest  pitch  of  infuriated  excitement  and  resentment,  from 
the  relentless  attacks  of  the  officer,  on  reaching  this  place  jerked  him  from  his 
chair  into  the  immense  depth  of  the  torrent  below,  where  he  was  killed,  and  his 
body  could  not  be  recovered.  The  sillero  dashed  off  at  full  speed,  escaped  into 
the  mountain,  and  was  never  after  heard  of." 


44  THE  HORSE. 

We  are  now  describing  the  very  earliest  treatment  to  be  adopted,  and  before  it 
may  be  possible  to  call  in  an  experienced  practitioner.  This  stimulating  plan 
would  be  fatal  twelve  hours  afterwards.  It  will,  however,  be  the  wisest  course  to 
commit  the  animal,  the  first  moment  it  is  practicable,  to  the  care  of  the  veterinary 
surgeon,  if  such  tliere  be  in  the  neighborhood,  in  whom  confidence  can  be  placed. 

The  labors  and  the  pleasures  of  the  hunting  season  being  passed,  the  farmer 
makes  little  or  no  difference  in  the  management  of  his  untrained  horse;  but  the 
wealthier  sportsman  is  somewhat  at  a  loss  what  to  do  with  his.  It  used  to  be 
thought  that,  when  the  animal  had  so  long'  contributed,  sometimes  voluntarily,  and 
sometimes  with  a  little  compulsion,  to  the  enjoyment  of  his  owner,  he  ought,  for 
a  few  montlis,  to  be  permitted  to  seek  his  own  amusement  in  his  own  way;  and 
he  was  turned  out  for  a  summer's  run  at  grass.  J'ashion,  which  governs  every- 
thing, and  now  and  then  most  cruelly  and  absurdly,  has  exercised  her  tyranny 
over  this  poor  quadruped.  His  field,  where  he  could  wander  and  gambol  as  he 
liked,  is  changed  to  a  loose  box;  and  the  liberty  in  which  he  so  evidently  exulted 
to  an  hour's  walking  exercise  daily.  He  is  a'lowed  vetches  or  grass  occasionally, 
but  from  his  box  he  stirs  not,  except  for  his  doll  morning's  round,  until  he  is  taken 
into  training  for  the  next  winter's  business. 

In  this,  however,  as  in  most  other  things,  there  is  a  medium.  There  are  few 
horses  who  have  not  materially  suffered  in  their  legs  and  feet  before  the  close  of 
the  hunting  season.  There  is  nothing  so  refreshing  to  their  feet  as  the  damp  cool- 
ness of  the  grass  into  which  they  are  turned  in  May;  and  nothing  so  calculated  to 
remove  every  enlargement  and  sprain,  as  the  gentle  exercise  which  the  animal 
voluntarily  takes  while  his  legs  are  exposed  to  the  cooling  process  of  evaporation, 
which  is  taken  place  from  the  herbage  he  treads.  The  experience  of  ages  has 
shown,  that  it  is  superior  to  all  the  embrocations  and  bandages  of  the  most  skilful 
vetei-inarian.     It  is  the   renovating  process  of  nature,  where  the  art  of  man  fails. 

The  spring  grass  is  the  best  physic  that  can  possibly  be  administered  to  the 
horse.  To  a  degree,  which  no  artificial  aperient  or  diuretic  can  attain,  it  carries 
off  every  humor  which  may  be  lurking  about  the  animal;  it  fines  down  the  round- 
ness of  the  legs;  and,  except  there  be  some  bony  enlargement,  restores  them  al- 
most to  their  original  form  and  strength.  When,  however,  the  summer  has  tho- 
roughly set  in,  the  grass  ceases  to  be  succulent,  apei-ient,  or  medicinal;  the  ground 
is  no  longer  cool  and  moist,  at  least  during  the  day;  and  a  host  of  tormentors,  in 
the  shape  of  flies,  are,  from  sun-rise  to  sun-set,  persecuting  the  poor  animal.  Run- 
ning and  stamping  to  rid  hiniself  of  his  plagues,  his  feet  are  battered  by  the  hard 
ground,  and  he  newly,  and  perhaps  more  severely,  injures  his  legs.  Kept  in  a 
constant  state  of  in-itation  and  fever,  or  rapidly  loses  his  condition,  and  sometimes 
comes  up  in  August  little  better  than  a  skeleton. 

Let  the  horse  be  turned  out  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  hunting  season  is  over. 
Let  him  have  the  whole  of  May,  and  the  greater  part,  or,  possibly,  the  whole  of 
June;  but  when  the  grass  fails,  and  the  ground  gets  hard,  and  the  flies  torment, 
let  him  be  taken  up.  All  the  benefits  of  turning  out,  and  that  which  a  loose  box 
and  artificial  physic  can  never  give,  will  have  been  obtained,  without  the  incon- 
venience and  injury  which  attend  an  injudiciously  protracted  run  at  grass,  and 
which,  arguing  against  the  use  of  a  thing  from  the  abuse  of  it,  have  been  impro- 
perly urged  against  turning  out  at  all. 

The  Steeple  Hunt  is  a  relic  of  ancient  foolhardiness  and  cruelty.  It  was  the  form 
under  which  the  horse  race,  at  its  first  establishment,  was  frequently  decided.  It  is 
a  race  across  the  countxy  of  two,  or  four,  or  even  a  gi-eater  number  of  miles;  and  it 
is  generally  contrived  that  there  shall  be  some  deep  lane,  or  wide  brook,  and  many 
a  stiff  and  dangerous  fence  between.  It  is  ridden  at  the  evident  hazard  of  the  life 
of  the  sportsman;  and  it  likewise  puts  to  hazard  the  life  or  enjoyment  of  the  horse. 
It  is  getting  into  gradual  disuse,  and  no  man  whose  good  opinion  is  worth  having, 
would  deem  such  an  exhibition  creditable  to  the  head  or  heart  of  him  who  was 
engaged  in  it. 

GALLOWAYS    AND    PONIES. 

A  horse  between  thirteen  and  fourteen  hands  in  height  is  called  a  Gallowat, 
from  a  beautiful  breed  of  little  horses  once  found  in  the  south  of  Scotland,  on  the 
shore  of  the  Solway  Firth,  but  now  sadly  degenerated,  and  almost  lost,  from  the 
attempts  of  the  fai-mers  to  obtain  a  larger  kind,  and  better  adapted  for  tlie  pur- 
poses of  agriculture.     There  is  a  tradition  in  that  country,  that  the  breed  is  of 


GALLOWAYS  AND   PONIES. 


43 


Spanish  extraction,  some  liorses  having  escaped  from  one  of  the  vessels  of  the 
Grand  Armada,  which  was  wrecked  on  tlio  neig-hboriiig'  coast.  Tiiis  distiict,  how- 
ever, so  early  as  the  time  of  Edward  L,  supplied  that  monarch  with  a  great  number 
of  horses. 


The  pure  galloway  was  said  to  be  nearly  fourteen  hands  liigh,  and  sometimes 
more;  of  a  bright  bay,  or  brown,  with  black  legs,  small  head  and  neck,  and  pecu- 
liarly deep  and  clean  legs.  Its  qualities  were  speed,  stoutness,  and  sure-footedness, 
over  a  very  rugged  and  mountainous  country. 

Dr.  Anclerson  thus  describes  the  galloway;  <' There  was  once  a  breed  of  small 
elegant  horses  in  Scotland,  similar  to  those  of  Iceland  and  Sweden,  and  which 
were  known  by  the  name  of  galloways;  the  best  of  which  sometimes  reached  the 
height  of  fourteen  hands  and  a  half.  One  of  this  description  I  possessed,  it  having 
been  bouglit  for  my  use  when  a  boy.  In  point  of  elegance  of  shape  it  was  a  per- 
fect picture;  and  in  disposition  was  gentle  and  compliant.  It  moved  almost  with 
a  wish,  and  never  tired.  I  rode  this  little  creatiu-e  for  twenty-five  years,  and, 
twice  in  that  time,  1  rode  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  at  a  stretch,  without  stopping, 
except  to  bait,  and  that  not  for  above  an  hour  at  a  time.  It  came  in  at  the  last 
stage  with  as  mucli  ease  and  alacrity  as  it  travelled  the  first.  I  could  have  under- 
taken to  have  performed  on  this  beast,  when  it  was  in  its  prime,-  sixty  miles  a  day 
for  a  twelve  month  running,  witliout  any  extraordinary  exertion." 

A  galloway  in  point  of  size,  whether  of  Scotcli  origin  or  not  we  are  uncertain, 
performed,  about  the  year  1814,  a  gi-eater  feat  than  Dr.  Anderson's  favorite.  It 
started  from  London  with  the  Exeter  mail,  and,  notwithstanding  the  numerous 
changes  of  horses,  and  tlie  rapid  driving  of  that  vehicle,  it  arrived  at  Exeter  (one 
hundred  and  seventy-two  miles)  a  quarter  of  an  hour  before  the  mail.  We  saw 
him  about  a  twelve  month  afterwards,  wind  galled,  spavined,  ring-boned,  and  a 
lamentable  picture  of  the  ingratitude  of  some  human  brutes  towards  a  willing  and 
faithful  servant. 

In  1754,  Mr.  Corker's  galloway  went  one  hundred  miles  a-day  for  three  succes- 
sive days,  over  the  Newmarket  course,  and  without  the  slightest  distress. 

A  galloway  belonging  to  Mr.  Sinclair,  of  Kirby-Lonsdale,  performed  at  Carlisle 
the  extraordinary  feat  of  one  thousand  miles  in  a  thousand  liours. 

Many  of  the  galloways  now  in  use  are  procured  either  from  Wales  or  the  New 
Forest,  but  they  have  materially  diminished  in  number:  there  are  scarcely  suffi- 
cient to  supply  even  the  neighboring  districts,  and  they  are  still  more  materially 
deteriorated  ui  form  and  value.  Both  the  Welsh  and  the  Hampshire  galloways 
and  ponies  claim,  however,  some  noble  blood. 

Old  Marsk,  before  his  value  was  known,  contributed  to  tlae  improvement  of 
the  Hampshire  breed;  and  the  Welsh  ponies  are  said  to  be  indebted  to  the  cele- 
brated Meruit  for  theii-  form  and  qualities. 


46  THE  HORSE. 

The  Welsh  Pony  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  little  animals  that  can  be  imagined. 
He  has  a  small  head,  high  withers,  deep  yet  round  barrel,  short  joints,  flat  legs, 
and  good  round  feet.     He  will  live  on  any  fare,  and  can  never  be  tired  out. 

The  Ntw-foresters,  notwithstanding  their  Marsk-blood,  are  generally  ilUmade, 
large-headed,  short  necked,  ragged  hipped,  but  hardy,  safe,  and  useful;  with  much 
of  their  ancient  spirit  and  speed,  and  all  their  old  paces.  The  catching  of  these 
ponies  is  as  great  a  trial  of  skill  as  the  hunting  of  the  wild-horse  on  tlie  Pampas 
of  South  America,  and  a  greater  one  of  patience. 

A  great  many  ponies,  of  little  value,  used  to  be  reared  in  Lincolnshire,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Boston,  but  the  breed  has  been  neglected  for  some  years,  and 
the  enclosure  of  the  fens  will  render  it  extinct. 

The  Exmoor  Ponies,  although  generally  ugly  enough,  are  hardy  and  useful.  A 
well-known  sportsman  says,  that  he  rode  one  of  them  half  a  dozen  miles,  and  never 
felt  such  power  and  action  in  so  small  a  compass  before.  To  show  his  accom- 
plishments, he  was  turned  over  a  gate  at  least  eight  inches  higher  than  his  back; 
and  his  owner,  who  rides  fourteen  stone,  travelled  on  him  from  Bristol  to  South 
Molton,  eighty-six  miles,  beating  the  coach  which  runs  the  same  road. 

The  horses  which  are  still  used  in  Devonshire,  and  particularly  in  the  western 
and  southern  districts,  under  the  denomination  of  Pack-horses,  are  a  larger  variety 
of  the  Exmoor  or  Dartmoor  breed.  The  saddle-hoi-ses  of  Devonshire  are  mostly 
procured  from  the  more  eastern  counties. 

There  are  many  farms  in  that  beautiful  part  of  the  kingdom  on  which  there  is 
not  a  pair  of  wheeh.  Hay,  corn,  straw,  fuel,  stones,  dung,  lime,  are  carried  on 
horseback;  and  in  harvest,  sledges  drawn  by  oxen  and  horses,  are  used.  This  was 
probably  in  early  times  the  mode  of  conveyance  throughout  the  kingdom,  and  is 
continued  in  these  districts,  partly  from  the  hilliness  of  the  country,  and  more  from 
backwardness  in  all  matters  of  improvement.  Light  articles,  as  corn,  straw,  fag- 
gots, &c. ,  are  carried  in  crooks,  formed  of  willow  poles,  of  the  thickness  of  scythe- 
handles,  bent  as  ox-bows,  and  with  one  end  much  longer  than  the  other;  these  are 
joined  in  pairs  by  cross-bars,  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  long,  and  each  horse  has 
two  pair  of  them,  slung  together,  so  that  the  shorter  ends  lie  against  the  pack-sad- 
dle, and  the  longer  stand  four  or  five  feet  from  each  other,  and  rise  fifteen  or 
eighteen  inches  above  the  horse's  back.  Within  and  between  these  crooks  the 
load  is  piled.  Dung,  sand,  &c.,  are  carried  in  pols,  or  strong  coarse  panniers 
slung  together  in  the  same  way,  and  the  dung  ridged  up  over  the  saddle.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  pot  is  a  falling  door,  and  at  the  end  of  the  journey  the  trap  is  un- 
latched, and  the  load  falls  out. 

There  is  on  Dartmoor  a  race  of  ponies  much  in  request  in  that  vicinity,  being 
sure-footed,  and  hardy,  and  admirably  calculated  to  scramble  over  the  rough  roads 
and  dreary  wilds  of  that  mountainous  district.  The  Dartmoor  pony  is  larger  than 
the  Exmoor,  and,  if  possible,  uglier.  He  exists  there  almost  in  a  state  of  nature. 
The  late  Captain  Colgrave,  of  the  prison,  had  a  great  desire  to  possess  one  of 
-  them  of  somewhat  superior  figure  to  its  fellows,  and  having  several  men  to  assist 
'  him,  they  separated  it  from  the  herd.  They  drove  it  on  some  rocks  by  the  side 
of  a  tor,  (an  abrupt  pointed  hill;)  a  man  followed  on  horseback,  while  the  captain 
stood  below  watching  the  chase.  The  little  animal  being  driven  into  a  corner 
leaped  completely  over  the  man  and  horse,  and  escaped. 

The  Highland  Pony  is  far  inferior  to  the  galloway.  The  head  is  large,  he  is 
low  before,  long  in  the  back,  short  in  the  legs,  upright  in  the  pasterns,  rather 
slow  in  his  paces,  and  not  pleasant  to  ride,  except  in  the  canter.  His  habits  make 
him  hardy,  for  he  is  rarely  housed  in  the  summer  or  the  winter.  The  Reverend 
Mr.  Hall,  in  his  "Travels  in  Scotland,"  says  "that  when  these  animals  come  to 
any  boggy  piece  of  ground,  they  first  put  their  nose  to  it,  and  then  pat  on  it  in  a 
peculiar  way  with  one  of  their  fore-feet,  and  from  the  sound  and  feel  of  the 
ground,  they  know  whether  it  will  bear  them.  They  do  the  same  with  ice,  and 
determine  in  a  minute  whether  they  will  proceed." 

The  Shetland  Pony,  called  in  Scotlanil  Sheltie,  an  inhabitant  of  the  extremest 
northern  Scottish  isles,  is  a  very  diminutive  animal,  sometimes  not  seven  hands  and 
a  half  in  height,  and  rarely  exceeding  nine  and  a  half.  He  is  often  exceedingly 
beautiful,  with  a  small  head,  good-tempered  countenance,  a  short  neck,  fine  to- 
wards the  throttle,  shoulders  low  and  thick,  (in  so  little  a  creature  far  from  being 
a  blemish,)  back  short,  quarters  expanded  and  powerful,  legs  flat  and  fine,  and 
pretty  round  feet.  They  possess  immense  strength  for  their  size,  will  fatten  upon 
anytliing,  and  are  perfectly  docile.  One  of  them,  nine  hands  or  three  feet  in 
height,  carried  a  man  of  twelve  stone  forty  miles  in  one  day.  ^ 


THE  SHETLAND  PONY— IRISH  HORSE. 


4r 


Our  cut  is  the  portrait  of  a  Sheltie,  the  property  of  Lord  Verulam,  painted  by 
Mr.  Ward.  A  friend  of  ours  was,  not  long'  ag-o,  presented  with  one  of  these  ele- 
gant little  animals.  He  was  several  miles  from  home,  and  puzzled  how  to  convey 
his  newly-acquired  property.  The  Shetlander  was  scarcely  more  than  seven 
hands  high,  and  as  docile  as  he  was  beautifiil.  "Can  we  not  carry  him  in  your 
chaise?"  said  his  friend.  The  strange  experiment  was  tried.  The  Sheltie  was 
placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  gig,  and  covered  up  as  well  as  could  be  managed  with 
the  apron;  a  few  bits  of  bread  kept  him  quiet;  and  thus  he  was  safely  conveyed 
awuy,  and  exhibited  the  curious  spectacle  of  a  horse  riding  in  a  gig-. 

In  the  southern  parts  of  the  kingdom,  the  Shetlanders  have  a  very  pleasing  ap- 
pearance, harnessed  to  a  light  garden  chair,  or  carrying  an  almost  baby  rider. 
There  are  several  of  them  now  running  in  Windsor  Park. 

It  has  been  disputed  whether  the  pony  and  large  English  horse  were,  or  could 
be,  originally  from  the  same  stock.  The  question  is  difficult  to  answer.  It  is  not 
impossible  that  they  might  have  one  common  extraction,  and,  if  we  reflect  on  the 
effect  of  feeding,  it  is  not  so  improbable  as  it  may  at  first  appear. 

Mr.  Parkinson*  relates  a  circumstance  very  much  to  the  point,  tliat  fell  under 
his  observation.  His  father  had  a  mare  that  brought  him  no  less  than  fourteen 
colts,  and  aU  by  the  same  horse,  and  not  one  of  which  at  three  years  old  was  un- 
der seventeen  hands.  She  was  in  the  fifteenth  foal  by  the  same  horse,  when  he 
sold  her  to  a  neighboring  farmer,  reserving  the  foal  which  was  to  be  delivered  in  a 
twelve  month.  At  her  new  master's  she  was  comparatively  starved,  and  she  came 
back  at  the  expiration  of  the  year  so  altered  as  scarcely  to  be  recogiiized.  The 
foal,  four  months  old,  was  very  small.  The  little  animal  was  put  on  the  most  lux- 
uriant keep,  but  it  did  not  reach  more  than  fifteen  hands  at  the  expiration  of  the 
third  year. 

THE    IRISH    HORSE. 

In  some  of  the  rich  grazing  counties,  as  Meath  and  Roscommon,  a  large  long 
blood  horse  is  reared  of  considerable  value,  but  he  seldom  has  the  elegance  of  the 
English  horse;  he  is  larger  headed,  more  leggy,  ragged-hipped,  angular,  yet  with 
great  power  in  the  quarters,  much  depth  beneath  the  knee,  stout  and  hardy,  full 
of  fire  and  courage,  and  the  best  leaper  in  the  world. 

The  Irish  horse  is  generally  smaller  than  the  English.  He  is  stinted  in  his 
growth,  for  the  poverty  and  custom  of  the  country  have  imposed  upon  him  much 
hard  work  at  a  time  when  he  is  unfit  for  labor  of  any  kind.  For  this  reason,  too, 
the  Irish  horse  is  deficient  in  speed.  There  is,  however,  another  explanation  of 
this.  The  Irish  thorough-bred  horse  is  not  equal  to  the  English.  He  is  compa- 
ratively a  weedy,  leggy,  worthless  animal,  and  very  httle  of  liim  enters  into  the 
composition  of  the  hunter  or  the  hackney. 

For  leaping  the  Irish  horse  is  unrivalled.     It  is  not,  however,  the  leaping  of  the 

•  Parkinson  on  Breeding,  and  the  Management  of  Live  Stock,  vol.  ii.,  p.  139. 


48  THE  HORSE. 

English  horse,  striding'  as  it  were  over  a  low  fence,  and  stretched  at  his  full  length 
over  a  higher  one;  it  is  the  proper  jump  of  the  deer,  beautiful  to  look  at,  difficult 
to  sit,  and,  both  in  height  and  extent,  unequalled  by  the  English  horse. 

There  are  very  few  horses  in  the  agricultural  districts  of  Ireland  exclusively  de- 
voted to  draught.  The  minute  division  of  the  farms  renders  it  impossible  for  them 
to  be  kept.  The  occupier  even  of  a  tolerable  sized  Irish  farm  wants  a  horse  that 
shall  carry  him  to  market,  and  draw  his  small  car,  and  perform  every  kind  of 
di-udgery — a  horse  of  all  work;  therefore  tlie  thorough  draft  horse,  whether  Lei- 
cestershire or  Suffolk,  is  rarely  found. 

If  we  look  to  the  commerce  of  Ireland,  there  are  few  stage  wagons  or  drays 
with  immense  cattle  belonging  to  them,  but  almost  every  thing  is  done  by  one- 
horse  carts.  In  the  nortli  .of  Ireland  some  stout  horses  are  employed  in  the  car- 
riage of  linen,  but  the  majoi-ity  of  the  garrans  used  in  agricultural  or  commercial 
pursuits  are  miserable  and  half-starved  animals.  In  the  north  it  is  somewhat  bet- 
ter. There  is  a  native  breed  m  Ulster,  hardy  and  sure-footed,  but  with  httle  pre- 
tension to  beauty  or  speed. 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE   ZOOLOGICAL    CLASSIFICATION    OF    THE    HORSE. 

There  are  so  many  thousand  species  of  living  beings,  some  so  much  resembling 
each  other,  and  some  so  strangely  and  altogether  different,  that  it  would  have 
been  impossible  to  have  arranged  them  in  any  order,  or  to  have  given  any 
description  that  could  be  understood,  had  not  naturalists  agreed  on  certain  pecu- 
liarities of  form  which  should  characterize  certain  classes,  and  other  lesser  pecu- 
liai-ities  again  subdividing  these  classes. 

The  first  division  of  animals  is  into  vertehraied  and  invertebrated. 

Vertebrated  animals  are  tliose  which  have  a  cranium,  or  bony  cavity  containing 
the  brain,  and  a  succession  of  bones  called  the  spine,  and  the  division  of  it,  verte- 
brae, proceeding  from  the  cranium,  and  containing  a  prolongation  of  the  brain, 
denominated  the  spinal  marrow. 

Invertebrated  animals  are  those  which  have  no  vertebrx. 

The  horse  then  belongs  to  the  division  vertebrated,  because  he  has  a  cranium 
or  skull,  and  a  spine  or  range  of  vertebrae  proceeding  from  it. 

The  vetebrated  animals,  however,  are  very  numerous.  They  include  man, 
quadrupeds  of  all  kinds,  bia-ds,  fishes,  and  many  reptiles.  We  look  out,  then,  for 
some  subdivision,  and  a  very  simple  hne  of  distinction  is  soon  presented.  Some 
of  these  vertebrated  animals  have  mamnise  or  teats,  with  which  the  females  suckle 
their  young.  The  human  female  has  two,  the  mare  has  two,  the  cow  four;  the 
bitch  ten  or  twelve,  and  Hie  sow  more  than  twelve. 
*  This  class  of  vertebrated  animals,  having  mammse  or  teats,  is  called  mammalia^ 
and  the  hoi-se  belongs  to  the  division  vertebrata,  and  the  class  mammalia. 

The  class  mammalia  is  still  exceedingly  large,  and  we  must  again  subdivide  it. 
It  is  stated  (Library  of  Entertaining  Knowledge,  vol.  I.,  p.  13)  that  "  this  class  of 
quadrupeds,  or  mammiferous  quadrupeds,  admits  of  a  division  into  two  tribes. 

"  I.  Those  whose  extremities  are  divided  into  fingers  or  toes,  scientifically  called 
unguiculata,  from  the  Latin  word  for  nail;  and  II.  Those  whose  extremities  are 
hoofed,  scientifically  called  ungulata,  from  the  Latin  word  for  hoof. 

"  The  extremities  of  the  first  are  armed  with  claws  or  naUs,  which  enable  them 
to  grasp,  to  chmb,  or  to  burrow.     The  extremities  of  the  second  tribe  are  em-% 
ployed  merely  to  support  and  move  the  body." 

The  extremities  of  the  horse  are  covered  with  a  hoof,  by  which  the  body  is  sup- 
ported, and  with  which  he  cannot  gi-asp  anything,  and  therefore  he  belongs  to  the 
tribe  ungulata,  or  hoofed. 

But  there  is  a  great  variety  of  hoofed  animals.  The  elephant,  the  rhinoceros, 
the  hippopotamus,  the  swine,  the  horse,  the  sheep,  the  deer,  and  many  others, 
are  ungulated  or  hoofed;  they  admit,  however,  of  an  easy  division.  Some  of  them 
masticate  or  chew  theii-  food,  and  it  is  immediately  received  hito  the  stomach  and 
digested;  but  in  others  the  food,  previous  to  digestion,  undergoes  a  very  singular 
process.  It  is  returned  to  the  mouth  to  be  re-masticated,  or  chewed  again.  These 
are  called  ruminantia,  or  rutninants,  from  the  food  being  returned,  from  one  ot 
the  stomachs  (for  they  have  four)  called  the  rumen  or  paunch,  to  be  chewed  agjun. 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE-  49 

The  ungulaia  that  do  not  ruminate  are  somewhat  improperly  called  ]}ackyder' 
mata,  from  the  tliickness  of  their  skins.  The  horse  does  not  ruminate,  aivJ  there- 
fore belongs  to  the  order  pachydermata. 

The  pachydermata  who  have  only  one  toe  belong  to  the  family  soUpeda — single- 
footed.  Therefore  tlie  horse  ranks  imder  the  division  vertebrata;  tlie  class  mam- 
malia— the  tribe  ungulaia — the  order  pachydermata — and  the  family  solipeda. 

Tlie  solipeda  consists  of  several  species,  as  the  horse,  tlie  ass,  the  mule,  and  the 
quagga. 

First  stands  the  Eftuus  Caballus,  or  Commox  Horse. 

Animals  are  likewise  distinguished  according  to  the  number,  description,  and 
situation  of  their  teeth.  The  hoise  has  six  incisors,  or  cutting  teeth,  in  the  front  of 
each  jaw;  and  one  canine  tooth  or  tusk. 

On  each  side,  above  and  below,  and  at  some  distance  from  the  incisors,  behind 
the  canines,  and  with  some  intervening  space,  are  six  molar  teeth,  or  grinders;  and 
these  molar  teeth  liave  flat  crowns  with  ridges  of  enamel,  and  that  enamel  pene- 
trating into  the  substance  of  the  tootli. 

The  whole  is  thus  represented  by  natural  historians,  and  the  reader  will  com- 
prehend our  meaning  when  we  are  speaking  of  other  animals. 
6  1—1  6—6 

Hoi'se. — Incisors  — ,    Canines ,    Molai- ,     Total,  40  teeth, 

6  1—1  6—6 


CHAPTER    VI. 

THE    EXTERNAL    STRUCTURE    OF    THE    HORSE. 


A     The  head. 

a      The  posterioi-  maxillary  or  under  jaw. 

b      The   superior  maxillary  or  upper  jaw.     Opposite  to  the  letter  is  a  foramen 

through  which  pass  the  nerves  and  blood-vessels  which  chiefly  supplv  the 

lower  part  of  the  face. 
7 


50  THE  HORSE. 

c     The  orbit,  or  cavity  containing  the  eye. 

d     The  nasal  bones,  oi-  bones  of  the  nose. 

e     The  suture  dividing  the  parietal  bones  below,  from  the  occipital  bones  above. 

/     The  inferior  maxillary  bone  containing  the  upper  incisor  teeth. 

B     The  seven  cervical  vertebrae,  or  bones  of  the  neck. 

C     The  eighteen  dorsal  vertebree,  or  bones  of  the  back. 

D    The  six  lumbar  vertebra,  or  bones  of  the  loins. 

E     The  five  sacral  vertebrae,  or  bones  of  the  haunch. 

F     The  caudal  vertebrs,  or  bones  of  the  tail,  generally  about  fifteen. 

G     The  scapula,  or  shoulderblade. 

H     The  sternum  or  fore-part  of  the  chest. 

I  The  costs  or  ribs,  seven  or  eight  articulating  with  the  sternum,  and  called 
the  true  ribs,  and  ten  or  eleven  united  together  by  cartilage,  called  the  fake 
ribs. 

J      The  humerus,  or  bone  of  the  arm. 

K     The  radius,  or  bone  of  the  fore-arm. 

L     The  ulna,  or  elbow.     The  point  of  the  elbow  is  called  the  olecranon. 

M    The  carpus,  or  knee,  consisting  of  seven  bones. 

N  The  metacarpal  bones.  The  larger  metacarpal,  or  cannon,  or  shank,  in  front, 
and  the  smaller  metacarpal  or  splent  bone  behind. 

g  The  fore  pastern  and  foot,  consisting  of  the  os  suffraginis,  or  the  upper  and 
larger  pastern  bone,  with  the  sessamoid  bones  behind,  articulating  with  the 
cannon  and  greater  pastern;  the  os  coronae,  or  lesser  pastern;  the  os  pedis, 
or  coffin  bone;  and  line  os  naviculare,  or  navicular,  or  shuttle-bone,  not  seen, 
and  articulating  with  the  smaller  pastern  and  coffin  bones. 

A      The  corresponding  bones  of  the  hind-feet. 

O     The  haunch,  consisting  of  thi-ee  portions,  the  ilium,  the  ischium,  and  the  pubis. 

P     The  temur  or  thigh. 

Q     The  side  joint  with  the  patella. 

R     The  tibia  or  proper  leg  bone — behind  is  a  small  bone  called  the  fibula. 

S  The  tarsus  or  hock,  composed  of  six  bones.  The  prominent  part  is  the  os 
calcis,  or  point  of  the  hock. 

T     The  metatarsals  of  the  liind  leg. 


Beautiful  is  the  horse,  and  identified  so  much  with  our  pleasure  and  our  profit, 
he  has  been  the  object  of  almost  universal  regard;  and  there  are  few  persons  who 
do  sot  pretend  to  be  somewhat  competent  judges  of  his  form,  qualities,  and  worth. 
From  he  nobleman,  with  his  numerous  and  valuable  stud,  to  the  meanest  helper 
in  the  stable,  and  not  excluding  even  the  mechanic  who  scarcely  crosses,  or  sits 
behind  a  horse  once  in  a  twelvemonth,  there  is  scarcely  a  man  who  would  not  be 
offended  if  he  were  thought  altogether  ignorant  of  horse-flesh.  There  is  no  sub- 
iect  on  which  he  is  so  positive,  there  is  no  subject  on  which,  generally  speaking, 
he  is  so  deficient,  and  there  are  few  horses  on  some  points  of  wluch  these  pre- 
tended and  self  sufficient  judges  would  not  give  a  totally  opposite  opinion. 

The  truth  is,  that  this  supposed  knowledge  is  rarely  founded  on  principle— or 
is  the  result  of  the  slightest  acquaintance  with  the  actual  structure  of  this  animal, 
or  that  form  and  connexion  of  parts  on  which  strength,  or  fleetness,  or  stoutness, 
must  necessarily  depend.  If  we  were  constructing  or  examining  a  machine  com- 
posed of  levers  and  pullies,  and  by  which  we  purposed  to  raise  a  gi-eat  weight,  or 
to  set  in  motion  certain  bodies  with  a  given  velocity,  we  should  fail  m  oy  object, 
or  expose  our  ignorance  of  the  matter,  if  we  were  not  aware  what  kind  of  lever  or 
connexion  of  levers  was  necessary,  and  in  what  situation  the  ropes  should  be 
placed  and  in  what  dii-ection  the  force  should  be  applied,  and  by  what  means  we 
could  obtain  mechanical  advantage,  and  by  what  pecuhar  construction  it  would 

inevitably  be  lost.  „    ,      ,  ,    •      «  •  ^      r 

Now  the  structure  of  the  horse,  hke  that  of  the  human  being,*  consists  of 
numerous  levers  in  the  shape  of  bones,  with  ropes  attached  to  them  in  the  form 
of  muscles  and  tendons,  and  these  levers  are  differently  connected  and  act  in  dit- 
ferent  directions;  and  he  will  be  the  best  judge  of  horses  who,  while  he  has  loved, 

*  See  Treatise  on  "  Animal  Mechanism." 


EXTERNAL    STRUCTURE.  51 

and  lived  among  them,  is  somewhat  acquainted  witli  the  circumstances  in  which 
mechanical  power  is  gained  or  lost. 

In  speaking  then  of  the  structure  of  this  animal,  and  the  points  which  guide  the 
opinion  of  real  judges  of  him,  we  shall,  as  briefly  and  as  simply  as  we  are  able, 
explain  those  fundamental  principles  on  which  his  usefulness  and  beauty  must  de- 
pend. We  require  one  kind  of  horse  for  slow  and  heavy  draught,  and  another 
for  lighter  and  quicker  work:  one  as  a  pleasant  and  safe  roadster;  another  with  more 
speed  and  equal  continuance  as  a  hunter;  and  another  still  is  wanted  for  the  race- 
course. What  is  the  peculiarity  of  structure— what  are  the  particular  points  that 
will  fit  each  for  his  proper  business,  and,  to  a  certain  degi-ee,  unfit  him  for  every- 
thing else?  The  farmer  will  require  a  horse  of  all-work,  that  can  carry  him  to 
market  and  take  him  round  his  farm,  on  which  he  can  occasionally  ride  for  plea- 
sure, and  which  he  must  sometimes  degrade  to  the  dung-cart  or  the  harrow. 
What  combination  of  powers  will  enable  the  animal  to  discharge  most  of  these 
duties  well,  and  all  of  them  to  a  certain  extent  profitably? 

Much  time  spent  among  horses,  an  acquired  love  of  them,  and  a  little,  some- 
times possibly,  too  dearly-bought  experience,  may  give  the  agriculturist  some  in- 
sight into  these  matters.  We  will  try  whether  we  cannot  assist  him  in  this  affair; 
whether  we  cannot  explain  to  him  the  reason  why  certain  points  must  be  good, 
and  why  a  horse  without  them  must,  of  necessity,  be  good  for  nothing.  Perhaps 
some  useful  rules  may  thus  be  more  deeply  impressed  upon  his  memory;  or  some 
common  but  dangerous  prejudices  may  be  discarded,  and  a  considerable  degree 
of  error,  disappointment,  and  expense,  avoided. 

It  is  first  of  all  necessary  to  give  a  sketch  of  the  anatomy  of  the  horse,  in  which 
we  shall  endeavor  to  elucidate  those  numerous  and  beautiful  instances  of  wise  and 
benevolent  design,  exhibited  in  the  structure  of  this  valuable  animal,  and  which 
will  render  our  study  of  liim  more  interesting;  while  many  a  hint  of  practical  utility 
will  be  gained. 

If  we  treat  of  this  at  considerable  length,  let  It  be  remembered  that  the  horse 
is  our  noblest  servant,  and  that,  in  describing  the  structure  and  economy  of  his 
frame,  we  are,  in  a  great  measure,  describing  that  of  other  domestic  quadrupeds, 
and  shall  hereafter  have  to  speak  only  of  points  of  difference  required  by  the  dif- 
ferent services  and  uses  for  which  they  were  destined.  And  further,  let  it  be  re- 
membered that  it  is  only  by  being  well  acquainted  with  the  structure  and  anatomy 
of  the  horse  that  we  can  appreciate  his  shape  and  uses,  or  understand  the  differ- 
ent diseases  to  which  he  is  liable.  We  trust  the  reader  who  may  fimcy  us  rather 
prolix  on  this  head  will,  before  the  work  is  finished,  feel  the  full  value  of  what 
we  purpose  to  explain.  It  is  from  want  of  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the  horse 
that  much  of  the  mass  of  ignorance  and  prejudice  which  exists,  as  to  the  diseases, 
&c.,  to  which  the  horse  is  subject,  is  to  be  referred;  and  we  deem  it  one  of  the 
most  important  objects  of  tliis  treatise  to  reform  this  ignorance,  and  remove  these 
prejudices. 

It  will  be  proper  here,  once  for  all,  to  caution  the  reader,  who  has  hitherto 
been  unaccustomed  to  i-eading  books  of  science,  against  being  deterred  by  the 
sight  of  a  few  of  what  are  termed  hard  names.  The  fact  is,  that  science  must 
have,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  new  language  to  express  minutely  and  accurately  the 
particular  parts  of  things  to  be  described;  and  this  is  the  case  with  every  trade  and 
every  art.  A  carpenter  could  not  without  this  describe  with  precision  and  clear- 
ness the  different  tools  in  use,  nor  could  he  describe  the  different  operations  to 
be  pei'formed,  without  inventing  a  particular  language  adapted  to  his  purpose, 
and  whereby  he  is  enabled  to  express  in  one  word  what  would  otherwise  only  be 
accomplished  by  a  long  sentence.  It  is  the  same  with  anatomy,  except  that  the 
names  and  signs  have  principally  been  adopted  from  the  Latin  and  Greek,  inas- 
much as  those  languages  are  usually  known  to  scientific  men  in  all  countries. 
This  new  language  becomes  one  common  to  all  men  pursuing  the  same  science. 
We  shall  as  we  go  on  explain  the  meaning  of  the  words  so  adopted,  and  a  very 
little  attention  will  enable  the  reader  to  master  them,  and  it  will  require  little 
thought  to  be  convinced  of  the  advantage,  in  respect  of  clearness  and  ^certainty, 
derived  fi-om  then-  use. 

We  begin  with  the  head,  containing  the  brain  and  the  most  important  organs  of 
sense. 

The  head  may  be  divided  into  two  parts,  the  skull  and  the  face.  The  bones 
which  compose  the  skull  or  cranium,  and  which  contain  and  protect  the  brain,  are 
mne  in  number:  two  frontal,  a  a — two  parietal,  c  c — two  temporal,  d  d — the  occi- 


53 


THE  HORSE. 


pital,  g— the  ethmoid,  antt  the  sphenoid.  The  two  latter  lie  principally  at  tlie 
base  of  the  skull,  and  are  not  seen  in  this  cut,  but  will  be  found  delineated  in 
figures  k  and  /,  page  53,  These  nine  bones  are  separate  in  the  foal  at  an  early 
period  of  its  existence;  but  soon  after  the  birth  they  are  firmly  united  together  by 
what  anatomists  call  sutures,  and  so  firm  is  the  union  that  a  fracture  will  occur  in 
any  other  part  more  readily  than  over  a  suture. 

a  a  The  frontal  bones,  or  bones  of  the  forehead. 

b  b  The  snpra-orbital  foramina,  or  holes  above  the  or- 
bit, through  which  pass  out  the  nerves  and 
blood-vessels  supplying  the  forehead.  The 
small  hole  beneath  (of  M'hich  in  many  horses 
there  are  several)  receives  vessels  which  dip 
into  and  supply  the  bone. 

c  c  The  parietal  bones,  or  walls  of  the  skull. 

dd  The  temporal  bones,  or  bones  of  the  temples. 

e  e  The  zygomatic,  or  yoke-shaped  arcli. 

//  The  temporal  fossa,  or  pit  above  the  eye. 

gg  The  occipital  bone,  or  bone  of  the  hinder  part  of 
the  head. 

h  h  The  orbits,  containing  and  defending  the  eye. 

t  t  The  lachrymal  bones,  or  tear  bones, 

j  j  The  nasal  bones,  or  bones  of  the  nose. 

k  k  The  malar,  or  cheek  bones. 

/  /  The  superior  maxillary,  or  that  portion  of  the  up» 
per  jaw  containing  the  molar  teeth  or  grinders. 

m  m  The  infra-orbital  foi-amen,  a  hole  below  the  orbit, 
through  which  pass  branches  of  nerves  and  blood- 
vessels to  supply  the  lower  part  of  the  face. 

n  n  The  inferior  maxillary,  the  lower  part  of  the  upr 
per  jaw  bone,  a  separate  bone  in  quadrupeds, 
containing  the  incisor  or  cutting  teeth,  and  the 
upper  tushes  at  the  point  of  union  between  the 
superior  and  inferior  maxillaries. 

e      The  upper  incisor,  or  cutting  teeth. 

p  The  openings  into  the  nose,  with  the  bones  form- 
ing the  roof  of  tl^e  palate. 

There  is  an  evident  intention  in  this  division  of  the 
head  into  so  many  bones.  When  the  foetus — the  un- 
born foal — first  begins  to  have  life,  that  which  after- 
wards becomes  bone,  is  a  mere  jelly-like  substance; 
this  is  gradually  changed  into  a  harder  material — car- 
tilage; and,  before  the  birth  of  the  animal,  much  of 
the  cartilage  is  taken  away  by  vessels  called  absorb- 
ents, and  bone  deposited  in  its  stead.  In  flat  bones, 
like  those  of  the  head,  this  deposite  takes  place  in  the 
centre,  and  rays  or  radiations  of  bone  extend  thence 
in  every  direction.  Then,  by  having  so  many  bones, 
there  are  so  many  centres  of  radiation;  and,  conse- 
quently, the  formation  of  bone  is  earned  on  so  much 
the  more  rapidly,  and  perfected  at  the  time  when  the 
necessities  of  the  animal  require  it.  At  the  period  of 
bii'th,  however,  this  process  is  not  completed,  but  the 
edges  of  the  bones  remain  somewhat  soft  and  pliant, 
and,  therefore,  in  partiu'ition,  they  yield  a  little  and 
overlap  each  othei*,  and  thus,  by  rendering  the  birth 
more  easy,  they  save  the  mother  much  pain,  and  con- 
tribute to  the  safety  of  the  foal.  Without  a  change 
in  the  form  of  the  head,  from  a  compression  and  yield- 
ing of  the  bone  of  which  it  is  composed,  the  animal 
could  not  be  born. 

The  first  of  these  bones,  or  the  first  pair  of  them, 
occupying  the  broad  expanse  of  the  forehead,  are 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE. 


53 


called  the  frontal  bones,  a  a.  They  are  united  together  by  a  most  curious  and  in- 
tricate dove-tailijig',  to  defend  from  injury  the  brain  which  lies  beneath  tlie  upper 
part  of  them.  Lower  down,  and  where  the  cavity  of  the  nose  is  to  be  defended, 
their  union  is  sufficient,  but  far  less  complicated.  The  mechanism  is  here,  as  in 
every  part  of  the  frame,  and  every  part  of  the  universe,  wisely  adjusted  to  tlie 
necessities  and  wants  of  the  animal. 

Few  thing's  more  clearly  indicate  the  breed  or  blood  of  the  horse  than  the  form 
of  the  frontal  bones.  Who  has  not  remarked  the  broad  angular  forehead  of  the 
blood  horse,  giving  him  that  beautiful  expression  of  intelligence  and  fire,  and  the 
face  gradually  tapering  from  the  foi*ehead  to  the  muzzle;  and  then  compared  it 
with  the  lai'ge  face  of  the  cart  or  dray-horse,  and  the  forehead  scarcely  wider  than 
the  face? 

A.tf,  between  the  frontal  bones,  is  the  pit  or  cavity  above  the  eye,  and  by  the 
depth  of  which  we  form  some  idea  of  the  age  of  the  horse.  There  is  placed  at 
the  back  of  the  eye,  a  considerable  quantity  of  fatty  substance,  on  which  the  eye 
may  revolve  easily  and  without  friction.  In  aged  horses,  and  in  diseases  attended 
•with  general  loss  of  condition,  much  of  this  fat  disappears;  the  eye  becomes  sunken, 
and  the  pit  above  the  eye  deepens.  It  is  said  that  some  of  the  lower  class  of 
horse-dealers  puncture  the  skin,  and,  with  a  tobacco  pipe  or  small  tube,  blow  into 
the  orifice  until  the  depression  is  almost  filled  up.  This  operation  is  vulgarly 
called  puffing  ihe  glims,  and,  with  the  aid  of  a  bishopped  tooth,  will  give  a  false 
appearance  of  youth,  that  will  remain  during  many  hours,  and  may  deceive  the 
unwar}',  though  the  puffing  may  easily  be  detected  by  pressing  on  the  part. 
'  These  bones,  however,  are  not  solid,  but  a  considerable  portion  of  them  is  com- 
posed of  two  plates  receding  from  each  other,  and  leaving  numerous  and  large 
vacuities  or  cells.  These  vacuities  are  called  the  frontal  sinuses.  They  commu- 
nicate with  the  cavities  of  the  nose,  and  likewise  with  those  of  the  sphenoid,  etli- 
moid,  and  upper  jaw  bones,  and  like  the  windings  of  a  French  horn,  increase  the 
clearness  and  loudness  of  the  neigliing.  They  are  sufficiently  evident  at  b  in  the 
following  cut. 

SECTION  OF  THE  HEAD. 


a    The  nasal  bone,  or  bone  of  the  nose. 

b    The  frontal  bone.     The  cavities  or  cells  beneath  are  called  the  frontal  sniuses. 


54  THE  HORSE. 

c     Tlie  crest  or  ridge  of  the  parietal  bones. 

d    Tlie  tentorium,  or  bony  separation  between  the  cerebi-um  and  cerebellum 

e     The  occipital  bone. 

f    The  ligament  of  the  neck  or  pack-wax,  by  which  the  head  is  chiefly  supported, 

fThe  atlas,  sustaining  or  carrying,  or  first  bone  of  tlie  neck. 
The  dentata,  tooth-like,  or  second  bone  of  the  neck. 
t     The  cuneiform,  or  wedge-shaped  process,  or  base  of  the  occipital  bone.     Be- 
tween it  and  the  other  portion  of  the  occipital  bone  e,  lies  the  great  fora- 
men or  aperture  throug-li  wliich  the  prolongation  of  the  brain — the  spinal 
maiTOw — issues  from  the  skull. 
k     The  sphenoid,  wedge-like,  bone  with  its  cavities. 
/     The  ethmoid,  sieve-like,  bone  with  its  cells. 

m  The  cerebrum,  or  brain,  with  the  appearance  of  its  cortical  and  medullary 
substance. 
The  cerebellum,  or  little  brain,  with  its  beautiful  arborescent  appearance. 

0  A  portion  of  the  central  medullary,  marrow-like,  substance  of  the  brain,  and 

the  prolongation  of  it  under  the  name  of  the  crus  cerebri,  leg  of  the  brain, 
and  from  which  many  of  the  ner^■es  take  their  origin. 

p  The  medidla  oblongata — the  prolongation  of  the  brain  after  the  medullary  sub- 
stance of  the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum  have  united,  and  forming  the  com- 
mencement of  the  spinal  marrow.  The  columnar  appearance  of  this  portion 
of  the  brain  is  represented,  and  the  origins  of  the  respiratory  nerves. 

q  The  spinal  maiTow  extending  through  a  canal  in  the  centre  of  the  bones  of  the 
neck,  back,  and  loins,  to  the  extremities  of  the  tail,  and  from  which  the 
nerves  of  feeling  and  of  motion,  that  supply  every  part  of  tlie  frame,  except 
tlie  head,  ai-ise. 

r     The  septum  narium,  or  cartilaginous  division  between  the  nostrils. 

a  The  same  cut  off  at  the  lower  part,  to  show  the  spongy  turbinated,  turban' 
shaped,  bones,  filling  tlie  cavity  of  the  nostrU. 

t     The  palate. 

u     The  molar  teeth,  or  grinders. 

V  The  inferior  maxillary  bone,  containing  the  incisor  teeth  or  nippers.  The 
canine  tooth,  or  tush,  is  concealed  by  the  tongue. 

to    The  posterior  maxillary,  or  lower  jaw,  with  its  incisors. 

X    The  lips. 

y     The  tongue. 

z     A  portion  of  the  os  hyoldes,  or  bone  of  the  tongue,  like  a  Greek  u,  v. 

1  The  thyroid,  helmet-shaped,  cartilage,  enclosing  and  shielding  the  neighboring 

parts. 

2  The  epiglottis,  or  covering  of  the  glottis,  or  aperture  of  the  wind-pipe. 

3  The  arytenoid,  funnel-shaped,  cartilages,  having  between  them  the  apertui'e 

leading  into  the  trachea  or  wind-pipe. 

4  One  of  the  chordae  vocales,  cords  or  ligaments  concerned  in  the  formation  of 

the  voice. 

5  The  sacculus  laryngls,  sac  or  ventricle  of  the  larynx,  throat,  to  modulate  the 

voice. 

6  The  trachea  or  wind-pipe,  with  its  different  rings. 

7  The  soft  palate  at  the  back  of  the  mouth,  so  constructed  as  almost  to  prevent 

the  possibility  of  vomiting. 

8  The  opening  from  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  into  the  nostril. 

9  The  cartilage  covering  tlie  entrance  into  the  eustachian  tube,  or  communica- 

tion between  the  mouth  and  internal  part  of  the  ear. 

10  The  oesophagus,  or  gullet. 

11  The  cricoid,  ri^iglike,  cartilage,  below  and  behind  the  thyroid. 

12  Muscle  of  the  neck,  covered  by  the  membrane  of  the  back  part  of  the  mouth. 

In  tlie  sheep,  and  occasionally  in  the  ox,  rarely  in  the  horse,  the  larvs  of  mag- 
gots produced  by  certain  species  of  flies,  crawl  up  the  nose,  lodge  tliemselves  in 
these  sinuses,  and  produce  Intolerable  pain. 

Veterinary  siu-geons  have  availed  themselves  of  these  sinuses,  to  detect  the  exis- 
tence of  glanders,  that  disease  so  infectious  and  so  fatal.  They  may  suspect  that 
a  horse  respecting  which  they  are  consulted  is  glandered.  It  is  of  gi-cat  conse- 
quence to  be  sure  about  It.  The  safety  of  the  whole  team  may  depend  upon  this. 
It  may  be  a  puzzling  case.     There  may  be  no  ulceration  of  the  nose  wltiiin  sight. 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE.  55 

The  glands  under  the  jaw  may  not  be  close  to,  and  seemingly  sticking  to  the 
bone,  which  is  a  common  symptom,  yet  for  a  considerable  time  there  may  have 
been  a  discharge  from  the  nostril,  and  the  horse  is  out  of  condition.  On  the  other 
hand,  some  slight  ulceration  may  be  detected  in  the  nostril,  but  the  horse  eats 
well,  works  well,  and  is  in  good  plight.  From  the  closest  examination  of  the  ani- 
mal, no  horseman,  and  no  veterinary  surgeon,  can  give  a  decided  opinion. 

If,  however,  the  horse  be  glandered,  there  will  probably  be  considerable  ulcer- 
ation in  the  upper  part  of  the  cavity  of  the  nose,  and  a  collection  of  matter  there. 
To  detect  this  tlie  veterinaiy  surgeon  sometimes  makes  an  opening  into  these 
sinuses.  He  may  do  this  with  perfect  safety.  On  that  part  of  the  frontal  bone, 
which  lies  between  the  eye  and  the  pit  above  it,  and  above  the  inner  corner  of  the 
eye,  there  is,  on  either  side,  a  small  depression  or  hole  (see  fig.  b  b,  cut,  page  52) 
which  may  be  easily  felt  in  the  living  horse.  It  is  what  anatomists  call  a  foramen — 
the  supra-orbital  foramen.  It  gives  passage  to  the  blood-vessels  and  nerves  of  the 
forehead. 

Suppose  a  line  to  be  drawn  across  the  forehead,  from  one  of  these  depressions 
to  the  other;  on  that  line,  and  about  half  an  inch  from  tlie  centre  of  it,  either  on 
the  one  side  or  the  other,  the  frontal  sinuses  will  be  found  an  inch  in  depth,  (com- 
pare fig.  b,  pp.  52  and  5.3.)  There  a  perforation  may  be  easily  and  safely  made. 
A  little  way  above,  the  brain  would  be  endangered,  and  a  little  below  this  line, 
the  cavity  of  the  nose  would  be  pierced.  Some  warm  water  may  then  be  thrown 
into  this  hole,  with  a  common  squii't,  and  it  will  run  out  at  the  nose.  If  there  be 
matter  in  the  frontal  sinuses,  or  any  part  of  the  cavity  of  the  nose,  it  will  appear 
mixed  with  the  water,  and  the  owner  may  be  assured  tliat  the  horse  is  glandered; 
but  if  the  water  flow  uncolored,  or  simply  mixed  with  blood  or  mucus,  the  horse 
may  be  considered  as  free  from  this  disease.  The  thicky  creamy  consistence  of 
pus,  its  sinking  in  water,  and  its  capability  of  being  perfectly,  although  not  readily 
mixed  with  water,  will  distinguish  it  sufficiently  from  the  natural  running  of  the 
nose,  which  is  ropy,  lighter  than  water,  and  when  mixed  with  it  still  preserves  a 
kind  of  sti'inginess.  And  tliis  is  one  of  the  surest  modes  of  distinguishing  between 
the  matter  and  the  natural  running  of  tlie  nose. 

The  inner  plate  of  the  frontal  bone  forms  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  roof 
of  the  cavity  which  contains  the  brain,  (w  in  the  last  cut.)  The  bones  immediately 
above  tlie  frontal,  and  extending  from  the  frontal  to  the  poll,  are  called  the  pari- 
etals,  (c  c,  pp.  52  and  53,)  from  the  Latin  word  paries,  a  wall.  They  are  two, 
united  together  by  a  suture  when  the  animal  is  young,  but  that  suture  soon  be- 
coming obliterated.  They  have  the  occipital,, g,  p.  52,  above  the  frontals,  a  a, 
below,  and  the  iemporak,  d  d,  on  either  side.  They  are  of  a  closer  and  harder 
texture  than  the  frontals,  because  they  are  more  exposed  to  injury,  and  more  con- 
cerned in  defending  the  brain. 

A  very  small  portion  only  of  the  parietals  is  naked,  and  that  is  composed  of  bone 
even  harder  than  the  other  part,  and  with  an  additional  la}'er  of  bone  rising  in  the 
form  of  a  crest  or  ridge  externally.  Every  other  pai-t  of  these  bones  is  covered 
by  a  tliick  mass  of  muscle,  the  temporal  muscle,  which  is  principally  concerned  in 
chewing  the  food,  but  which  likewise,  by  its  yielding  resistance,  speedily  and  ef- 
fectually breaks  the  force  of  the  most  violent  stroke.  A  blow  on  the  calf  of  tlie 
leg  is  comparatively  disregarded,  while  one,  half  as  heavy,  received  on  the  shin, 
gives  excessive  pain.  A  wool-pack  hung  over  the  wall  of  a  fortress,  when  the 
enemy  is  battering  to  effect  a  breach,  renders  the  heaviest  artillery  almost  harm- 
less. So  the  yielding  resistance  of  the  temporal  muscle  affords  a  sure  defence  to 
the  brain,  however  sudden  or  violent  may  be  the  blow  which  falls  on  the  parietal. 
These  benevolent  provisions  will  not  be  disregarded  by  the  reflecting  mind. 

On  the  side  of  the  head,  and  under  the  parietals,  are  placed  (c?  d,  p.  52)  the 
temporal  bones,  one  on  each  side.  These  again  are  divided  into  two  parts,  or  con- 
sist of  two  distinct  bones;  the  petrous  portion,  so  called  from  its  great  or  stony 
liardness,  and  containing  the  wonderful  mechanism  of  the  ear,  and  the  squamous 
portion  from  the  appearance  of  its  union  with  the  parietal,  overlapping  it  like  a 
gi'eat  scale. 

From  the  latter  there  projects  a  portion  of  bone,  e,  which  unites  with  the  fron- 
tal, and  forms  a  strong  arch  distinctly  to  be  felt  at  the  side  of  tlie  head  immediately 
above  the  eye.  This  arch  is  designed  to  protect  the  upper  part  of  the  lower  jaw, 
the  motion  of  which  may  very  plainly  be  seen  beneath  it  when  the  horse  is  eating. 
It  is  very  strong,  and  it  ought  to  be,  lest  the  motion  should  by  accident  be  imped- 
ed, and  the  horse  should  starve.     If  only  one  species  of  violence  were  considered 


56  THE  HORSE. 

to  which  this  arch  is  too  frequently  exposed,  it  would  require  to  possess  no  com- 
mon strength;  we  mean  the  brutal  manner  in  which  the  collar  is  forced  over  the 
head.  At  the  base  of  the  arch  is  an  important  cavity  not  visible  in  our  cut,  re- 
ceiving into  it,  and  forming  a  joint  with  the  head  of  the  lower  jaw — we  shall  have 
to  speak  of  it  presently. 

Having  reached  the  base  of  the  temporal  bone,  we  find  it  united  to  the  parietal, 
not  by  a  simple  suture,  as  the  lower  part  of  the  frontals,  or  the  bones  of  the  nose, 
(see  fig.  a  and  j,  p.  52,)  nor  by  a  dove-tailed  suture,  as  the  upper  part  of  the 
frontals,  (see  the  same  cut,)  but  it  is  spread  over  the  parietal  in  the  form  of  a  large 
scale,  and  hence,  as  before  observed,  called  the  squamous  portion  of  the  temporal 
bone.  In  fact,  there  are  two  plates  of  bone  instead  of  one.  Was  there  design  in 
this?  Yes,  evidently  so.  In  the  first  place,  to  increase  the  strength  of  tlie  base 
of  the  zygomatic  arch.  This  extensive  union  between  the  temporal  and  parietal 
bones  answers  to  the  buttress  or  mass  of  masonry  attached  to  the  base  of  every 
aich  to  counteract  its  lateral  pressure.  The  concussion  likewise  which  might  be 
communicated  by  a  blow  on  the  top  of  the  arch,  is  thus  spread  over  a  large  sur- 
face, and  consequently  weakened  and  rendered  comparatively  harmless;  and  that 
surface  is  composed  of  the  union  of  two  bones  of  dissimilar  construction.  The 
hard  stony  structure  of  the  pai'ietal  is  very  different  from  the  tougher  material  of 
the  temporal;  and  thus,  as  a  finger  acts  on  a  sounding  glass,  the  vibration  commu- 
nicated to  the  temporal  is  at  once  stopped,  and  the  brain  receives  no  injury. 

But  there  is  yet  more  admirable  design.  Where  is  this  squamous  portion  of  the 
temporal  bone  situated?  On  the  side  of  the  head.  And  what  is  the  figure  of  the 
cranium  or  skull,  and  principally  that  part  of  it  which  contains  the  cerebrum  or 
brain?  It  is  an  elliptical  or  oval  arch,  (see  fig.  m,  n,  o,  p.  53.)  If  pressure  be 
made  on  the  crown  of  that  arch — if  a  blow  be  received  on  the  suture  between  the 
parietals  sufficient  to  cause  the  elastic  materials  of  which  the  skull  is  composed  to 
yield — the  seat  of  danger  and  injury  is  at  the  side.  If  a  man  receive  a  violent 
blow  on  the  crown  or  back  part  of  the  head,  the  fractiu-e,  if  there  be  any,  is  ge- 
nerally about  the  temple;  and  the  extravasation  of  blood  ia  oftenest  found  there. 
The  following  figure  will  explain  this; 


Let  the  line  ABC  represent  an  elliptical  arch,  composed  of  elastic  materials. 
Some  force  shall  be  applied  at  B  sufficient  to  cause  it  to  yield.  We  cannot  com- 
press it  into  smaller  compass,  but  just  in  proportion  as  it  yields  at  B,  will  it  spur 
or  bulge  out  at  D,  and  give  way  sometimes  as  represented  at  E.  In  a  dome  the 
weight  of  the  materials  constantly  acting  may  be  considered  as  representing  the 
force  applied  at  B;  and  so  great  is  the  lateral  pressure,  or  tendency  to  bulge  out, 
{vide  D  and  E,)  that  it  is  necessary  either  to  dove-tail  the  materials  into  one 
another,  or  to  pass  strong  iron  chains  round  them.  For  want  of  sufficient  atten- 
tion to  this,  ♦'  the  dome  of  St.  Sophia  in  Constantinople,  built  in  the  time  of  the 
Emperor  Justinian,  fell  three  times  during  its  erection;  and  the  dome  of  the  cathe- 
dral of  Florence  stood  unfinished  an  hundred  and  twenty  years  for  want  of  an 
architect." 

Nature,  In  the  construction  of  the  horse's  head,  has  taken  away  the  pressure,  or 
removed  the  probability  of  injuiy,  by  giving  an  additional  layer  of  bone,  or  a  mass 
of  muscle,  where  alone  there  was  danger,  and  has  dove-tailed  all  the  materials, 
and,  to  make  assurance  doubly  sure,  has  placed  this  effectual  girder  at  the  base, 
in  the  overlapping  of  the  squamous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone. 

In  the  ox,  where,  to  give  a  secure  base  to  the  horn,  the  frontal  bone  spreads 
over  the  whole  of  the  fore-part  of  the  head,  and  the  cranial  cavity  is  sufficiently 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE.  57 

secured  by  the  beautiful  mechanism  between  the  two  plates  of  that  bone,  the  tem- 
poral bone  does  not  overlap  the  parietal.  Nature  gives  every  thing  essential  to 
the  protection  and  welfare  of  the  animal,  but  nothing  superfluous. 

Above  the  parietab,  and  separated  from  them  by  a  suture,  (fig.  g,  pp.  52  and 
53,  and  fig.  c,  p.  52,)  is  the  occipital  bone.  Superiorly  it  covers  and  protects  the 
smaller  portion  of  the  brain,  the  cerebellum;  and  as  it  there  constitutes  the  sum- 
mit or  crest  of  the  head,  and  is  not  protected  by  muscles,  and  particularly  exposed 
to  danger,  it  is  interesting  to  see  what  thickness  it  assumes.  The  head  of  the 
horse  does  not,  like  that  of  the  human  being,  ride  upright  on  the  neck,  with  all 
its  weight  supported  by  the  spinal  column,  and  the  only  office  of  the  muscles  of 
the  neck  being  to  move  the  head,  forward,  or  backward,  or  horizontally,  on  its 
pivot;  but  it  hangs  in  a  slanting  position  from  the  extremity  of  the  neck,  and  the 
neck  itself  projects  a  considerable  distance  from  the  chest,  and  thus  the  whole 
weight  of  tiie  head  and  neck  are  suspended  from  the  chest,  and  require  very  great 
power  to  support  them.  In  addition  to  the  simple  weight  of  the  head  and  neck, 
the  neck  projecting  from  the  chest,  and  the  head  hanging  from  the  extremity  of 
the  neck,  act  with  enormous  mechanical  force,  and  increase  more  than  a  hundred 
fold  the  power  necessary  to  support  them. 

It  requires  a  strong  man  to  lift  a  small  table  from  the  ground  at  arm's  length. 
The  farmer's  steelyards  show  that  a  weight  of  a  few  pounds,  at  the  extremity, 
will  counterbalance  or  act  with  a  force  equal  to  a  himdred  weight  near  the  hook 
or  centre. 

The  head  and  neck  of  the  horse,  and  particularly  of  some  horses  of  a  coarse 
breed,  are  of  no  little  bulk  and  weight.  \^e  shall  hereafter  have  to  show  in  what 
breeds,  and  for  wliat  purposes  a  light  or  heavy  head  and  neck  are  advantageous; 
but  it  may  be  safely  affirmed  tiiat,  projecting  so  far  from  the  chest,  and  being  con- 
sequently at  so  great  a  distance  from  the  fulcrum  or  support,  the  lightest  head 
will  act  or  bear  upon  the  joiiTt  between  the  last  bone  of  the  neck  and  the  first  rib, 
with  a  force  equal  to  many  thousand  pounds. 

How  is  this  weight  to  be  suppot-ted?  Is  the  power  of  muscle  equal  to  the  task? 
The  muscles  of  the  animal  frame  can  act  for  a  certain  time  with  extraordinary 
force;  but  as  the  exertion  of  this  power  is  attended  witli  the  consumption  of  vital 
energy,  the  period  soon  arrives  when  their  action  is  remitted  or  altogether  sus- 
pended. 

Muscular  power  is  altogether  inadequate  to  the  constant  support  of  the  head  of 
the  horse.     A  provision,  however,  is  made  for  the  purpose,  simple  and  complete. 

From  the  back  of  the  occipital  bone,  (fig.  /,  p.  53,)  and  immediately  below  the 
crest,  proceeds  a  round  cord  of  considerable  bulk,  and  composed  of  a  ligamentous 
substance,  and  which  is  carried  down  and  securely  attached  to  the  spines  of  the 
vertebi-ae,  or  bones  of  the  back;  and  by  this  ligament  (the  ligament um  colli,  liga- 
ment of  the  neck,  commonly  called  the  pack  wax)  the  head  is  supported. 

There  are,  however,  some  admirable  contrivances  connected  with  tliis  ligament. 
As  it  proceeds  from  the  head,  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  round  coid.  It  passes  over  the 
atlas,  or  first  bone  of  the  neck,  witliout  touching  it,  and  then  attaching  itself 
strongly  to  the  second  bone,  principally  supports  the  head  by  its  union  with  this 
bone.  The  mechanical  disadvantage  is  increased,  but  the  head  is  turned  more  freely 
on  the  first  and  second  bones.  The  principal  stress  is  on  the  dentala  or  second 
bone,  so  much  so  that,  in  poll  evil,  this  ligament  may  be  divided  without  serious 
inconvenience  to  the  horse.  It  then  suddenly  sinks  deeper,  and  communicates 
with  all  the  other  vertebrae.  Each  of  these  communications  becomes  a  separate 
point  of  support,  and  as  tliey  approach  nearer  to  the  prop,  or  centre  of  motion, 
the  mechanical  disadvantage,  or  the  force  with  which  the  weight  of  the  head  and 
neck  presses  and  acts,  is  materially  lessened. 

The  head  then,  without  any  aid  from  muscular  energy,  is,  while  tlie  animal  is 
in  a  state  of  rest,  supported  b}'  this  ligament. 

There  is,  however,  something  yet  wanting.  The  head  must  not  be  always  ele- 
vated. Tlie  liorse  lias  his  food  to  seek.  In  a  state  of  nature  this  food  lies  prin- 
cipally on  the  ground,  and  the  head  must  be  lowered  to  enable  the  animal  to  get 
at  it.  How  is  tiiis  effected^  This  ligament,  as  we  call  it,  because  it  resembles  in 
appearance  the  other  ligaments  of  the  body,  possesses  a  property  which  they  have 
not,  and  which  they  must  not  have,  or  they  would  be  useless.  No  well-knit  joint 
could  exist  if  it  had  this  property.  The  pack-wax  is  elastic.  It  will  yield  to  a 
force  impressed  upon  it,  and  it  will  resume  its  natural  dimensioqs  when  that  force 
is  removed.  It  sustains  perfectly  the  weight  of  the  head.  That  portion  of  tena- 
8 


58  THE  HORSE. 

city  or  strength  is  g-iven  to  it,  which  will  not  yield  to  the  simple  weight  of  the 
head;  but  which  will  yield  to  a  very  little  additional  weight.  Its  resisting  power 
is  so  admirably  adjusted  to  that  which  it  has  to  sustain,  that  when  certain  muscles, 
whose  action  is  to  depress  or  lower  the  head,  begin  to  act,  and  add  their  power 
to  the  previous  weight  it  had  to  bear,  tlie  ligament  stretches,  and  when  the  horse 
is  browsing,  it  is  full  two  incites  longer  than  wlien  tlie  head  is  erect. 

When  the  animal  has  satisfied  himself,  these  depressing  muscles  cease  to  act, 
and  other  muscles,  which  are  designed  to  assist  in  raising  the  head,  begin  to  exert 
themselves;  and,  by  their  aid,  (but  more  by  the  inherent  elasticity  of  the  ligament,) 
the  head  is  once  more  elevated,  and  remains  so  without  the  slightest  exertion  of 
muscular  power.  This  is  one  of  the  many  applications  of  the  principle  of  elasti- 
city which  we  shall  have  to  observe  and  admire  in  the  construction  of  the  ani- 
mal frame. 

The  ligament  of  the  neck  is  inserted  into  the  centre  of  the  back  part  of  the 
occipital  bone,  and  immediately  below  the  vertex  or  crest  of  that  bone;  and 
therefore  tlie  bone  is  so  thick  at  this  part,  (see  fig.  e,  p.  53.) 


Many,  and  large,  and  powerful  muscles,  however,  are  necessary  to  turn  the  head 
in  various  directions,  and  to  assist  in  raising  it  wlien  depressed.  The  occipital 
bone,  as  will  be  seen  in  this  cut,  presents  a  spine  running  down  the  centre,  B, 
and  a  large  roughened  surface  for  the  attachment  of  these  muscles,  C  C. 

Lower  down,  and  still  at  the  back  of  the  occipital  bone,  are  two  rounded  pro- 
tuberances, D  D,  by  which  the  head  is  connected  with  the  atlas,  or  upper,  or  first 
vertebra,  or  bone  of  the  neck,  and  these  are  called  the  condyloid,  cup-shaped, 
process  of  the  occipital  bone.  All  the  motions  of  the  head  are  partly,  and  many 
of  them  wholly  performed  by  this  joint. 

Between  them  i?  a  large  hole,  called  the  foramen  magnum^  or  great  aperture, 
E,  througli  which  the  continuation  of  the  brain,  called  the  spinal  cord  or  marrow, 
passes  out  of  the  skull. 

As  an  additional  contrivance  to  support  the  great  weight  of  the  head,  are  two 
other  projections  of  the  occipital  bone,  peculiar  to  animals  whose  heads  are  set  on 
in  a  slanting  direction,  and  into  which  powerful  muscles  are  inserted;  they  are 
called  the  coracoid,  beak-like,  processes  or  prolongations,  F  F,  of  the  occipital 
bone. 

Running  forward,  and  forming  outwardly  a  part  of  the  base,  and  inwardly  a 
portion  of  the  floor  of  the  skull,  is  what  from  its  wedge-like  shape,  is  called  the 
cuneiform  process  of  the  occipital  bone,  (fig.  i,  p.  5\3.)  It  is  thick,  strong,  and 
solid;  and  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  skull,  not  only  to  be  a  proper  foundation 
for,  and  to  give  additional  strength  ta  the  arch  on  each  side,  but  speedily  to  break 
and  stop  all  vibration  and  concussion. 

At  the  base  of  the  skull,  and  anterior  to,  or  below  the  occipital,  lies  the  sphenoid, 
wedge-hke  bone,  (fig.  k,  p.  53  )  Its  body,  likewise  called  the  cimeiform,  or 
wedge-shaped  process,  is  a  continuation  of  the  same  process  of  the  occipital,  and 
Lke  it,  is  thick  and  solid,  and  for  the  same  important  purpose.  This  bone  branches 
out  into  four  irregular  bodies  or  plates,  two  of  which  are  called  the  wings,  and  two 
running  to  the  palate,  the  legs.  They  could  not  be  represented  in  the  cut,  and 
there  is  nothing  important  belonging  to  them  so  far  as  our  work  is  concerned. 
Internally  (fig.  k)  the  sphenoid  forms  a  portion  of  the  cavity  of  the  skull. 


EXTERNAL  STUCTURE.  59 

Of  the  ethmoid,  sieve-like  bone,  little  can  be  seen  outwardly.  A  small  portion 
IS  found  in  the  back  part  of  the  orbit,  and  in  the  cavity  of  the  cranium;  but  the 
most  important  part  of  it. is  that  whicli  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of  thin 
plates,  forming-  numerous  cavities  or  cells  (fig.  /,  p.  5.3)  lined  with  the  membrane 
of  the  nose,  and  entering  into  the  cavity  of  the  nose.  The  upper  portion  is  called 
tlie  cribriform,  or  sieve-shaped  plate,  from  its  being  perforated  by  a  multitude  of 
little  holes,  throug-h  which  the  nerve  connected  with  smelling  passes  and  spreads 
over  the  nose. 

Altogether  tliese  bones  form  a  cavity  of  an  irregular  oval  shape,  but  the  tento- 
I'lum  peneti-ating  into  it  gives  it  the  appearance  of  being-  divided  into  two,  (rf, 
p.  53.) 

The  cavity  of  the  cranium  may  be  said  to  be  arched  all  round.  The  builder 
knows  the  strength  which  is  connected  with  the  form  of  the  arch.  If  properly 
constructed,  it  is  equal  to  a  solid  mass  of  masonry.  The  arch  of  the  horse's  skull 
has  not  much  weig-ht  to  support,  but  it  is  exposed  to  many  injuries  from  the  bru- 
tality of  those  by  whom  he  shoidd  be  protected,  and  from  accidental  causes. 

The  roof  of  the  skull  is  composed  of  two  plates  of  bone:  the  outer  hard  and 
tough,  and  the  different  parts  dove-tailed  together,  so  as  not  to  be  easily  fractured; 
the  inner  plate  is  elastic,  and,  by  the  union  of  these  two  substances  of  different 
construction,  the  vibration  is  partly  damped  or  destroyed.  By  means  of  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  inner  plate,  the  force  or  influence  which  might  reach  it  through  the 
outer  plate,  and,  notwithstanding  its  difference  of  structure,  affect  it,  is  spread 
over  the  whole  of  the  roof;  and  the  inner  plate  is  not  dove-tailed  like  the  outer, 
because  the  dove  tailing  would  impede  the  spread  of  the  vibration. 

The  brain  of  the  horse  corresponds  with  the  cavity  in  which  it  is  placed,  (m,  p. 
53.)  It  is  a  flattened  oval.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  one  much  larger  than  the 
other,  the  cerebrum  or  brain,  and  the  cerebellum  or  little  brain,  (n,  p.  53.)  In  the 
human  being  the  cerebrum  is  above  the  cerebellum,  in  the  quadruped  below;  and 
yet  in  both  they  retain  the  same  relative  situation.  The  cerebellum  is  nearer  to 
the  foramen  or  hole  through  which  the  brain  passes  out  of  the  skull,  (??,  p,  53,) 
and  the  continuation  of  the  cerebrum  passes  under  the  cerebellum  {p,  p.  53)  to 
arrive  at  this  foramen.  In  the  human  head  this  foramen  is  at  the  base  of  the  skull; 
but  in  the  quadruped,  in  whom  the  head  is  placed  slanting,  it  is  necessarily 
elevated. 

It  would  occupy  too  great  a  portion  of  our  time  fully  to  consider  the  wonderful 
and  mysterious  functions  discharged  by  the  brainy  but  some  diseases  to  which  the 
horse  is  subject,  and  a  very  useful  operation,  the  division  of  the  nerve  of  the  leg, 
for  foot  lameness,  could  not  be  understood  without  a  slight  account  of  this  impor- 
tant organ. 

When  the  brain  is  cut  it  presents  two  distinct  substances,  (m,  p.  53,)  one  prin- 
cipally on  the  outside,  grey,  or  ash-colored,  and  therefore  called  the  cortical  (bark- 
like, or  rind-like)  from  its  situation,  or  the  cinoitious  (ash  like)  from  its  color; 
and  one  more  in  the  centre,  and  its  fibres  running  towards  the  centre,  and  white 
and  pulpy,  and  from  its  consistence  called  the  medullar^/  (marrow-like)  part.  This 
latter  portion  seems  to  be  collected  and  condensed  towards  the  centre  or  base  of 
the  brain,  and  all  the  nerves  derive  their  origin  from  it. 

The  medullary  portion  then  is  evidentl}'  connected  with  the  nervous  system; 
and  the  nerves  are  concerned  in  the  discharge  of  all  the  offices  of  life.  They  give 
motion  to  the  limbs;  they  supply  with  energy  the  heart,  tlie  lungs,  the  stomach, 
and  every  part  connected  with  life;  and  being  tlie  medium  through  which  sensa- 
tion is  conveyed,  they  supply  the  mind  with  materials  to  thiidc  and  work  upon. 

The  cineritious  part  has  a  different  appearance,  and  is  evidently  differently  con- 
stituted; and  some  have  supposed  it  to  be  the  residence  of  the  mind,  receiving  the 
impressions  which  are  conveyed  to  the  brain  by  the  nerve  of  sensation,  and  di- 
recting the  operation  and  action  of  those  which  give  motion  to  the  limbs.  In  ac- 
cordance with  this  it  happens  that  where  superior  intelligence  is  found,  the  cine- 
ritious prevails,  and  where  little  beside  brutal  strength  and  appetite  exist,  the 
medullary  portion  is  enlarged. 

From  the  medullary  substance  proceed  certain  cords  or  prolongations  called 
nerves,  by  which  the  animal  is  enabled  to  receive  impressions  from  surrounding 
objects  and  to  connect  himself  with  them,  aiid  to  possess  many  pleasurable  or 
painful  sensations.  One  is  spread  over  the  membrane  of  the  nose,  and  gives  the 
sense  of  smell;  another  expands  on  the  back  of  the  eye,  and  the  faculty  of  sight  is 
gained;  and  a  third  goes  to  the  internal  structure  of  the  ear,  and  the  animal  hears. 


60 


THE  HORSE. 


Other  nerves  proceeding  to  different  parts  of  the  head,  give  the  faculty  or  motion 
to  those  parts;  and  another  class  bestows  the  power  of  feeling. 

One  division  of  nerves  (h,  p.  53)  springing  from  a  prolongation  of  the  brain, 
and  yet  within  the  skull,  wander  to  different  parts  of  the  frame,  for  impoi-tant 
purposes  connected  with  respiration  or  breathing,  and  as  the  act  of  breathing  is 
essential  to  hfe,  and  were  it  to  cease,  the  animal  would  die — these  are  nerves  of 
involuntary  motion;  so  that  whether  he  is  awake  or  asleep,  conscious  of  it  or  not, 
the  lungs  heave,  and  life  is  supported.  Lastly,  from  the  spinal  cord  q,  (a  further 
prolongation  of  the  brain,  and  running  tlirough  a  cavity  in  the  bones  of  the  neck, 
back,  and  loins,  and  extending  to  the  very  tip  of  the  tail,)  other  nerves  are  given 
off  at  certain  intervals.    This  cut  delineates  one  pair  of  them.   The  spinal  cord  a,  is 


combined  of  six  distinct  columns  or  rods,  running  through  its  whole  length — three 
on  either  side.  The  two  upper  columns  (the  portion  of  spinal  marrow  represented 
in  our  cut,  is  supposed  to  be  placed  with  its  inner  or  lower  surface  toward  us) 
proceed  from  those  tracks  of  the  brain  devoted  to  sensation.  From  these  come 
out  abrubtly  distinct  fibres  from  the  column;  and  which  collect  together,  and 
passing  through  a  little  ganglion  or  enlargement,  d,  (an  enlargement  of  a  nervous 
cord  is  called  a  ganglion, )  become  a  nerve  of  sensation.  From  the  lower  or  inner 
side  (a  prolongation  of  the  track  devoted  to  motion)  proceed  other  fibres,  which 
also  collect  gradually  together,  and  form  a  nervous  cord,  c,  giving  the  power  of 
motion.  Beyond  the  ganglion  the  two  unite,  and  form  a  perfect  spinal  nerve,  b, 
possessing  the  power  both  of  sensation  and  motion;  and  the  fibres  of  the  two  co- 
lumns proceed  to  their  destination,  enveloped  in  the  same  sheath,  and  apparently 
one  nerve.  Each  portion,  however,  continues  to  be  wrapped  in  its  own  mem- 
brane. They  are  united,  yet  distinct;  they  constitute  one  nerve,  yet  neither  their 
substance  nor  their  office  is  confounded.  Our  cut,  closely  examined,  b,  will  give 
some  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  these  distinct  fibres  are  continued;  each  covered 
in  its  own  membrane,  but  all  enveloped  in  a  common  covering. 

All  these  nerves  are  organs  of  sensation  and  motion  alone;  but  there  are  others 
whose  origin  seems  to  be  outside  of  and  below  the  brain.  These  are  the  sympa- 
thetic, so  called  from  their  union  and  sympathy  with  all  the  others,  and  identified 
with  life  itself  They  proceed  from  a  small  ganglion  or  enlargement  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  neck,  or  from  a  collection  of  little  ganglions  in  the  belly.  They  go  to 
the  heart,  and  it  beats,  and  to  the  stomach,  and  it  digests.  They  form  a  net-work 
round  each  blood-vessel,  and  the  current  flows  on.  They  surround  the  very  mi- 
nutest vessels,  and  the  frame  is  nourished  and  built  up.  They  are  destitute  of 
sensation,  and  they  are  perfectly  beyond  the  control  of  the  will. 

The  reader,  we  trust,  will  now  comprehend  this  wonderful  yet  simple  machi- 
nery, and  be  able,  by  and  by,  to  refer  to  it  the  explanation  of  several  diseases,  and 
particularly  of  the  operation  to  which  we  have  referred. 

Two  of  the  senses  have  their  residence  in  the  bones  of  the  cranium,  those  of 
hearing  and  sight. 

They  who  know  anything  of  the  horse  pay  much  attention  to  the  size,  setting 
on,  and  motion  of  the  ear.     Ears  rather  small  tlian  large,  placed  not  too  far  apart. 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE.  61 

and  erect,  and  quick  in  motion,  indicate  botli  breeding  and  spirit;  and  if  a  horse 
is  frequently  in  the  habit  of  carrying  one  ear  forward,  and  the  otlier  backward, 
and  especially  if  he  does  so  on  a  journey,  he  will  generally  possess  both  spirit  and 
continuance.  The  stretching  of  tlie  ears  in  contrary  directions  shows  that  he  is 
attentive  to  every  thing  that  is  taking  place  around  him,  and,  while  he  is  doing 
tliis,  he  cannot  be  much  fatigued,  or  likely  soon  to  become  so.  It  has  been  re- 
marked that  few  horses  sleep  without  pointing  one  ear  forward  and  the  other 
backward,  that  they  may  receive  notice  of  the  approach  of  objects  in  every 
dirpction.* 

The  ear  of  the  horse  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  parts  about  him,  and  by  few 
things  is  the  temper  more  siu-ely  indicated  than  by  its  motion.  The  ear  is  more 
intelligible  even  than  the  eye,  and  a  person  accustomed  to  the  horse,  and  an  ob- 
server of  the  horse,  can  tell  by  the  expressive  motion  of  the  ears  almost  all  that 
he  thinks  or  means.  It  is  a  common  saying  that  when  a  horse  lays  his  ears  flat 
back  upon  his  neck,  and  keeps  them  so,  he  most  assuredly  is  meditating  mischief, 
and  the  stander  by  should  beware  of  his  heels  or  his  teeth.  In  play  the  ears  will 
be  laid  back,  but  not  so  decidedly,  nor  so  long.  A  quick  change  in  their  position, 
and  more  particularly  the  expression  of  the  eye  at  the  time,  will  distinguish  be- 
tween playfulness  and  vice. 

The  external  ear  is  formed  by  a  cartilage  of  an  oval  or  cone-like  shape,  flexible, 
yet  firm,  and  terminating  in  a  point.  It  has,  directed  towards  the  side,  yet  some- 
what pointing  forward,  a  large  opening  extending  from  the  top  to  the  bottom. 
The  intention  of  this  is  to  collect  the  sound,  and  convey  it  to  tlie  interior  part  of 
the  ear. 

The  hearing  of  the  horse  is  remarkably  acute.  A  thousand  vibrations  of  the 
:ur,  too  slight  to  make  any  impression  on  the  human  ear,  are  readily  perceived  by 
him.  It  is  well  known  to  every  hunting-man  tliat  the  cry  of  the  hounds  will  be 
recognized  by  the  horse,  and  his  ears  will  be  erect,  and  lie  will  be  all  spirit  and 
impatience,  a  considerable  time  befoi-e  the  rider  is  conscious  of  the  least  sound. 
Need  anything  moi-e  be  said  to  expose  the  absurdity  of  cropping?  Fortunately 
for  this  too-often-abused  animal,  cropping  is  not  now  the  fashion.  Some  thoughtr 
less  or  unfeeling  young  men  endeavored,  a  little  while  ago,  to  introduce  it,  but 
the  voice  of  reason  and  humanity  prevailed. 

This  cartilage,  the  conch  or  shell,  is  attached  to  the  head  by  ligaments,  and  sus- 
tained by  muscles,  on  which  its  action  depends.  It  rests  upon  another  cartilage, 
round  without,  and  irregular  within,  called  the  annular,  ring-Uke,  cartilage,  and 
conducting  to  the  interior  of  the  ear;  and  it  is  likewise  supported  and  moved  by 
a  third  small  cartilage,  placed  at  the  fore  part  of  the  base  of  tlie  conch,  and  into 
which  several  muscles  are  inserted. 

The  ear  is  covered  by  skin  thinner  than  in  most  other  parts  of  the  body,  and 
altogether  destitute  of  fat,  tliat  it  may  not  be  too  bulky  and  heavy,  and  may  be 
more  easily  moved.  Under  the  skin  lining  the  inside  of  the  cartilage  are  nume- 
rous glands,  that  secrete  or  throw  out  a  scaly  white  greasy  matter,  which  may  be 
rubbed  off"  with  the  finger,  and  which  is  destined  to  supple  this  part  of  the  ear, 
and  to  keep  it  soft  and  smooth.  Below  this  are  other  glands  which  pour  out  a  pe- 
culiar, sticky,  bitter  fluid,  the  wax,  probably,  displeasing  to  insects,  and  therefore 
deterring  them  from  crawling  down  tlie  ear,  and  annoying  the  animal;  or  by  its 
stickiness  an-esting  their  progi-ess. 

The  internal  part  of  the  conch  is  covered  with  long  hair  which  stands  across  the 
passage  in  every  direction.  This  likewise  is  to  protect  the  ear  from  insects,  that 
would  with  difficulty  penetrate  through  this  thick  defence.  The  cold  air  is  like- 
wise prevented  from  reaching  the  interior  of  the  ear,  and  the  sound  is  moderated, 
not  ari'ested;  penetrating  readily,  but  not  violently;  and  not  striking  injuriously 
on  the  membrane  covering  the  drum  of  the  ear.  Can  these  purposes  be  accom- 
plished, when  it  is  the  custom  of  so  many  carters  and  gi-ooms  to  cut  out  the  hair 
of  the  ear  so  closely  and  industriously  as  they  do?  The  groom  who  singes  it  to 
the  root  with  a  candle  must  be  either  very  ignorant  or  very  brutal.  It  can  scarcely 
be  accomplished  without  singeing  tlie  ear  as  well  as  the  hair.     Many  a  troublesome 

•  "When  horees  or  mules  march  in  company  at  night,  those  in  front  direct  their 
ears  forwards;  those  in  the  rear  direct  them  backward;  and  those  in  the  centre 
turn  them  laterally  or  across;  the  whole  troop  seeming  thus  to  be  actuated  by  one 
feeling,  which  watches  the  general  safety." — Aunott's  Elements  of  Physics,  vol. 
i.,  p.  478. 


62 


THE  HORSE. 


sore  is  occasioned  l)y  it;  and  many  a  horse  that  was  perfectly  quiet  before,  ren- 
dered difficult  to  iiandle  or  to  halter;  and  even  disposed  to  be  otherwise  vicious 
from  a  recollection  of  the  pain  wliich  he  suffered  during-  the  absurd  and  barba- 
I'ous  opei-ation. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  CUT  OF  THE  EAR. 

a  The  meatus  externus,  or  outer  passage. 

b  The  membrana  tympani,  or  membrane,  stretched  over  the  entrance  to  the  drum 

of  the  ear. 
c  The  malleus,  or  hammer,  the  first  of  the  osskuli,  (little  bones,)  and  resting  upon 

the  membrana  tympani. 
d  The  incus,  or  anvil, 
c  The  orbiculare,  or  round  bone. 
/  The  stapes,  or  stirrup  bone,  resting  on  the  membrane  which  covers  the  foramen 

ovale,  or  oval  window,  and  which  conducts  to  the  labyrinth  of  the  ear. 

fOne  of  the  muscles  of  the  tympanum  attached  to  the  stapes. 
The  vestibule,  or  hall,  the  first  portion  of  the  labyrinth  of  the  ear. 

i    The  semi-circular  canals. 

k  Openings  into  the  canals. 

/   The  tympanum,  or  drum  of  tne  ear. 

TO  The  cochlea,  or  shell-like  portion  of  the  labyrinth. 

n  The  meatus  auditorius  internus,  or  internal  passage,  through  which  both  divi- 
sions of  the  seventh  pair  of  nerves  enter  tlie  ear.  At  the  end  of  it  is  the  cri- 
briform, sieve-like  plate,  through  which  the  portio  mollis,  or  soft  portion  of 
the  seventh  pair  of  nerves,  and  which  is  the  auditory  nerve,  or  nerve  of  hear- 
ing, enters  to  spread  over  the  cochlea  and  vestibule. 

o  The  Eustachian  tube,  or  communication  between  the  tympanum  and  the  mouth, 
so  called  from  its  discoverer. 

p  The  cord,  or  nerve  of  the  ear,  ccyrda  tympani,  a  branch  of  the  portio  dura,  hard 
portion,  of  the  seventh  pair  of  nerves,  united  to  a  portion  of  the  fifth  pair, 
running  across  the  tympanum,  and  ramifying  on  it  and  on  the  membrane. 

q  The  exit  oi  i\\Q  portio  dura,  from  the  temporal  bone,  to  spread  over  the  face. 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE.  63 

The  sound  collected  by  the  outer  ear,  passes  through  the  lower  or  annular, 
ring'-shaped  cartilage,  and  through  irregularities  which,  while  the3'  break  and 
motlify  it,  carry  it  on  to  another  canal,  partly  cartilaginous,  and  partly  bony,  con- 
ducting immediately  to  the  internal  mechanism  of  the  ear.  This  canal  or  passage 
is  called  the  external  auditory  passsge,  a,  and  at  the  base  of  it  is  placed,  stretch- 
ing across  it,  and  closing  it,  a  thick  and  elastic  membrane,  called  the  membrane 
of  tlie  drum,  b-  This  membrane  is  supplied  with  numerous  fibres  from  the  fifth 
pair,  or  sensitive  nerve  of  the  head,  for  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  possess 
extreme  sensibility. 

The  mechanism  of  the  ear  is  so  exquisite  that  we  cannot  refrain  from  entering 
into  a  minute  description  of  it,  although  we  feel  that  we  are  somewhat  trenching 
on  the  comprehensive  subject  of  animal  physiology. 

Sound  is  produced  by  certain  vibrations  or  undulations  communicated  to  the 
air  by  the  concussions  or  tremblings  of  things  around,  and  which  vibrations  spread 
through  the  air,  and  fall  upon  the  ear.  The  striking  of  a  glass,  and  the  sound  of 
a  large  bell,  are  sufficient  illusti-ations  of  the  manner  in  which  sound  is  propagated 
by  distinct  vibrations  or  waves  of  the  air.  These  vibrations  reacli  the  conch  of 
the  ear.  From  its  hollow  form  and  peculiar  shape,  and  the  faculty  of  being  di- 
rected to  every  quarter  whence  the  vibrations  proceed,  they  are  collected,  and 
condensed,  and  conveyed  down  the  outer  passage,  and  fall  upon  the  membrane, 
6.  That  membrane,  tightly  stretched,  and  elastic,  receives  the  impression  made 
upon  it,  and  vibrates  in  perfect  unison. 

This  membrane  covers  the  entrance  into  a  cavity,  called  the  tympanum  or  drum 
of  the  ear,  /,  from  its  supposed  resemblance  to  a  drum.  It  is  of  an  irregular  shape. 
T!ie  walls  or  sides  are  composed  of  bone,  lined  with  a  delicate  membrane,  with 
several  apertures  or  holes,  h,  f,  k,  the  principal  of  which  we  shall  describe. 

Between  the  membrane  at  which  we  have  arrived,  b,  and  a  smaller  one  almost 
opposite,/,  leading  to  the  still  interior  part  of  the  ear,  and  on  which  the  nerve  of 
hearing  is  expanded,  are  four  little  bones,  c,  d,  e,  f,  united  to  these  membranes 
and  to  each  other.  Their  office  is  to  convey,  moi-e  perfectly  than  it  could  be  done 
through  the  air  of  the  cavity,  the  vibrations  which  have  reached  the  membrane 
tympani. 

The  first  of  these  little  bones  (ossiatli)  Is  called  the  malleus,  c,  from  its  supposed 
resemblance  to  a  hammer.  The  longer  arm  of  the  hammer  i&  attached  to  the 
edge  of  the  membrane,  and  reaches  to  its  centre,  and  is  so  strongly  united  to  it  as 
to  draw  it  down  into  a  kind  of  funnel-shape.  It  is  the  bracing  of  the  parchment 
of  the  soldier's  drum;  and  it  must  be  sufficiently  evident  that  every  vibration  given 
to  the  membrane  must  be  communicated  to  the  hammer-bone. 

From  the  hammer,  the  vibration  is  communicated  to  the  incus,  d,  so  named  from 
its  imagined  likeness  to  a  blacksmith's  anvil,  although  it  is  a  great  deal  more  like 
a  molar  tooth  or  grinder,  with  two  fangs,  and  one  of  them  much  lengthened  and 
curved.  The  hammer,  however,  is  so  formed  and  placed  that  the  impression  or 
vibration  is  not  merely  conveyed,  but  considerably  increased.  Between  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  handle  of  the  hammer,  and  its  head  resting  on  the  anvil,  is  a  sharp 
process,  received  into  a  hollow  in  the  bony  wall  of  the  drum,  and  which  is  evi- 
dently the  fulcrum,  or  centre  of  motion,  on  which  the  hammer  turns;  and  this  is 
much  nearer  the  head  of  tlie  bone  than  the  extremity  of  the  handle.  It  is  then 
a  lever,  and  it  acts  upon  the  principle  of  the  lever.  The  point  of  the  handle  is 
the  place  where  the  vibration  is  received,  or  the  power  applied;  the  little  process 
is  the  fulcrum  or  prop,  or  turning  point;  and  the  head  of  tlie  bone  is  the  extremity 
of  the  other  arm,  where  tlie  weight  is  to  be  hung,  or  the  effect  produced.  Now, 
in  proportion  (as  we  shall  have  again  and  again  to  demonstrate  when  we  speak  of 
the  construction  of  the  limbs)  as  the  distance  of  the  power  from  the  fulcrum  ex- 
ceeds that  of  the  weight,  so  will  be  the  mechanical  advantage  gained,  or  so  will 
the  effect  be  increased.  Here  the  extremity  of  the  hammer  is  twice  as  far  from 
the  centre  as  the  head;  and,  therefore,  the  effect  will  be  doubled,  and  the  vibra- 
tion received  by  the  extremity  of  the  handle  will  be  conveyed  with  double  inten- 
sity to  the  anvil. 

The  bodies  of  these  bones  are  elastic;  and  the  heads  of  all  bones  are  covered 
by  a  substance,  cartilage,  elastic  in  the  highest  degree:  therefore,  the  impression 
or  vibration  communicated  from  the  hammer  to  the  anvil  will  not  be  deadened, 
but  rather  increased  by  the  collision  of  these  elastic  bodies. 

The  anvil,  d,  is  another  lever,  and  not  only  would  the  vibration  be  communi- 
cated undiminished  through  its  substance,  but,    one  of  the  projections  or  fangs 


64,  THE  HORSE. 

being  received  into  an  opening  in  the  wall  of  the  dram,  and  the  distance  of  the 
point  at  which  the  impression  was  received,  or  the  power  resides,  being  greater 
from  the  centre  than  that  where  the  impression  is  to  be  conveyed  or  given  up  to 
the  next  bone,  or,  in  other  words,  where  the  effect  is  to  be  produced,  mechanical 
advantage  is  here,  likewise,  gained,  and  the  effect  on  the  next  bone,  e,  may  fairly 
be  reckoned  at  three  times  the  intensity  of  the  original  vibration. 

The  round  bone,  e,  a  very  minute  one,  is  the  next  in  order.  It  is  the  smallest 
bone  in  the  body;  and  its  use  seems  to  be,  to  form  a  more  complete  and  moveable 
joint  between  the  anvil  and  the  stirrup,  and  to  cause  the  impulse  or  vibration  to 
be  communicated  to  the  stirrup-bone  in  a  perpendicular  direction. 

The  last  of  the  four  little  bones  is  the  stapes,  or  stirrup  bone.  It  closely  resem- 
bles a  stirrup  in  form,  and  it  is  placed  on  the  membrane  of  the  fenestra  ovalis,  the 
oval  window,  or  opening  into  the  most  interior  part  of  the  ear,  and  the  immediate 
and  actual  seat  of  hearing.  The  stirrup  being  retained  in  a  perpendicular  direc- 
tion on  this  membrane  by  the  round  bone,  not  only  is  the  full  impression  which 
had  been  communicated  to  the  first  membrane  conveyed  to  the  other,  but  it  is 
trebled  by  the  beautiful  mechanism  of  the  bones. 

Sound  we  have  said,  is  produced  by  vibrations  conveyed  to  the  ear,  and  ex- 
citing similar  vibrations  in  certain  parts  of  the  ear.  These  vibrations,  once  excited, 
do  not  immediately  cease.  A  glass  continues  to  sound,  and  the  prolonged  undu- 
lations of  the  deep-toned  bell  are  familiar  to  every  one.  The  pulses  of  sound 
succeed  each  other  with  great  rapidity.  In  speaking,  the  words  quickly  follow 
each  other,  and  each  syllable  produces  a  separate  impulse  on  the  external  mem- 
brane of  the  ear.  Unless,  however,  one  pulsation  or  vibration  had  ceased  before 
the  next  was  communicated,  language  would  be  unintelligible,  and  a  confused  and 
endless  noise  wonld  prevail.  The  finger  placed  on  the  edge  of  a  glass  immedi- 
ately stops  the  vibration.  The  damper  applied  to  the  piano-forte  effects  the  same 
purpose,  and  gives  distinctness  of  sound  and  tone. 

There  is  in  the  ear  an  admirable  contrivance  to  accomplish  the  same  object. 
Muscles  are  attached  to  these  little  bones,  and  particularly  to  the  hammer  and  stir- 
rup which  are  in  contact  with  the  membi-anes.  One  belonging  to  the  stirrup  is 
ffiven  in  our  cut,  g.  They  are  placed  there,  according  to  some  physiologists,  to 
tighten  or  relax  the  chain  of  bones,  in  order  to  pi-oduce  greater  or  less  intensity 
of  sound.  We  would  rather  say  that  they  were  intended  as  dampers  to  prevent 
the  otherwise  unavoidable  confusion  of  sound.  No  sooner  is  an  impression  con- 
veved  to  these  bones,  or  a  vibration  communicated  down  them,  than  the  muscles 
contract,  and  by  that  contraction  tighten  the  chain  of  bones,  and  by  that  tighten- 
ing, destroy  and  not  increase  the  vibration.  The  heads  of  the  bones  are  pressed 
one'  on  the  other,  so  that,  like  the  finger  on  the  edge  of  the  glass,  the  vibration 
is  not  only  immediately  arrested  in  these  bones,  but  in  the  membranes  above  and 
below  to  which  they  are  attached. 

The  air  in  the  drum  of  the  ear  is  not  always  of  the  same  warmth.  In  fever,  or 
in  consequence  of  inflammation  in  a  neighboring  part,  or  during  the  excitement 
of  exercise  the  air  in  the  drum  ma^  attain  a  degree  of  heat  far  above  the  natural 
standard-  the  consequence  of  which  would  be  that  it  would  expand.  All  bodies 
expand  with  heat;  and  this  air  expanding  would  press  on  every  part  of  the  cavity. 
The  bony  walls  of  the  cavity  would  not  yield,  but  the  membrane  might  be  so  vio- 
lently distended  as  to  be  incapable  of  vibrating.  Under  the  cold  fit  of  fever  the 
air  would  coUap'se,  or  would  diminish  in  bulk.  All  bodies  contract  by  the  appli- 
cation of  cold.  Then  the  external  air,  endeavoring  to  enter  the  partial  vacuum, 
and  pressing  the  membranes  inward,  might  ])roduce  precisely  the  same  effect.  To 
prevent  all  "this,  and  to  preserve  a  proper  balance  between  the  heat  of  the  air  in 
the  tympanum,  and  that  of  the  other  parts  of  the  body,  or  the  atmosphere,  there 
is  a  passage  communicating  with  the  mouth;  and  by  means  of  the  mouth,  with  the 
external  air.  See  p  in  this  cut,  and  9  in  the  cut,  page  53,  which  gives  the  carti- 
lae-e  that  covers  the  entrance  of  this  passage,  the  Eustachian  tube,  into  the  mouth. 

The  Eustachian  tube  commences  in  the  drum  of  the  ear,  by  a  mere  slit  in  the 
bony  wall,  which,  passing  throiigh  the  stony  portion  of  the  temporal  bone,  and 
part  of  the  sphenoid  bone,  becomes  cartilaginous,  and  then  expands,  and  ends  in 
a  large  pouch  or  bag.  The  cartilage,  p,  protects  the  mouth  of  this  bag,  and  pre- 
vents the  food  from  entering  it;  and  likewise  enables  it  occasionally  to  unclose  for 
purposes  connected  with  the  faculty  of  hearing. 

The  impression,  then,  has  been  conveyed  by  the  mechanism  of  the  bones,  from 
the  membrane  of  the  drum,  b,  to  the  membrane  on  which  the  stirrup  rests, /r  and 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTUKE,  65 

which  closes  the  fenesti*a  ovalis,  or  oval  window,  or  opening  into  the  labyrinth  of 
the  ear.  This  mechanism,  however,  deeply  seated  as  it  is  in  the  head,  and  guarded 
by  the  stony  hardness  of  the  temporal  bone,  is  liable  to  injury,  and  we  are  next 
led  to  admire  many  provisions  for  preserving  tlie  sense  of  liearing  even  when 
much  mischief  has  been  done  to  the  machine.  The  membrane  may  be  punctured 
or  ruptured.  It  is  occasionally  so  by  accident  or  violence,  and  lately  purposely 
done  in  the  human  subject  to  renfiedy  deafness  produced  by  obstruction  of  the 
Eustachian  tube.  The  vibrations  of  tlie  external  air  would  proceed  down  the 
passage  a,  and  be  communicated,  although  imperfectly,  to  the  little  bones  at  the 
bottom,  c,  d,  e,  and  carried  on  to  the  oval  v;indovv,  /,  and  hearing  would  remain. 
Supposing  that  the  tlu-ee  first  of  the  little  bones  were  diseased  or  removed,  the 
vibration  of  the  external  air  would  be  communicated  to  the  air  in  the  drum,  and 
by  that  to  the  stirrup,  f,  and  the  animal  would  not  be  entirely  deaf:  or  even  if  the 
whole  of  the  little  bones  were  destroyed,  yet  the  membrane  of  the  oval  window 
remaining,  some  vibration  aright  be  communicated  to  it,  and  some  sound  per- 
ceived. 

Passing  the  oval  window,  f,  we  arrive  at  the  true  seat  of  hearing.  A  strangely 
irregular  cavity,  h,  presents  itself,  filled  with  an  aqueous  fluid,  while  the  substance 
or  |)ulp  of  tlie  portia  mollis,  or  soft  portion  of  the  seventh  pair  of  nerves,  the  audi- 
tory nerve,  expands  on  the  membrane  whicli  lines  the  walls  of  this  cavity.  Why 
is  this  cavity  filled  with  a  liquid'  First,  that  the  membrane  wliich  covers  the 
passage  into  it  might  always  be  preserved  in  a  proper  state  to  receive  and  com- 
municate vibrations.  If  the  labyrinth  had  contained  a  fluid  possessed  of  much  ex- 
pansibility, in  the  considerable  changes  of  temperature  to  which  the  frame  is  sub- 
ject, tliis  membrane  might  be  stretched  beyimcl  the  power  of  vibrating,  and  almost 
to  bursting,  by  the  increased  bulk,  of  that  fluid.  Air  is  highly  expansible.  That 
is  of  no  consequence  in  the  drum  of  the  ear,  /,  because,  as  it  expanded,  it  would 
rush  out  of  the  Eustachian  tube;  but  in  the  labyrinth  it  would  be  highly  injurious, 
because  that  is  a  closed  cavity.  These  interior  ciiambers  then  are  filled  with  water 
instead  of  air,  because  it  is  not  one-hundredth  part  so  expansible  as  air.  If,  how- 
ever, the  labyrinth  be  completely  filled  with  this  aqueous  fluid,  how  can  any  un- 
dulation or  vibration  take  place?  Undulation  supposes  a  change  of  figure,  an 
enlargement  in  some  direction;  but  there  can  be  no  enlargement  in  a  bony  cavity 
completely  filled.  This  was  not  forgotten  in  the  wonderful  construction  of  the 
ear,  and,  therefore,  at  the  base  of  the  sliell,  m,  and  between  the  stirrup  and  the 
shell,  is  an  opening,  covered  likewise  with  membrane,  called  the  round  window, 
or  communication  between  the  drum  and  the  labyrinth.  When  any  force,  then,  is 
impressed  on  the  membrane  under  the  stirrup,  this  membrane  yields  to  the  im- 
pression, and  suffers  the  vibration  to  be  projjagated  through  the  whole  of  the 
labyrinth.  When  the  vibration  ceases,  and  the  fluid  is  at  rest,  the  membrane  over 
this  opening  returns  to  its  natural  situation,  and  is  ready  to  yield  to  the  next  im- 
pression. 

There  is  another  important  reason  why  these  cavities  are  filled  with  aqueous 
fluid.  The  principal  object  of  the  mechanism  of  the  little  bones,  we  have  seen  to 
be,  perfectly  to  convey,  and  even  to  increase  the  efl"ect  of,  the  vibration  first  com- 
municated to  the  membrane  of  tlie  drum.  The  vibration  reaches  the  oval  window, 
trebled  in  intensity.  The  same  object  is  pursued  within  the  labyrinth.  A  liquid 
is  placed  there,  because  sound  is  propagated  through  it  with  greater  rapidity. 
While  sovuid  travels  through  air  at  the  rate  of  1,132  feet  in  a  second,  it  passes 
through  water  at  the  rate  of  more  than  4,0 JO  feet  in  tli«  same  time.  The  impulse 
communicated  to  the  water  by  the  membrane  is  thus  moie  suddenly  spread  over  the 
whole  of  the  labyrinth.  There  is,  besides,  a  law  regulating  the  pressure  of  fluids, 
by  which  this  impulse  must  be  spread  over  the  whole  of  the  labyrinth,  and  every 
portion  of  the  expansion  of  the  nerve  will  be  affected  by  it,  which  woidd  not  be 
the  case  in  a  fluid  so  rare  and  so  expansible  as  air. 

The  strongest  reason,  however,  remains  to  be  stated — the  impression  or  vibra- 
tion is  rendered  more  intense,  by  travelling  through  water.  That  sound  which 
would  scarcely  be  heard  in  the  air  is  almost  deafening  under  water.  It  is  a  com- 
mon practice  for  boys  when  they  bathe,  to  dive  with  a  stone  in  each  hand,  and 
the  rubbing  of  them  together  umler  water  produces  a  rumbling  sound  of  e.xtraoi'- 
dinary  loudness.  This  is  contrary  to  the  old  opinion;  and  even  philosophers,  of  no 
mean  repute,  have  denied  that  fishes  had  ears,  because  they  were  placed  in  a  me- 
dium through  which  sound  could  scarcely  be  conveyed,  and  where  their  ears 
would  be  of  httle  use  to  them.      Later   and   better   observers  have   proved  that 


66  THE  HORSE. 

sound  is  propagated  far  more  intensely  through  water  than  tlirough  air;  and  there- 
fore an  aqueous  fluid  occupies  those  chambers  of  the  ear  on  the  walls  of  which 
the  auditory  nerve  is  expanded. 

The  oval  window  opens  into  the  labyrinth,  which  is  divided  into  three  compart- 
ments. First  is  the  vestibule,  h,  the  hall  of  entrance,  not  more  than  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  wide  in  the  actual  subject,  but  magnified  in  our  cut  for  the  purpose  of  il- 
lustration. Over  the  whole  of  the  membrane  by  which  it  is  lined,  there  are  spread 
expansions  of  the  soft  portion  of  the  seventh  pair  of  nerves. 

On  the  upper  side  are  several  foramina  or  holes,  k,  which  conduct  to  the  semi- 
circtdar  canuh,  i,  contiining  also  water,  lined  by  the  same  membrane,  and  that 
membrane  likewise  covered,  although  not  so  thickly,  with  nervous  pulp.  The 
posterior  one  is  a  pei-fectly  semi-circular  canal,  with  two  openings  into  the  ves- 
tibule. The  other  two  run  into  each  other  in  a  part  of  their  course,  and  have  one 
common  opening,  and  one  peculiar  to  each;  so  that  these  canals  open  into  the 
vestibule  by  five  apertures. 

These  canals  contain  a  singular  mechanism.  In  the  part  of  the  vestibule,  at  the 
opening  of  ihe  canals,  k,  is  suspended  a  little  bag  filled  with  a  very  clear  fluid, 
and  from  which  branches  go  into,  and  occupy  the  canals,  not  filling  them,  but 
floating  in  the  fluid  wliich  they  contain;  and  on  these  bags  the  portion  of  th«  nerve 
belonging  to  the  canal  is  principally  distributed.  The  membrane  composing  these 
bags  is  exceedingly  thin.  Thus  floating  in  the  fluid  of  the  canals,  and  riclily  sup- 
plied with  nervous  matter,  the  slightest  vibration  or  motion  communicated  to  the 
fluid,  by  the  stirrup  on  the  oval  window,  will  be  immediately  and  powerfully  felt. 

On  the  other  side  is,  if  possible,  a  more  complex  mechanism.  At  m  is  the 
cochlea,  so  termed  from  its  likeness  to  the  convolutions  of  a  shell.  It,  however, 
more  resembles  a  spiral  lamina,  or  narrow  and  thin  plate,  partly  bony,  and  partly 
membranous,  running  round  a  column  in  the  centre.  It  is  a  spiral  staircase  in  a 
round  tower.  The  base  of  it  rests  on  the  intei-nal  passage,  n,  through  which  both 
portions  of  the  seventh  pair  of  nerves  pass  into  the  ear.  Its  apex,  or  top,  ap- 
proaches the  Eustachian  tube,  o.  The  soft,  or  auditory  portion  of  the  nerve,  pe- 
netrates through  the  cribriform  or  sieve-like  termination  of  the  passage,  and  a  part 
of  it  runs  up  the  central  column  or  bone,  which  is  hollow  and  spongy,  and,  through 
a  thousand  apertures  in  it,  ramifies  on  the  lamina  of  bone,  twining  spirally  around 
the  column,  and  on  the  membranous  fringe  which  floats  in  the  fluid  witli  which 
the  shell  is  filled,  and  the  whole  is  covered  by  a  thick  expansion  of  nervous 
matter. 

The  cribriform  plate  extends  beyond  the  base  of  the  shell  to  the  vestibule,  and 
those  portions  of  nerve  there  enter,  which  spread  over  the  vestibule  and  the  semi- 
circular canals;  but  the  principal  part  of  it  seems  to  be  given  to  the  cochlea. 

What  is  the  distinct  and  peculiar  oflice  of  these  parts,  so  curiously  and  yet  so 
differently  constructed,  we  know  not.  They  are  both  admirably  adapted  to  render 
the  sense  of  hearing  fully  equal  to  every  possible  want  of  the  animal.  In  tl>e 
horse  the  cochlea  is  much  larger,  compared  with  the  canals,  than  it  is  in  the  ox 
or  sheep;  but  for  what  especial  purpose  we  are  unable  to  determine:  nor  can  we 
account  for  the  large  pouch-shaped  opening  of  the  Eustachian  tube  in  the  horse, 
(fig.  9,  p.  53,)  nor  for  the  small  development  of  the  mastoid  cells  in  the  horse, 
while  they  are  exceedingly  large  in  the  ox.  There  are  many  parts  of  the  frame, 
the  precise  use  or  function  of  which  we  cannot  ascertain;  but,  as  far  as  we  do  un- 
derstand the  mechanism  of  the  various  animals  which  pass  under  oui*  notice,  all  is 
fittest  and  best;  and  the  study  of  the  animal  frame,  with  a  view  to  discover  the 
evidences  of  design,  is  pleasing  and  improving. 

The  tye\i  a  most  importaut  organ,  and  comes  next  under  consideration,  as  en- 
closed in  the  bones  of  the  skull.  The  eye  of  the  horse  should  be  large,  and 
somewhat  but  not  too  prominent,  and  the  eyelid  fine  and  thin.  If  the  eye  be  sunk 
in  the  head,  and  apparently  little  (for  there  is  actually  a  very  trifling  difference  in 
the  size  of  the  eye  in  animals  of  the  same  species  and  bulk,  and  the  seeming  dif- 
ference arises  from  the  larger  or  smaller  opening  between  the  lids,)  and  the  lid  be 
thick,  and  especially  if  there  be  any  puckering  towards  the  inner  corner  of  the 
lids,  that  eye  either  is  diseased,  or  has  been  lately  subject  to  inflammation;  and, 
particularly,  if  one  eye  is  smaller  than  the  other,  it  has  been,  at  no  great  distance 
of  time,  inflamed. 

The  eye  of  the  horse  enables  us  pretty  accurately  to  guess  at  his  temper.  If 
much  of  the  white  be  seen,  the  buyer  should  pause  ere  he  completes  his  bargain; 
because,  although  it  may,  yet  very  rarely,  happen  that  the  cornea  or  transparent 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE.  67 

part  is  unnaturally  small,  and  therefore  an  unusual  portion  of  the  white  of  the  eye  is 
seen,  and  especially  when  the  horse  is  lookinpf  sideways,  or  backward,  yet  experi- 
ence has  shown  that  this  display  of  white  is  danp^erous.  The  mischievous  horse  is 
slyly  on  the  look  out  for  opportunities  to  do  mischief,  and  tlie  frequent  backward 
direction  of  the  eye,  when  the  white  is  most  perceptible,  is  only  to  give  surer 
effect  to  the  blow  which  he  is  about  to  aim. 

We  will  give  a  cursory  description  of  the  eye,  and  the  uses  of  its  different  parts. 
'  The  eyes  are  placed  at  the  side  of  the  head,  yet  a  little  pointing  forward,  to 
g-ive  the  animal  a  more  extended  field  of  vision.  He  needs  this  in  his  wild  state 
to  detect  the  approach  of  iiis  enemies^  and  it  is  useful  to  him  when  employed  in 
our  service. 

The  eye  is  supported  behind  by  muscles  attached  to  different  parts  of  the  bony 
orbit,  and  it  is  embedded  in  a  vast  mass  of  fat  upon  which  it  may  be  readily  moved, 
and  without  friction;  and  that  fat  being  absorbed  in  sickness  or  old  age,  the  eye  is 
retracted,  and  sinks  into  the  orbit. 

In  front  the  eye  is  supported  and  covered  by  the  lids,  which,  closing  rapidly, 
protect  it  from  many  an  injury  that  threatens— supply  it  with  that  moisture  which 
is  necessary  to  preserve  its  transparency— in  the  momentary  act  of  closing,  they 
give  a  certain  and  sufficient  respite  to  a  delicate  organ,  which  would  otherwise 
be  fatigued  and  worn  out  by  the  constant  glare  of  day;  when  the  eye  labors  un- 
der inflammation,  defend  it  from  the  stimulus  of  hght — and,  gradually  drooping-, 
permit  the  animal  to  enjoy  that  repose  which  nature  requires. 

Extending  round  both  lids,  and,  it  may  be  almost  said,  having  neither  origin  nor 
insertion,  is  a  muscle  called  the  orbicularis,  or  circular  muscle.  Its  office  is  to  close 
the  lids  in  the  act  of  winking  or  otherwise,  but  only  while  the  animal  is  awake. 
When  he  sleeps,  this  is  effected  by  another  and  very  ingenious  mechanism,  for  no 
voluntary  muscle  will  continue  in  action  during  sleep.  The  natural  state  of  the 
eyelids  is  that  of  being  closed;  and  they  are  kept  open  by  the  energy  of  the  mus- 
cles, whose  office  it  is  to  raise  the  upper  lid.  As  sleep  steals  upon  the  animal, 
these  muscles  cease  to  act,  and  the  lids  close  by  the  inherent  elasticity  of  the 
membrane  of  which  they  are  composed. 

The  skin  of  the  lid  is,  like  that  of  the  ear,  exceedingly  fine,  to  prevent  unne- 
cessary weight  and  pressure  on  such  a  part,  and  to  give  more  easy  and  extensive 
motion.  The  lids  close  accurately  when  drawn  over  the  eye,  and  this  is  effected 
by  a  little  strip  of  cartilage,  at  the  edge  of  each  of  them,  which  may  be  easily  felt 
with  the  finger,  and  which  preserves  them  in  a  hoop-like  form,  and  adapts  them 
closely  to  the  eye  and  lo  each  other.  The  lower  cartilage,  however,  does  not,  as 
a  mo^Tient's  observation  will  show,  present  towards  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye  the 
whole  of  its  flat  surface  to  the  upper,  but  it  evidently  slopes  inward,  and  only  the 
outer  edge  of  the  under  lid  touches  tlie  upper,  and,  'by  this  means,  a  little  gutter 
is  formed,  by  which  the  superfluous  moisture  of  the  eye  flows  to  the  inner  corner 
where  there  is  a  canal  to  convey  it  away,  and  therefore  it  neither  accumulates  in 
the  eye,  nor  unpleasantly  runs  down  the  cheek. 

Along  the  edges  of  the  lids  are  placed  numerous  little  hollows  which  can  be 
plainly  distinguished  even  in  the  living  horse  by  slightly  turning  down  the  lid. 
These  are  the  openings  into  numerous  small  cells  containing  a  thick  and  unctuous 
fluid,  by  means  of  which  the  eyes  are  more  accurately  closed,  and  the  edges  of 
the  lids  defended  from  the  acrimony  of  the  tears. 

The  horse  has  no  eyebrows,  and  the  eyelashes  are  very  peculiarly  arranged.  The 
rows  of  hair  are  longest  and  most  numerous  on  the  upper  lid,  and  especially  to- 
wards the  outer  or  temporal  corner,  because  tlie  light  comes  from  above;  and,  as 
the  animal  stands,  and  particularly  when  he  is  grazing,  and  from  the  lateral  situa- 
tion of  his  eyes,  the  greater  portion  of  the  light,"  and  the  attacks  of  insects,  and  the 
rolling  down  of  moisture,  would  chiefly  be  from  the  outside  or  temples.  Towards 
the  inner  corner  of  the  eye  there  is  little  or  no  eyelash,  because  there  is  no  pro- 
bable danger  or  nuisance  in  that  direction.  Only  a  small  quantity  of  light  can 
enter  frpm  below,  and  therefore  the  lashes  are  thin  and  short;  but  as^  in  the  act 
of  grazing,  insects  may  more  readily  climb  up  and  be  troublesome  to  the  eye, 
towards  the  inner  angle,  there  the  principal  or  only  hair  is  found  on  the  lower  lid. 
These  apparently  trifling  circumstances  will  not  be  overlooked  by  the  careful 
observer. 

They  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  absurdity  of  stable  management,  or  who 
have  not  carefully  examined^  the  abuses  which  may  exist  in  their  own  establish- 
ments, can  scarcely  perceive  the  foolish  and  cruel  practices  of  some  carters  and 


68  THE  HORSE. 

grooms.  We  know  that  when  the  groom  is  anxious  that  his  horse  should  be  as 
trim  and  neat  all  over  as  art  can  make  him,  the  very  eyelashes  are  generally  sa- 
crificed. What  has  the  poor  animal  suffered  when,  travelling  in  the  noon  of  day, 
the  full  blaze  of  the  sun  has  fallen  upon  his  eyes;  and  how  many  accidents  have 
probably  happened,  from  his  being  dazzled  by  the  light,  but  which  have  been  attri- 
buted to  other  causes. 

If  tlie  horse  has  no  eyebrow,  there  are  several  hairs  or  bristles  scattered  on  the 
upper  eyelid,  and  there  is  a  projecting  fold  of  the  lid  which  discharges  nearlj'  the 
same  office.  It  is  more  conspicuous  in  old  horses  th;in  in  young  ones.  Some 
horsemen  do  not  like  to  see  it,  and  associate  the  idea  of  it  with  weakness  or  dis- 
ease of  the  eye.  This  is  perfectly  erroneous.  It  is  a  provision  of  nature  to 
accomplish  a  certain  purpose,  and  has  notliing  to  do  either  with  health  or  disease. 
On  the  lower  lid  is  a  useful  provision  to  warn  the  horse  of  the  near  approach  of 
any  object  that  might  incommode  or  injure  him,  in  the  form  of  long  projecting 
hairs  or  bristles,  and  wliich  are  plenteously  imbued  with  nervous  influence,  so  that 
the  slightest  toucli  shall  put  the  animal  on  his  guard.  We  would  request  any  of 
our  readers,  by  whom  the  experiment  never  has  been  made,  to  touch  very  slight- 
ly the  extremity  of  one  of  tliese  hairs.  They  will  be  surprised  to  observe  the  sud- 
den convulsive  twitching  of  the  lid,  rendering  the  attack  of  the  insect  absolutely 
impossible.  Those  ignorant  gi-ooms,  howeyer,  who  cut  away  the  eyelashes,  do 
not  spare  these  useful  feelers. 

The  eye  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  atmospheric  air,  and  the  process  of 
evaporation,  destructive  of  its  transparency,  is  continually  going  on.  The  eye  of 
the  horse,  or  the  visible  part  of  the  eye,  is  likewise  more  prominent  and  larger 
than  in  the  human  being,  and  the  animal  is  often  subject  to  extreme  annoyance 
from  dust  and  insects,  while  he  has  no  hands  or  other  guards  to  defend  himself 
from  the  torture  which  they  occasion.  What  is  the  provision  of  nature  against 
this?  Under  tlie  lid,  and  a  little  within  the  outer  corner  of  the  upper  lid,  is  a  large 
irregular  body,  the  lachrymal  gland,  comparatively  larger  than  in  the  human  be- 
ing, secreting  an  aqueous  fluid,  and  which  fluid  slowly  issuing  out  from  the  gland, 
and,  more  especially,  pressed  out  of  it  by  the  act  of  winking,  flows  over  the  eye, 
supplies  it  with  moisture,  and  washes  off  all  impurities.  Human  ingenuity  could 
not  have  selected  a  situation  from  which  the  fluid  could  be  conveyed  over  the  eye 
with  more  advantage  for  this  purpose. 

When  this  fluid  is  secreted  in  an  undue  quantity,  and  flows  over  the  eye,  it  is 
called  tears.  An  increased  flow  of  tears  is  produced  by  any  thing  that  irritates 
the  eye,  and,  therefore,  a  constant  accompaniment  and  symptom  of  inflammation. 
A  horse  with  any  degi-ee  of  weeping,  or  the  flowing  of  the  tears  down  the  cheek, 
should  be  regarded  with  much  suspicion.  In  the  human  being  an  unusual  secre- 
tion of  tears  is  often  caused  by  bodily  pain,  and  ernotions  of  the  mind;  and  so  it  is 
occasionally  in  the  horse.  We  have  seen  it  repeatedly,  under  acute  pain  or  brutal 
usage.  John  Lawrence,  speaking  of  the  cruelty  exercised  (and  we  know  still  too 
often  exercised)  by  some  dealers  in  what  they  call  "  firing"  a  horse  before  he  is 
led  out  for  sale,  in  order  to  arouse  every  spark  of  metal,  says,  "  more  than  fifty 
years  have  passed  away,  and  I  have  before  my  eyes  a  poor  mare  stone  blind,  ex- 
quisitely shaped,  and  showing  all  tlie  marks  of  high  blood,  whom  I  saw  unmerci- 
fully cut  with  the  whip  a  quarter  of  an  hour  before  the  sale,  to  bring  her  to  the 
use  of  her  stiffened  limbs,  while  the  tears  were  trickling  down  her  cheeks." 

Having  passed  over  the  eye,  the  fluid  is  conveyed  by  the  little  canal  of  which 
we  have  spoken,  formed  by  the  sloping  of  the  under  lid  towards  the  corner  of 
the  eye;  and  there  are  two  little  orifices  that  conduct  it  to  a  small  reservoir  within, 
and  at  the  upper  part  of  the  lachrymal  bone,  (fig.  £,  p.  52.)  A  little  protuberance 
of  a  black  or  pied  color,  called  the  caruncle,  placed  in  the  very  corner  of  the  eye, 
and  to  be  seen  without  opening  the  lids,  is  situated  between  these  orifices,  and 
guides  the  fluid  into  them.  From  this  reservoir  the  tears  are  conveyed  by  a  long 
canal,  the  lachrymal  duct,  partly  bony  and  partly  membranous,  to  the  lower  part 
of  the  nose.  A  little  within  the  nostril,  and  on  the  division  between  the  nostrils, 
is  seen  the  lower  opening  of  this  canal;  the  situation  of  which  our  readers  should 
carefully  mark,  and  bear  in  mind  its  real  use,  for  not  only  horsemen,  but  even 
some  careless  veterinary  surgeons,  have  mistaken  it  for  a  glanderous  ulcer,  and  have 
condemned  a  useful  and  valuable  animal.  It  is  found  just  before  the  skin  of  the 
muzzle  terminates,  and  the  more  delicate  membrane  of  the  nostril  comrnences. 
The  opening  of  the  canal  is  placed  thus  lo\v  because  the  membrane  of  the  nose  is 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE.  69 

exceedingly  delicate,  and  would  be  irritated  and  made  sore  by  the  frequent  of 
constant  running  down  of  the  tears. 

This  canal  is  sometimes  obstructed  in  the  human  being,  and  the  reservoir  is  dis- 
tended and  bursts;  an  ulcer  is  then  formed,  very  difficult  to  heal,  and  only  healed 
by  a  metal  style  or  pin,  penetrating  into  the  duct,  being  worn  for  a  considerable 
time.  Fortunately  the  lachrymal  duct  is  rarely  obstructed  in  the  horse,  for  if  it 
were,  and  ulceration  were  to  follow,  no  mechanical  contrivance  could  retain  the 
style  or  pin  in  its  place.  The  dog  is  subject  to  obstructions  of  this  canal,  and  the 
ulcer  formed  by  the  bursting  of  the  sac  is  never  healed. 

There  is,  however,  something  yet  wanting.  We  have  a  provision  for  supplying 
the  eve  with  requisite  moisture,  and  for  washing  from  off  the  transparent  part  of 
it  insects  or  dust  which  may  annoy  the  anim.il.  What  becomes  of  these  impurities 
when  thus  washed  off '  Are  they  carried  by  the  tears  to  the  corner  of  the  eye, 
and  so  pass  down  this  duct,  and  irritate  and  obstruct  it;  or  do  they  accumulate  at 
the  inner  angle  of  the  eye?  There  is  a  beautiful  contrivance  for  disposing  of  them 
as  fast  as  they  enter  the  eye.  Concealed  within  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye,  or 
only  the  margin  of  it,  black  or  pied,  visible,  is  a  triangular-shaped  cartilage,  the 
haw,  with  its  broad  part  before.  It  is  concave  within,  exactly  to  suit  the  globe 
of  the  eye;  and  it  is  convex  without,  accurately  to  adapt  itself  to  the  membrane 
lining  the  lid;  and  the  base  of  it  is  reduced  to  a  thin  or  almost  sharp  edge.  At 
the  will  of  the  animal  this  is  suddenly  protruded  from  its  hiding  place,  passes  ra- 
pidly over  the  eye,  and  shovels  up  every  nuisance  mixed  with  the  tears,  and  then, 
being  speedily  drawn  back,  the  dust  or  insect  is  wiped  off  as  the  cai-tilage  again 
passes  under  the  corner  of  the  eye. 

How  is  this  managed  ?  This  cartilage  has  no  muscle  attached  to  it,  and  the 
limbs,  and  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  when  put  into  motion  by  the  influence 
of  the  will,  are  moved  invariably  by  muscles.  The  mechanism  is  simple  and  ef- 
fectual. There  is  a  g^eat  mass  of  fat  at  the  back  of  the  eye  that  the  eye  may  be 
easily  moved;  and  this  fat  is  particularly  accumulated  about  the  inner  corner  of 
the  eye,  and  beneath,  and  at  the  point  of  this  cartilage.  The  eye  of  the  horse  has 
likewise  very  strong  muscles  attached  to  it,  and  one,  peculiar  to  quadrupeds,  of 
extraordinary  power,  and  by  whose  aid,  if  the  animal  has  not  hands  to  ward  off 
a  danger  that  threatens,  he  is  at  least  enabled  to  draw  the  eye  back  almost  out  pf 
the  reach  of  that  danger. 

Dust,  or  gravel,  or  insects,  shall  have  entered  the  eye,  and  annoy  the  horse. 
This  peculiar  muscle  suddenly  acts.  The  eye  is  forcibly  drawn  back,  and  presses 
upon  the  fatty  matter.  That  may  be  displaced,  but  cannot  be  squeezed  into  less 
compass.  It  is  forced  violently  towards  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye,  and  it  drives 
before  it  the  haw;  and  the  haw  having  likewise  some  fat  about  the  point  of  it,  and 
and  being  placed  between  the  eye  and  an  exceedingly  smooth  and  polished  bone, 
and,  being  pressed  upon  by  the  eye  as  it  is  violently  drawn  back,  shoots  out  with 
the  rapidity  of  lightning,  and,  guided  by  the  eyelids,  projects  over  the  eye,  and 
thus  carries  off  the  offending  matter. 

In  what  way  shall  we  draw  the  haw  back  again  without  muscular  action?  Another 
principle  is  called  into  play,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  and  of  which  we 
shall  have  much  to  say,  elasticity.  It  is  that  principle  by  which  a  body  yields  to 
a  certain  force  impressed  upon  it,  and  returns  to  its  former  state  as  soon  as  that 
force  is  removed.  It  is  that  by  which  the  ligament  of  the  neck,  (p.  53,)  while  it 
supports  the  head,  enables  the  horse  to  graze — by  which  the  heart  expands  after 
closing  on  and  propelling  forward  the  blood  in  its  ventricles — by  which  the  artery 
contracts  on  the  blood  that  has  distended  it,  and  by  which  many  of  the  most  im- 
portant functions  of  life  are  influenced  or  governed.  This  muscle  ceases  to  act. 
The  eye  resumes  its  natural  situation  in  the  orbit.  There  is  room  for  the  fatty 
matter  to  return  to  its  place,  and  it  immediately  returns  by  the  elasticity  of  the 
membrane  by  which  it  is  covered;  and  it  draws  after  it  this  cartilage  with  which 
it  is  connected,  and  the  return  is  as  rapid  as  the  projection. 

The  old  famers  strangely  misunderstood  the  nature  and  design  of  the  haw,  and 
many  of  the  present  day  do  not  seem  to  be  much  better  informed.  When  from 
sympathy  with  other  parts  of  the  eye  laboring  under  inflammation,  and  becoming 
itself  inflamed,  and  increased  in  bidk,  and  the  neigliboring  parts  likewise  thick- 
ened, it  was  either  forced  out  of  its  place,  or  voluntarily  protruded  to  defend  the 
eye  from  the  action  of  hght,  and  could  not  return,  they  mistook  it  for  some  inju- 
rious excrescence  or  tumor,  and  proceeded  to  cut  it  out.  The  "  haw  in  the  eyes," 
is  a  disease  well  known  to  the  majority  of  grooms,  and  this  sad  remedy  for  it  is 


70 


THE  FIORSE. 


deemed  the  only  cure.  It  is  a  barbarous  practice,  and  if  they  were  compelled  to 
walk  half  a  dozen  miles  in  a  thick  dust,  and  without  being-  permitted  to  wipe  or 
to  cleanse  the  eye,  they  would  feel  the  torture  to  which  they  doom  this  noble  ani- 
mal when  afterwards  employed  in  their  service.  A  little  patience  having  been 
exercised,  and  a  few  cooling'  applications  made  to  the  eye  while  the  inflammation 
lasted,  and,  aftervyards,  some  mild  astringent  ones,  and  other  proper  means  em- 
ployed, the  tumor  would  have  disappeared,  the  haw  would  have  returned  to  its 
place,  and  the  animal  would  have  discharged  the  duties  required  of  him,  without 
inconvenience  to  himself,  instead  of  the  agony  to  which  an  unguarded  and  unpro- 
tected eje  must  frequently  expose  him. 

The  loss  of  blood  occasioned  by  the  cutting  out  of  the  haw  may  frequently  i-e- 
lieve  the  inflammation  of  the  eye;  and  the  evident  amendment  which  follows  in- 
duces these  wise  men  to  believe  that  they  have  performed  an  excellent  operation^ 
but  the  same  loss  of  blood,  by  scarification  of  the  over-loaded  vessels  of  the  con- 
junctiva, would  be  equally  beneficial,  and  the  animal  would  not  be  deprived  of  an 
instrument  of  admirable  use  to  him. 

The  eye  is  of  a  globular  figure,  yet  not  a  perfect  globe.  It  is  rather  composed 
of  parts  of  two  globes.  The  half  of  the  one,  f,  smaller,  and  transparent  in  front, 
and  of  the  other,  p,  larger,  and  the  coat  of  it  opaque  behind.  We  shall  most  con- 
veniently begin  with  the  coats  of  the  eye. 


ABA  supposed  object  viewed  by  the  aninial,  and  an  inverted  Image  of  which,  a, 
b,  is  thrown  on  the  retina  at  the  back  of  the  eye. 

c  c  The  points  where  the  rays,  having  passed  the  cornea  and  the  lens,  converge  by 
the  refractive  power  of  the  lens. 

d  e  The  rays  proceeding  from  the  extremities  of  the  object  to  the  eye. 

f  The  cornea,  or  horny  and  transparent  part  of  the  eye,  covered  by  the  conjuncti- 
va, uniting  different  parts  together. 

g  The  cr)'stalline  (crystal  or  glassy)  lens,  behind  the  pupil,  and  in  front  of  the 
vitreous  humor. 

h  h  Muscles  of  the  eye. 

i       The  optic  nerve,  or  nerve  of  sight. 

k  The  sclerotica  (hard  firm  coat)  covering  the  whole  of  the  eye  except  the  portion 
occupied  by  the  cornea,  and  being  a  seeming  prolongation  of  the  covering 
of  the  optic  nerve. 

/  The  ckoroides,  (receptacle  or  covering)  or  choroid  coat,  covered  with  a  black 
secretion  or  paint. 

m  m  The  iris,  or  rainbow-colored  circular  membrane,  under  the  cornea,  in  front 
of  the  eye,  and  on  which  the  color  of  the  eye  depends.  The  duplicature 
behind  is  the  uvta,  from  being  colored  like  a  gi-ape.  The  opening  in  the 
centi-e  is  the  pupil. 

n  n   The  ciliary  (hair-like)  processes. 

o  The  retina,  or  net-like  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve,  spread  over  the  whole  of 
the  choroides  as  far  as  the  lens. 

p  The  vitreous  (glass-like)  humor  filling  the  whole  of  the  cavity  of  the  eye  be- 
hind the  lens. 

q  The  aqueous  (water-like)  humor  filling  the  space  between  the  cornea  and  the 
lens. 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE.  71 

The  conjunctiva,  f,  is  that  membrane  which  lines  the  lids,  and  covers  the  fore 
part  of  the  eye.  It  covers  all  that  we  can  see  or  feel  of  the  eye,  and  even  its  trans- 
parent part.  It  is  itself  transparent,  and  transmits  the  color  of  the  parts  beneath. 
It  is  very  susceptible  of  inflammation,  during'  whicti  the  lining  of  the  lids  will 
become  intensely  red,  and  the  white  of  the  eye  will  be  first  streaked  with  red  ves- 
sels, and  then  covered  with  a  complete  mesh  of  them,  and  the  cornea  will  become 
cloudy  and  opaque.  It  is  the  seat  of  various  diseases,  and  particularly  in  it  com- 
mences the  sad  inflammation  of  the  horse's  eye,  which  bids  defiance  to  the  vete- 
rinary surgeon's  skill,  and  almost  invariably  terminates  in  blindness. 

The  examination  of  the  conjunctiva,  by  turning  down  the  lid,  will  enable  us  to 
form  an  accurate  judgment  of  the  degree  of  inflammation  which  exists  in  the  eye. 
Horsemen  and  farriers,  however,  seem  to  think  that  it  likewise  indicates  the  degree 
of  inflammation  in  almost  every  other  part,  or,  at  least,  of  the  general  fever  which 
may  accompany  local  inflammation.  There  is  a  part  which  much  more  clearly  in- 
dicates this,  and  especially  if  the  general  disturbance  be  accompanied  or  produced 
by  any  affection  of  the  lungs — a  part  which  will  rarely  deceive,  and  is  more  easily 
got  at,  viz.,  the  membrane  lining  the  nose.  If  the  edge  of  the  nostril  be  lifted 
up,  the  color  of  the  nostril  will  faithfully  indicate  th«  degree  of  chest  affection,  and 
of  general  inflammation  or  fever. 

Covering  the  back  part  of  the  eye,  and,  indeed,  four-fifths  of  the  globe  of  the 
eye,  is  the  sclerotica,  ki  It  is  an  exceedingly  strong  membrane,  composed  of  fibres 
interweaving  with  each  other,  and  almost  defying  the  possibility  of  separation.  An 
organ  so  delicate,  and  so  important  as  the  eye,  requires  secure  protection. 

This  is  a  highly  elastic  membrane.  It  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  so,  when'  we 
consider  that  the  eye  is  surrounded  by  several,  and  very  powerful  muscles,  which 
must  temporarily,  and  even  for  the  purposes  of  vision,  alter  its  shape.  The  elas- 
ticity of  the  sclerotica  is  usefully  exhibited,  by  its  causing  the  globe  of  the  eye  to 
resume  its  former  and  natural  shape  as  soon  as  the  action  of  the  muscle  ceases. 

The  sclerotica  has  very  few  blood  vessels;  is  scarcely  sensible;  and  its  diseases, 
except  when  it  participates  in  general  disturbance  or  disorganization,  are  rarely 
brought  under  our  notice.      We  therefore  pass  on  to  the  cornea. 

The  cornea  is,  or  we  should  wish  it  to  be,  the  only  visible  part  of  the  horse's  eye, 
for  we  repeat,  that  the  exhibition  of  much  white  about  it  is  a  symptom  of  wicked- 
ness. The  cornea  fills  up  the  vacuity  which  is  left  by  the  sclerotica  in  the  fore 
part  of  the  eye,  and  although  closely  united  to  the  sclerotica,  may  be  separated 
from  it,  and  will  drop  out  like  a  watch  glass.  It  is  not  round,  but  wider  from  side 
to  side,  than  from  top  to  bottom;  and  the  curve  rather  broader  towards  the  inner 
than  the  outer  corner  of  the  eye,  SO  that  th?  near  eye  may  be  known  from  the  off, 
after  it  is  taken  from  the  he.ad. 

The  convexity  or  projection  of  the  cornea  is  a  point  of  considerable  importance. 
The  prominence  of  the  eye  certainly  adds  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  animal,  but 
we  shall  see  presently,  when  we  considier  the  eye  as  the  organ  of  sight,  that,  by 
being  too  prominent,  the  rays  of  light  may  be  rendered  too  convergent,  and  thte 
vision  indistinct;  or  if  the  cornea  be  small  and  flat,  the  rays  may  not  be  conver- 
gent enough,  and  perfect  vision  destroyed;  and,  in  either  case,  the  horse  may  un- 
pleasantly start,  or  suddenly  and  dangerously  turn  round.  An  eye  neither  too  pro- 
minent nor  too  flat  will  be  nearest  to  perfection. 

It  ought  to  be  perfectly  transparent,  and  any  cloudiness  or  opacity  is  the  conse- 
quence of  disease,  it  is  an  exceedingly  firm  and  dense  membrane,  and  can  scarcely 
be  pierced  by  the  sharpest  instrument.  The  cornea  is  composed  of  many  different 
plates,  laid  over  one  another,  and  between  each,  at  least  in  a  state  of  health,  is  a 
fluid,  which  is  the  cause  of  its  transparency;  and  the  evaporation  of  which,  after 
death,  produces  the  leaden  or  glazed  appearance  of  the  ej-e.  When  it  appears  to 
be  opaque,  it  is  not  often,  and  never  at  first,  that  the  cornea  is  changed.  It  is  the 
conjunctiva,  the  membrane  that  spreads  over  it,  that  now  carries  through  its  nu- 
merous vessels  white  blood  instead  of  that  which  was  perfectly  pellucid  or  clear; 
or  there  is  a  secretion  of  a  milky  fluid  over  or  through  the  conjunctiva,  leaving 
the  cornea  beneath  unaffected.  If,  however,  the  inflammation  of  the  conjunctiva 
contmues,  a  thick  fluid  is  at  length  thrown  out  between  the  plates  of  the  cornea, 
and  the  cloudmess  is  converted  mto  perfect  opacity. 

Tlvere  is  nothing  which  deserves  so  much  attention  from  the  purchaser  of  a  horse, 
as  the  perfect  transparency  of  the  cornea  over  the  whole  of  its  surface.  The  eye 
should  be  examined  for  tliis  purpose,  both  in  front,  and  with  the  face  of  the  exami- 
ner close  to  the  cheek  of  the  horse,  under  and  behind  the  eye.     The  latter  method 


72  THE  HORSE. 

of  looking  through  the  cornea  is  the  most  satisfactory,  so  far  as  the  transparency 
of  that  part  of  the  eye  is  concerned.  During  this  examination  the  horse  should 
not  be  in  the  open  air,  but  in  the  stable,  standing  in  the  door-way  and  a  httle  within 
the  door.  If  any  small,  faint,  whitish  lines  appear  to  cross  the  cornea,  or  spread 
over  any  part  of  it,  they  are  assuredly  the  remains  of  previous  inflammation;  or 
altliough  the  centre  and  bulk  of  the  cornea  should  be  perfectly  clear,  yet,  if  round 
the  edge  of  it,  where  it  unites  with  the  sclerotica,  there  should  be  a  naiTow  ring 
or  circle  of  haziness,  the  conclusion  is  equally  true,  but  the  inflammation  occurred 
at  a  more  distant  period.  Whether,  however,  the  inflammation  has  lately  existed, 
or  several  weeks  or  months  have  elapsed  since  it  was  subdued,  there  is  every  pro- 
bability that  it  will  recur. 

There  is  one  little  caution  to  be  added.  The  cornea  in  its  natural  state  is  not 
only  a  beautifully  transparent  body,  but  it  reflects,  even  in  proportion  to  its  trans- 
parency, many  of  the  rays  which  fall  upon  it,  and,  if  there  be  a  white  object  im- 
mediately before  the  eye,  as  a  very  light  waistcoat,  or  much  display  of  a  white 
neckcloth,  the  reflection  may  puzzle  an  experienced  observer,  and  has  misled  the 
careless  one.  The  coat  should  be  buttoned  up,  and  the  wliite  cravat  carefully  con- 
cealed. 

Within  the  sclerotica,  and  connected  with  it  by  innumerable  minute  fibres  and 
vessels,  is  the  choroid  coat,  I.  It  is  a  very  delicate  membrane,  and  extends  over  the 
whole  of  the  internal  part  of  the  e3'e,  from  the  optic  nerve  to  the  cornea.  It  se- 
cretes a  dark  colored  substance  or  paint,  by  which  it  is  covered;  the  intention  of 
which,  like  the  inside  of  our  telescopes  and  microscopes,  has  been  supposed  to  be, 
to  absorb  any  stray  rays  of  light  which  might  dazzle  and  confuse.  The  black  paint, 
pigmentum  nigrum,  seems  perfectly  to  discharge  this  function  in  the  human  eye. 
It  IS  placed  immediately  under  the  retina  or  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve.  The 
rays  of  light  fall  on  the  retina,  and,  penetrating  its  delicate  substance,  are  imme- 
diately absorbed  or  destroyed  by  the  black  covering  of  the  choroides  underneath. 
For  the  perfection  of  many  of  his  best  pleasures,  and,  particularly  of  his  intellec- 
tual powers,  man  wants  the  vivid  impression  which  will  be  caused  by  the  admission 
of  the  rays  of  light  into  a  perfectly  dark  chamber;  and  when  the  light  of  the  sun 
begins  to  fail,  his  superior  intelhgence  has  enabled  him  to  discover  various  methods 
of  substituting  an  artificial  day,  after  the  natural  one  has  closed.  Other  animals, 
without  this  power  of  kindling  another  although  inferior  light,  have  far  more  to 
do  with  the  night  than  we  have.  Many  of  them  sleep  through  the  glare  of  day, 
and  awake,  and  are  busy  during  the  period  of  darkness.  Our  servant  the  ox  oc- 
cupies some  hours  of  the  night  in  grazing;  the  sheep  does  so  when  not  folded  in 
his  pen;  and  the  horse,  worked  during  the  day  for  our  convenience  and  profit,  has 
often  little  more  than  the  period  of  night  allotted  to  him  for  nourishment  and  re- 
pose. Then  it  is  necessary  that,  by  some  peculiar  and  excellent  contrivance,  these 
hours  of  comparative  or  total  darkness  to  us  should  be  partially  yet  sufliciently  il- 
luminated for  them;  and  therefore,  in  the  horse,  the  dark  brown  or  black  coat  of 
the  choroides  does  not  extend  over  the  whole  of  the  internal  part  of  the  eye,  or 
rather  it  is  not  found  on  any  part  on  which  the  rays  proceeding  from  the  objects 
could  fall.  It  is  not  found  in  any  part  of  what  may  be  called  the  field  of  vision; 
but,  in  its  place,  a  bright  variegated  green  is  spread,  and  more  over  the  upper  part 
than  the  lower,  because  the  animal's  food,  and  the  objects  which  it  is  of  conse- 
quence for  him  to  notice,  are  usually  below  the  level  of  his  head — thus,  by  suflering 
the  impression  to  remain  longer  on  the  retina,  or  by  some  portion  of  light  reflect- 
ed from  this  variegated  bed  on  which  the  retina  reposes,  or  in  some  other  inexpli- 
cable but  efficient  way,  enabling  the  animal,  even  in  comparative  darkness,  to  pos- 
sess a  power  of  vision  equal  to  his  wants. 

The  reader  may  see  in  the  dusk,  or  even  when  duskiness  is  fast  yielding  to  utter 
darkness,  the  beautiful  sea-green  reflection  from  the  eye  of  the  horse.  It  is  that 
lucid  variegated  carpet  of  which  we  are  now  speaking. 

Who  is  unaware  that  in  the  fading  ghmmering  of  the  evening,  and  even  in  the 
darker  shades  of  night,  his  horse  can  see  surrounding  objects  much  better  than  his 
rider,  and  who,  resigning  himself  to  the  guidance  of  that  sagacious  and  faithful  ani- 
mal, has  not  been  carried  in  safety  to  his  journey's  end,  when  he  would  otherwise 
have  been  bewildered? 

If  our  reader  has  not  seen  this  beautiful  pigment  in  the  eye  of  the  horse,  we 
would  entreat  him  to  take  the  earhest  opportunity  of  examining  it,  and  he  will  be 
convinced  what  care  that  Being,  who  gave  all  things  life,  has  taken  that  each  shall 
b«  fitted  for  his  situation.     The  horse  has  not  the  intelligence  of  man,  and  may  not 


THE  EYE.  7S 

want  for  any  purpose  of  pleasure  or  improvement,  the  vivid  picture  of  surrounding 
objects,  wiiich  the  retina  of  the  human  being  presents.  A  thousand  minute  but 
exquisite  beauties  would  be  lost  upon  him.  He  has  not  the  faculty  to  appreciate, 
or  to  profit  by  them.  If,  therefore,  his  sense  of  vision  may  not  be  so  strong  during 
the  day,  it  is  made  up  to  him  by  the  increased  power  of  vision  in  the  dark. 

Perfectljf  while  and  cream  colored  horses  have  a  peculiar  appearance  of  the 
eyes.  The  pupil  is  red  instead  of  black.  They  have  no  black  paint  or  brilli-^nt 
carpet.  It  is  the  choroid  coat  itself  which  we  see  in  tliem,  and  not  its  covering; 
and  the  red  appearance  is  caused  by  the  numerous  blood-vessels  which  are  found 
on  every  pare  of  that  coat. 

When  we  come  to  treat  of  other  domestic  aninials,  we  shall  tell  how  this  carpet 
is  varied  in  color  to  suit  the  situation  and  necessity  of  each.  In  the  ox  it  is  of  a 
dark  green.  He  has  not  many  enemies  to  fear,  nor  much  difficulty  in  searching 
for  nourishment,  and  the  color  of  the  eye  is  adapted  to  his  food.  In  the  cat  and 
all  his  varieties,  it  is  yellow.  We  have  heard  of  the  eyes  of  the  lion  appearing  like 
two  flaming  torches  in  the  night.  It  is  the  refiection  of  the  httle  light  about  him, 
concentred  on  the  yellow  carpet.  There  are  few  of  our  readers  who  have  not 
seen  the  same  singular  glare  from  the  eyes  of  the  domestic  cat.  In  the  wolf,  and 
likewise  in  the  dog,  who,  in  his  wild  state,  prowls  cliiefly  at  night,  it  is  grey.  In 
the  poor,  unjustly  persecuted  badger,  who  scarcely  dares  to  crawl  forth  at  night, 
although  sheltered  by  the  thickest  darkness,  it  is  white;  and  the  ferret,  who  is  des- 
tined to  hunt  his  prey  through  all  its  winding  reti-eats,  and  in  what  would  be  to  us 
absolute  darkness,  has  no  paint  on  the  choroides. 

Tracing  the  choi'oides  towards  the  fore  part  of  the  eye,  we  perceive  that  it  is 
reflected  from  the  side  to  the  edge  of  the  lens,  n,  and  has  the  appearance  of  se- 
veral plaits  or  folds.  They  are  actually  foldings  of  the  membrane.  It  is  not  di- 
minished in  size,  but  it  has  less  space  to  cover,  and  therefore  there  must  be  these 
duplicatures  or  plaits.  They  are  very  usefully  employed  in  the  place  in  which  we 
find  them.  They  prevent  the  passage  of  any  rays  of  light  on  the  outside  of  the 
lens,  and  which,  proceeding  forward  in  various  directions,  and  uncondensed  by  the 
power  of  the  lens,  would  render  vision  confused  or  imperfect.  These  folds  of  the 
choroides  are  called  the  ciliary  processes. 

Of  the  last  and  innermost  coat  of  the  eye,  the  retina,  for  which  all  the  others 
were  constructed,  we  shall  be  better  able  to  speak  when  we  have  explained  tlie 
contents  of  the  eye. 

Within  the  cornea,  and  occupying  the  fore  part  of  the  eye,  is  the  aqueous  hu- 
mor, p,  so  termed  from  its  i-esemblance  to  pure  water.  It  is  that  by  which  the 
cornea  is  preserved  in  its  protuberant  and  rounded  form.  It  extends  to  tlie  crys- 
talline lens,  q,  and  therefore  a  portion  of  it,  although  a  very  small  one,  is  behind 
the  iris,  (to,  p.  70.)  Floating  in  this  fluid  is  a  membrane,  with  an  oblong  aperture, 
called  the  iris.  It  is  that  which  gives  color  to  the  eye.  The  human  eye  is  said  to 
be  black,  or  hazel,  or  blue,  according  to  the  co'.or  of  this  membrane  or  curtain; 
and  it  is  called  the  iris,  or  rainbow,  from  its  beauti.ul,  interming-ling  hues.  The 
color  varies  but  little  in  the  horse,  and  always  bears  some  analogy  to  that  of  the 
skin.  We  rarely  see  it  lighter  than  a  hazel,  or  darker  than  a  brown.  The  spark- 
ling black  of  the  human  being  is  never  found.  Horses  perfectly  white,  or  cream- 
colored,  have  the  iris  white  and  the  pupil  red.  When  horses  of  other  colors,  and 
which  are  usually  pied,  have  a  white  iris  and  a  black  pupil,  tliey  are  said  to  be 
wall-eytd.  Vulgar  opinion  has  decided  that  a  wall-eyed  horse  is  never  subject  to 
blindness,  but  tliis  we  believe  to  be  altogether  erroneous.  There  is  no  difference 
of  structure  which  can  produce  this  exemption;  but  the  wall-eyed  horse,  from  this 
singular  and  unpleasant  appearance,  and  his  frequent  want  of  breeding,  may  not 
be  exposed  to  many  of  the  usual  causes  of  inflammation. 

The  aperture  in  the  iris  is  termed  the  pupil,  and  through  it  light  passes  to  the 
inner  chamber  of  the  eye.  The  pupil  is  oblong,  and  variable  in  size.  It  varies 
with  the  intensity  or  degree  of  light  which  fulls  upon  the  e3'e.  In  a  dark  stable 
the  pupil  is  expanded  to  admit  a  great  proportion  of  the  liglit  which  falls  upon  the 
cornea,  but  when  the  horse  is  brought  towards  tlie  door  of  the  stable,  and  more 
light  is  thrown  upon  the  eye,  the  pupil  contracts  in  order  to  keep  out  that  extra 
quantity  which  woidd  be  painful  to  the  animal,  and  injurious  to  vision.  When  op- 
posed directly  to  the  sun,  the  aperture  will  almost  close. 

This  alteration  of  form  in  the  pupil  is  eflTected  by  the  muscular  fibres  which  en- 
ter into  the  composition  of  the  iris.     When  these  fibres  contract,  it  is  plain  that  the 
pupil  must  enlarge.     The  membrane  itself  must  be  drawn  into  less  compass,  and 
10 


74,  THE  HORSE. 

therefore  the  aperture  in  the  centre  must  be  greater.  When  the  fibres  are  relax- 
ed, the  pupil  must  proportionably  diminish.  The  motions  of  the  iris  ai-e  not  at  all 
under  the  control  of  the  will,  nor  is  the  animal  sensible  of  them.  They  are  pro- 
duced by  sympathy  with  the  state  of  the  retina.  When  a  quantity  of  light,  suffi- 
cient to  dazzle  or  give  pain,  falls  upon  the  retina,  it  is  exhausted,  tlie  fibres  of  the 
iris  sympathize  witli  it,  and  relax,  and  the  curtain  falls.  When  a  deficient  portion 
of  light  reaches  the  retina,  and  vision  is  indistinct,  we  are  conscious  of  an  apparent 
effort  to  bring  the  object  clearly  into  view;  the  fibres  then  contract,  and  the  aper- 
ture enlarges,  and  more  liglit  is  admitted. 

This  dilatation  or  contraction  of  the  pupil  gives  a  useful  method  of  ascertaining 
the  existence  of  blindness  in  one  eye  or  in  both.  There  is  a  description  of  blind- 
ness, which  a  close  examination  of  the  eye,  even  by  a  person  accustomed  to  horses, 
will  not  always  detect.  Tlie  cornea  and  ci-ystalline  lens  remain  perfectly  transpa- 
rent, but  the  retina  is  palsied,  and  is  not  affected  by  light;  and  good  judges  have 
been  deceived  when  blindness  of  this  description  has  been  confined  to  one  eye.  A 
horse  blind  in  both  eyes  will  usually  have  his  ears  in  constant  and  rapid  motion,  di- 
recting  them  in  quick  succession  to  every  quarter;  he  will  likewise  hang  back  in 
his  halter  in  a  peculiar  way;  and  will  lift  his  feet  high  as  if  he  were  stepping  over 
some  obstacle,  when  there  is  actually  nothing  to  obstruct  his  passage;  and  there 
will  be  an  evident  uncertainty  in  the  putting  down  of  his  feet:  these  things,  how- 
ever, have  been  overlooked  by  the  careless  and  inexpert,  and  a  blind  horse  has 
been  bought  as  a  sound  one.  In  blindness  of  one  eye  httle  or  nothing  of  this  cha- 
racteristic gait  and  manner  can  be  perceived;  yet  although  a  one-eyed  horse  may 
not  be  absolutely  condemned  for  the  common  business  of  the  carriage  or  the  road, 
he  is  generally  worthless  as  a  hunter,  for  he  cannot  measure  his  distances,  and  will 
run  into  his  leaps.*  Many  a  sportsman,  puzzled  and  angry  at  the  sudden  blunder- 
ing of  his  horse,  or  injured  by  one  or  more  stunning  falls,  have  found  a  very  na- 
tural, although  unexpected  explanation  of  it  in  the  blindness  of  one  eye,  and  that 
perhaps  produced  through  his  own  fault,  by  over-riding  his  willing  and  valuable 
beast,  and  causing  a  determination  of  blood  to  the  eye,  which  proved  fatal  to  the 
delicate  texture  of  the  retina.  Even  for  the  carriage  or  the  road,  he  is,  however, 
sadly  deteriorated;  for,  his  eyes  being  placed  laterally,  his  field  of  observation  must 
be  materially  lessened. 

Let  the  size  of  both  pupils  be  carefully  noticed  before  the  horse  is  removed  from 
the  stable,  and,  as  he  is  led  to  the  door,  observe  whether  they  both  contract,  and 
equally  so,  with  the  increase  of  light.  If  the  horse  should  be  first  seen  in  the  open 
air,  let  it  be  observed  whether  the  pupils  are  precisely  of  tlie  same  size;  then  let 
the  hand  be  placed  over  each  eye  alternately,  and  held  there  for  a  little  while,  and 
let  it  be  observed  whether  the  pupil  dilates  with  the  abstraction  of  light,  and  equal- 
ly dilates  in  each  eye. 

Hanging  from  the  upper  edge  of  the  pupil  of  the  horse,  are  found  two  or  three 
round  black  bodies,  as  large  as  millet  seeds.  When  the  horse  is  suddenly  brought 
into  an  intense  light,  and  the  pupil  is  closed,  these  bodies  present  a  singular  ap- 
pearance, being  squeezed  out  from  between  the  edges  of  the  iris.  An  equal  num- 
ber, but  much  smaller,  are  attached  to  the  edge  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  iris. 
Their  general  use  is  probably  to  intercept  portions  of  light  which  would  be  trou- 
blesome or  injurious;  but  tlieir  principal  function  is  accomplished  during  the  act  of 
gi'azing.  Tiiey  are  larger  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  iris,  and  are  placed  on  the 
outer  side  of  the  pupil,  evidently  to  discharge  the  same  function  which  we  have 
attributed  to  the  eyelaslies,  to  obstruct  the  light  in  those  directions  in  which  it 
would  come  witli  greatest  force,  both  from  above  and  even  from  below,  whde,  at 
the  same  time,  the  field  of  view  is  perfectly  open,  so  far  as  it  regards  tlie  pastui'e 
on  which  the  horse  is  grazing. 

Our  cut,  m,  gives  a  duplicature  of  the  iris,  or  the  back  surface  of  it.  This  is 
called  the  uvea,  and  it  is  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of  black  mucus,  to  arrest  the 

*  Mr.  W.  Perclvall,  however,  in  his  excellent  Lectures  on  Veterinary  Art,  vol. 
iii,  p.  201,  says:  "The  loss  of  one  eye  does  not  enfeeble  sight,  because  the  other 
acquires  greater  energy,  though  it  much  contracts  the  field  of  vision.  It  is  said  to 
render  the  conception  erring,  and  the  case  of  mis-judgment  of  distances  is  the 
one  commonly  brought  forward  to  show  tlus.  All  I  can  say  on  this  point  is,  that 
the  best  hunter  I  ever  possessed,  a  horse  gifted  with  extraordinary  powers  for  leap- 
ing, was  a  one-eyed  horse,  and  this  animal  carried  me  through  a  hunting  season 
without,  to  my  recollection,  making  one  single  blunder  in  leaping." 


THE  EYE.  75 

rays  of  light,  and  to  prevent  them  from  entering-  the  cj'e  in  any  other  way  than 
through  tlie  pnpil.  The  color  of  the  iris  is,  in  some  unknown  way,  connected  witli 
this  bhick  paint  behind.     Wall-eyed  horses,  whose  iris  is  white,  have  no  uvea. 

We  now  arrive  at  a  body  on  which  all  the  important  uses  of  the  eye  mainly  de- 
pend, the  crystalline  lens,  g,  so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  a  piece  of  crystal,  or 
transparent  glass.  It  is  of  a  thick  jelly-like  consistence,  thicker  and  firmer  towards 
the  centre,  and  convex  on  each  side,  but  more  convex  on  the  inner  than  tlie  outer 
s'de.  It  is  enclosed  in  a  delicate  transparent  bag  or  capsule,  and  is  placed  between 
the  aqueous  and  the  vitreous  humors,  and  received  into  a  hollow  in  the  vitreous 
humor  with  which  it  exactly  corresponds.  It  has,  from  its  density,  and  its  double 
convexity,  the  chief  concern  in  convejing  the  rays  of  light  which  pass  into  the 
pupil. 

The  lens  is  very  apt  to  be  affected  from  long  or  violent  inflammation  of  the  con- 
junctiva, and  either  its  capsule  becomes  cloudy,  and  imperfectly  transmits  the  light, 
or  the  substance  of  the  lens  becomes  opaque.  The  examination  of  the  horse,  with 
a  view  to  detect  this,  must  either  be  in  the  shade  or  at  a  stable  door,  where  the 
light  shall  fall  on  the  horse  from  above  and  in  front;  and  in  conducting  this  exam- 
ination we  would  more  particularly  caution  the  intended  purchaser  against  a  super- 
fluity of  white  about  his  neck.  Holding  the  head  of  the  horse  a  little  up,  and  the 
light  coming  in  the  direction  which  we  have  described,  the  condition  of  the  lens 
will  at  once  be  evident.  The  confirmed  cataract,  or  the  opaque  lens  of  long 
standing,  will  exhibit  a  pearly  appearance  which  cannot  be  mistaken,  and  will  fre- 
quently be  attended  with  a  change  of  form,  a  portion  of  the  lens  being  forced  for- 
wards into  the  pupil  Although  the  disease  may  not  have  proceeded  so  far  as  this, 
yet  if  there  be  the  slightest  cloudiness  of  the  lens,  either  generally  or  in  the  form 
of  a  minute  spot  in  the  centre,  and  with  or  without  lines  radiating  from  that  spot, 
the  horse  is  to  be  condemned;  for  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred  the  disease 
will  proceed,  and  cataract,  or  complete  opacity  of  the  lens,  and  absolute  blind- 
ness, will  be  the  result. 

Cataract  in  the  human  being  may,  to  a  very  considerable  extent,  be  remedied. 
The  opaque  lens  may  be  extracted,  or  it  may  be  forced  into  the  vitreous  humors, 
and  there  existing  as  a  foreign  body  it  will  soon  be  absorbed  and  disappear.  These 
operations  are  impossible  in  the  horse,  for,  in  the  first  place,  there  is  a  muscle  of 
which  we  have  already  spoken,  and  to  be  presently  described,  peculiar  to  quadru- 
peds, and  of  such  power  as  generally  to  draw  back  the  eye  too  far  into  its  socket 
for  the  surgeon  to  be  enabled  to  make  his  incision;  and,  could  the  incision  be  made, 
the  action  of  this  muscle  would  force  out  the  greater  part  of  the  contents  of  the 
eye,  and  this  organ  would  almost  waste  away.  If,  however,  the  opaque  lens  could 
be  withdrawn  or  depressed,  and  the  mechanism  of  the  eye  were  not  otherwise  in- 
jured, the  operation  would  be  totally  useless,  for  we  could  not  make  the  horse 
wear  those  spectacles,  whose  converging  power  might  compensate  for  the  loss  of 
the  lens. 

Behind  the  lens,  and  occupying  four-fifths  of  the  cavity  of  the  eye,  is  the  vifre- 
ous  humor,  (glassy,  or  resembling  glass.)  It  seems,  when  fii-st  taken  from  the  eye, 
to  be  of  the  consistence  of  a  jelly  of  beautiful  transparency;  but  if  it  is  punctured 
a  fluid  escapes  from  it  as  limpid  and  as  thin  as  water,  and  when  this  has  been  suf- 
fered completely  to  ooze  out,  a  mass  of  membraneous  bags  or  cells  remains.  The 
vitreous  humor  then  consists  of  a  watery  fluid  contained  in  these  cells,  but  the  fluid 
and  the  cells  form  a  body  of  considerably  greater  density  than  the  aqueous  fluid  in 
the  front  of  the  eye. 

Last  of  all,  between  the  vitreous  humor  and  the  choroid  coat,  is  the  retina,  o,  or 
net-like  membrane.  It  is  an  expansion  of  the  substance,  g,  of  the  optic  nerve. 
When  that  nerve  has  reached  the  back  of  the  eye,  and  penetrated  through  the 
sclerotic  and  choroid  coats,  it  first  enlarges  into  a  little  white  prominence,  and  from 
that  proceed  radiations,  or  expansions,  of  nervous  matter,  which  spread  over  the 
whole  of  the  choroid  coat,  and  form  the  third  investment  of  the  eye.  The  mem- 
brane by  which  this  nervous  pulp  is  supported,  is  so  exceedingly  fine  and  delicate 
that  it  will  tear  with  the  slightest  touch,  and  break  even  with  its  own  weight.  The 
membrane  and  the  pulp  are  perfectly  transparent  in  the  living  animal.  The  pupil 
appears  to  be  black,  because  in  the  day  time  it  imperfectly  reflects  the  color  of 
the  choroid  coat  beneath;  in  the  dusk  it  is  greenish,  because  the  glare  of  day  being 
removed,  the  actual  green  of  the  paint  appears. 

On  this  expansion  of  nervous  pulp,  the  rays  of  light  from  sun-ounding  objects, 
condensed  by  the  lens  and  the  humors,  fall,  and,  producing  a  certain  image  cor- 


76 


THE  HORSE. 


responding  with  these  objects,  the  animal  is  conscious  of  their  existence  and 
presence. 

Light  consists  of  particles  which,  proceeding  from  the  sun  or  other  luminous 
bodies,  fall  on  different  objects,  and  being  again  reflected  from  them,  and  entering 
the  eye,  render  these  objects  visible.  If  we  are  in  a  dark  room,  wiiich  we  know  to 
be  filled  with  furniture,  we  see  it  not,  and  were  it  not  for  our  previous  knowledge 
of  it,  or  did  we  not  touch  it,  we  should  not  be  conscious  of  its  existence,  but  if  a 
candle  be  brought  into  the  room,  or  if  one  of  the  shvitters  be  opened,  the  light  from 
tlie  candle,  or  that  admitted  through  the  window,  falls  upon  the  different  articles 
of  furniture,  and  a  portion  of  it  being  reflected  from  them,  and  reflected  in  every 
direction,  some  of  the  light  enters  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  and  we  see  the  objects 
around  us. 

It  proceeds  from  these  objects  to  us  in  straight  lines,  and  except  it  were  imped- 
ed, or  driven,  or  drawn  out  of  its  coui'se  by  some  body,  it  would  continue  to  travel 
on  for  ever  in  straight  lines.  It  passes  tlirough  some  bodies  with  perfect  ease,  as 
glass,  and  crystal,  and  water,  but  it  is  obstructed  in  its  passage  by  others,  as  metals 
and  wood.  These  substances,  through  which  it  readily  passes,  are  said  to  be  trans- 
parent; those  by  which  its  course  is  arrested  are  called  opaque.  It  has  an  attraction 
for  all  bodies,  stronger  for  some  than  for  others.  By  the  opaque  body  the  gi-eater 
part  of  it  is  absorbed,  and,  although  it  passes  through  the  transparent  body,  it  feels 
and  is  affected  by  the  attraction  of  that  body.  It  is  bent  out  of  its  way  although 
not  detained.  This  is  called  the  refraction  of  light;  and  it  is  on  the  knowledge  of 
this  simple  fact  that  all  our  optical  instruments  are  constructed,  and  that  we  are 
enabled  to  explain  the  wonderful  construction  of  the  eye. 

This  little  figure  will  make  it  sufficiently  evident.  A  ray  of  light,  a,  shall  fall 
on  a  smooth  or  level  piece  of  glass,  in  the  direction  a  b,  and  that  course,  if  it  were 
not  acted  upon  by  the  glass,  it  would  pursue.     But  experience  teaches  us  that  it 


does  not.  It  no  sooner  enters  the  glass  than  it  is  bent  out  of  its  original  course, 
and  takes  the  direction  d.  It  had  been  acted  upon  by  two  forces,  the  first  impulse 
in  the  direction  a  b,  and  the  attraction  of  the  glass,  in  a  perpendicular  direction, 
as  it  approached  it;  and,  obeying  both  forces,  it  took  a  new  path  /,  between  the 
two  forces,  and  more  towards  a  line,  c,  drawn  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the 
glass.  This  new  path  it  continued  to  pursue,  until  it  had  penetrated  through  the 
glass;  and  tlien,  being  about  to  quit  the  glass,  it  was  once  more  acted  upon  by 
two  forces;  this  combined  impulse  in  an  oblique  direction,  and  the  attraction  of 
the  lower  surface  of  the  glass  in  a  perpendicular  one;  and  as  before,  obeying  both, 
it  again  traversed  a  new  patli,  e,  between  both  forces,  and  in  a  direction  from  the 
perpendicular. 

The  degree  and  kind  of  deviation  from  the  original  line  will  depend  on  the  dif- 
ference in  density  between  the  air  and  the  glass,  or  water,  or  whatever  substance 
may  be  used,  and  likewise  on  the  surface  of  the  refracting  body.  Passing  through 
a  transparent  substance,  with  a  plain  and  level  surface  above  and  below,  the  rays 
will  be  bent  out  of  their  first  direction,  but  will  continue  parallel  to  each  other. 
Passing  through  a  concave  glass,  (a  glass  hollowed  on  one  or  both  sides,)  the  rays 


THE  EYE.  77 

will  diverge  or  separate;  and,  traversing  a  convex  one,  (rounded  on  one  or  both 
sides,)  they  will  converge  or  approach  each  other,  and  tend  to  a  point;  and  the 
degree  of  convergence  or  divergence  will  depend  on  the  degree  of  convexity  oi" 
concavity. 

Let  us  apply  this  to  the  mechanism  of  the  eye  of  the  horse  (vide  p.  70.)  We 
have  spoken  of  the  cornea,  f,  and  the  aqueous  humor,  q,  and  the  crystalline  lens, 
g,  and  tlie  vitreous  humor,  h,  but  although  possessed  of  different  refractive  pow- 
ers, according  to  their  form  and  density,  (and  the  cornea  from  its  convexity,  and 
the  crystalline  lens  from  its  density,  being  the  principal  agents,)  they  are  so  fitted 
to  each  other  that  we  may  consider  them  as  composing  one  exceedingly  convex 
lens,  and  of  such  power  that  the  raj's  entering  the  pupil,  m,  are  brought  to  a  point 
within  the  very  substance  of  the  lens. 

The  place  of  distinct  vision,  liowever,  will  not  be  at  this  point,  but  a  little  way 
behind.  If  the  glass  of  a  spectacles,  such  as  those  generally  worn  by  old  people, 
be  held  between  a  candle  and  a  piece  of  paper,  the  rays  of  light  will  converge  by 
the  convexity  of  the  glass,  and  be  brought  to  a  very  small  surface  or  point  on  the 
paper;  but  on  that  point  there  will  be  no  distinct  picture  of  the  candle,  and  tho 
paper  must  be  gradually  removed  from  the  light,  until  a  distance  be  found  at 
which  the  image  of  the  candle  will  be  seen  most  vivid  and  distinct,  although  in- 
verted. So  (see  the  cut,  p.  70,)  the  retina  which  is  spread  over  the  internal  coat 
of  the  eye  is  placed  at  a  little  distance  behind  the  point  where  the  rays  meet  and 
cross.  If  the  eye  be  too  convex,  and  its  converging'  power  too  great,  the  rays  will 
cross  too  soon,  and  the  image  will  be  formed,  brightest  and  best,  before  they 
reach  the  retina,  and  the  vision  or  sight  will  be  imperfect  and  obscure.  If  the 
eye  is  not  sufficiently  convex,  and  consequently  does  not  possess  converging  pow- 
er enough,  the  rays  will  not  cross  until  they  are  too  near  the  retina,  and  the  pic- 
ture would  be  most  luminous  and  distinct  behind  the  retina;  and  thus,  likewise, 
the  sight  would  be  imperfect  and  obscure.* 

We  are  of  course  unable  to  ascertain  when  the  horse  experiences  either  of  these 
kinds  of  indistinct  vision,  nor  are  we  able  to  offer  any  remedy  for  them:  but  noth- 
ing can  be  more  certain  than  that  his  sight  is  frequently  very  imperfect  from  one 
of  these  causes.  There  is  a  shying,  often  the  result  of  cowardice  or  playfulness,  or 
want  of  work;  but  at  other  times  proving,  beyond  contradiction,  a  defect  of  sight. 
A  horse  will  manifestly  mistake  the  nature  of  the  object  before  him;  he  will  run 
against  that  which  he  should  have  seen;  or  he  will  be  temfied  by  a  tree  or  bird, 
which  should  not  have  caused  alarm. 

This  defect  of  sight  is  more  dangerous  than  blindness.  A  blind  horse  will  re- 
sign himself  to  the  guidance  of  his  rider  or  driver;  but  against  the  misconception 
and  starting  of  a  shying  horse  there  is  no  defence.  That  horses  grow  shy  as  they 
grow  old,  no  one  accustomed  to  them  will  deny;  and  no  intelligent  person  will  be 
slow  in  attributing  it  to  the  right  cause — a  decay  in  the  organ  of  vision — a  loss  of 
convexity  in  the  eye,  lessening  the  convergency  of  the  rays,  and  throwing  the 
perfect  image  beyond,  and  not  on  the  retina.  There  is  a  striking  difference  in 
the  convexity  of  the  cornea  in  the  colt  and  the  old  horse;  and  both  of  them,  pro- 
bably, may  shy  from  opposite  causes;  the  one  from  a  cornea  too  prominent,  and 
the  other  from  one  too  flat.  We  do  not  think  that,  in  the  usual  examination  of 
the  horse  previous  to  purchase,  sufficient  attention  is  paid  to  the  convexity  of  the 
cornea. 

The  remedy  for  shying  will  be  considered  when  we  speak  of  the  vices  of  horses. 

There  is  a  provision  yet  wanting.  The  horse  has  a  very  extended  field  of  view, 
but  many  persons  are  not  perhaps  aware  how  little  of  it  he  can  command  at  a  time. 
There  is  not  one  of  our  readers  who  can  make  out  a  single  line  of  our  treatise 
without  changing  the  direction  of  the  eye.  It  is  curious  to  follow  the  motion  of 
the  eyes  of  a  rapid  reader.     To  move  the  head  and  neck  in  order  to  adapt  the  eye 

•  "  In  considering  vision  £is  achieved  by  means  of  an  image  formed  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  eye,  we  can  never  reflect  without  wonder  on  the  smallness,  yet  cor- 
rectness of  the  picture,  the  subtilty  of  the  touch,  and  the  fineness  of  the  lines. 
A  landscape  of  five  or  six  square  leagues  is  brought  into  a  space  of  half  an  inch  in 
diameter;  yet  the  multitude  of  objects  which  it  contains  are  all  preserved,  are  all 
discriminated  in  their  magnitudes,  positions,  figures,  colors.  A  stage  coach  pass- 
ing at  its  ordinary  speed,  for  several  minutes,  passes  in  the  eye  only  over  one- 
twelfth  of  an  inch,  yet  is  the  change  of  place  in  the  image  distinctly  perceived 
throughout  its  whole  progi-ess." — Paley's  Natural  Theology,  p.  32. 


78  THE  HORSE. 

to  the  whole  scene  before  us,  would  be  awkward  and  fatiguing',  and  nature  has 
adopted  a  simpler  and  better  method.  She  has  given  no  fewer  than  seven  muscles 
to  the  horse  to  turn  this  little  but  important  organ;  and,  that  they  might  act  with 
sufficient  power  and  quickness,  no  less  than  six  nerves  are  directed  to  the  muscles 
of  the  eye  generally,  or  to  particular  muscles;  and  the  eye  rests  on  a  mass  of  fat, 
that  it  may  be  turned  with  little  exertion  of  power,  and  without  friction.     There 

MUSCLES  OF  THE  EYE. 


are  four  straight  muscles,  three  of  which  are  represented  in  our  cut,  d,  e,  and/, 
rising  from  the  back  of  the  orbit,  and  inserted  into  the  ball  of  the  eye,  opposite  to 
each  other,  and  at  equal  distances  from  each  other.  One,  d,  runs  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  eye,  just  behind  the  transparent  and  visible  portion  of  it,  and  its  office  is 
clearly  to  raise  the  eye.  When  it  contracts,  the  eye  must  be  drawn  upward. 
Another,  /,  is  inserted  exactly  opposite,  at  the  bottom  of  tlie  eye;  and  its  office  is 
as  clearly  to  depress  the  eye,  or  enable  the  animal  to  look  downwards.  A  third, 
e,  is  inserted  at  the  outer  corner,  and  by  means  of  it  the  eye  is  turned  outward, 
and,  from  the  situation  of  the  eye  of  the  horse,  considerably  backward;  and  the 
fourrh  is  Inserted  at  the  inner  corner,  turning  the  eye  inward.  They  can  thus 
rotate  or  turn  the  eye  in  any  direction  the  animal  wishes.  If  the  upper  and  outer 
muscles  are  called  into  action,  the  horse  looks  upwards  and  outward,  and  more 
upward  than  outward  in  proportion  as  the  upper  muscle  acts,  at  the  will  of  the 
animal,  more  powerfully  than  the  outer;  and  thus,  by  the  action  of  one  of  them,  or 
the  combined  action  of  any  two  of  them,  the  eye  may  be  immediately  and  accu- 
rately directed  to  every  point. 

These  muscles,  however,  have  another  duty  to  discharge.  They  support  the  eye 
in  its  place.  In  the  usual  position  of  the  head  of  the  horse,  they  must  be  to  a 
certain  degree  employed  for  this  pui'pose;  but  when  he  is  grazing  or  feeding,  the 
principal  weight  of  the  eye  rests  upon  them;  and  then,  lest  from  this  slanting  and 
downward  position  of  the  head,  when  the  horse  is  so  often  and  so  long  employed 
in  feeding,  they  should  be  fatigued,  another  muscle  is  added,  peculiar  to  quadru- 
peds, called  the  retractor,  fdrawerback,J  or  the  suspensorius  f  suspensory  J  mus- 
cle, g.  It  arises  from  the  edge  of  the  foramen  or  hole  through  which  the  optic 
nerve  enters  the  orbit — surrounds  the  nerve  as  it  proceeds  forward,  and  then,  par- 
tially dividing  into  four  parts,  is  attached  to  the  back  part  of  the  eye.  Its  office 
is  evidently  to  support  the  eye  generally,  or,  when  it  is  suddenly  called  into  pow- 
erful action,  and  assisted  by  the  straight  muscles,  it  draws  the  eye  back  out  of  the 
reach  of  threatening  danger,  and  in  the  act  of  drawing  it  back  causes  the  haw  to 
protrude,  in  the  manner  which  we  have  already  described,  as  an  additional  defence. 

The  power  of  this  muscle  is  very  great.  It  has  been  proved,  in  attempted  ope- 
rations for  cataract,  to  exert  a  force  equal  to  more  than  twenty  pounds;  and  it  ren- 
ders an  operation  on  the  eye  almost  impossible.  It  is  an  admirable  substitute  for 
the  want  of  hands,  to  defend  the  eye  from  many  things  that  would  injure  it;  and, 
being  partially  separated  into  four  divisions,  it  is  also  enabled  to  assist  the  straight 
muscles  in  turning  the  eye. 

These  muscles  discharge  another,  and  a  most  important  office.  If  we  examine 
near  and  distinct  objects  through  a  telescope,  we  must  alter  the  focus,  i.  e.  we  must 
increase  or  diminish  the  length  of  the  tube.  We  must  shorten  it  a  little  when  we 
examine  distant  objects,  because  the  rays  coming  to  us  from  them,  in  a  less  diver- 


THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  EYE— FRACTURE.  79 

gent  direction,  are  sooner  brought  to  a  point  by  tlie  power  of  the  lens;  so  the 
straight  and  retractor  muscles  drawing  back  the  eye,  and  forcing  it  upon  the  sub- 
stance beliind,  and  tlius  in  a  slight  degree  flattening  it,  bring  the  lens  nearer  to  the 
retina,  and  adapt  the  eye  to  the  observation  of  distant  objects. 

Still,  however,  being  employed  in  supporting  tlie  weight  of  the  eye,  these  mus- 
cles might  not  be  able  to  turn  it  so  rapidlj'  and  so  extensively  as  the  wishes  or 
wants  of  the  animal  might  require;  therefore  two  other  muscles  are  given,  which 
are  used  solely  in  turning  the  eye.  They  are  called  oblique  muscles,  because 
their  course  is  obliquely  across  the  eye.  The  upper  one  is  most  curiously  con- 
structed, a,  h.  It  comes  from  the  back  part  of  the  orbit,  and  takes  a  direction 
upwards  and  towards  the  inner  side,  and  there,  just  under  the  ridge  of  the  orbit, 
it  passes  through  a  perfect  mechanical  pulley,  and,  turning  round,  proceeds  across 
the  eye,  and  is  inserted  rather  beyond  the  middle  of  the  eye,  towards  the  outer 
side.  Thus  the  globe  of  the  eye  is  evidently  directed  inward  and  upward.  Some- 
thing more,  however,  is  accomplished  by  this  singular  mechanism.  The  eye  is 
naturally  deep  in  the  orbit,  that  it  may  be  more  perfectly  defended;  but  it  may  be 
necessary,  occasionally,  to  bring  the  eye  forward,  and  enlarge  the  field  of  vision. 
The  eye  is  actually  protruded  imder  the  influence  of  fear:  not  only  are  the  lids 
opened  more  widely,  but  the  eye  is  brought  more  forward.  Jlow  can  this  i)ossi- 
bly  be  accomplished?  There  are  no  muscles  anterior  to,  or  before  the  eye — there 
is  no  place  for  their  insertion.  The  object  is  readily  affected  by  this  singular  pul- 
ley, b,  c.  By  the  power  of  this  muscle,  the  trochlearis  or  pulley-muscle,  and  the 
straight  muscles  at  the  same  time  not  opposing  it,  or  only  regulating  the  direction 
of  the  eye,  it  is  really  brought  somewhat  forward.  The  lower  oblique  muscle 
rises  just  within  the  lachrymal  bone,  (i,  p.  52,)  and,  proceeding  across  the  eye,  is 
fixed  into  the  part  of  the  sclerotica  opposite  to  the  other  oblique  muscle,  and  it 
turns  the  eye  in  an  opposite  direction,  assisting,  however,  tlie  upper  oblique  in 
bringing  tlie  eye  forward  from  its  socket. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

INJURIES    AND    DISEASES 

OF 

THE  SKULL— THE  BRAIN— THE  EARS— AND  THE  EYES. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  a  convenient  resting-place  in  our  somewhat  dry,  but 
necessary  description  of  the  structure  of  the  horse,  and  we  willingly  turn  to  more 
practical  matter.  We  will  consider  the  injuries  and  diseases  of  the  parts  we  have 
surveyed.  In  entering,  however,  on  this  division  of  our  work,  we  would  premise 
that  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  give  the  fai-mer  such  an  account  of  the  nature  and 
treatment  of  the  diseases  of  horses  as  will  enable  him  with  safety  to  practise  for 
himself,  except  in  the  commonest  cases.  The  causes  of  most  diseases  are  so  ob- 
scure, their  symptoms  so  variable,  and  their  connexion  with  other  maladies  so 
complicated  and  mysterious,  that  a  life  devoted  to  professional  study  will  alone 
qualify  a  man  to  become  a  judicious  and  successful  practitioner  on  the  diseases  of 
the  horse,  and  other  domestic  animals.  Our  object  will  be  to  communicate  suffi- 
cient instruction  to  the  fanner  to  enable  him  to  act  with  promptness  and  judgment 
when  he  cannot  obtain  professional  assistance — to  qualify  liim  to  form  a  satisfac- 
tory opinion  of  the  skill  of  the  veterinary  surgeon  whom  he  may  employ,  and, 
more  especially,  to  divest  him  of  those  strange  and  absurd  prejudices  which,  in  a 
variety  of  cases,  not  only  produce  and  prolong  disease,  but  bring  it  to  a  fatal 
termination. 

FRACTURE. 

We  have  described  the  cavity  of  the  skull  of  the  horse  as  being  so  defended  by 
the  hardness  of  the  parietal  bones,  and  those  bones  as  so  covered  by  a  mass  of 
muscle,  and  protected  above  by  an  additional  layer  of  bone,  and  the  occipital  bone 
as  so  exceedingly  thick,  (see  cut,  p.  5;>,)  tliat  a  fracture  of  the  bones  of  the 
skull  is  almost  impossible.  It  can  only  occur  from  brutal  violence,  except  that, 
when  a  horse  falls  in  the  act  of  rearing,  the  occipital  bone  is  sometimes  fractured; 


80  THE  HORSE. 

when  he  falls  forward,  and  the  head  comes  in  contact  with  tne  ground,  the  muzzle 
or  jaws  will  receive  the  principal  or  whole  force  of  the  blow.  When,  however, 
fracture  of  the  skull  does  occur,  it  is  almost  invariably  fatal.  A  blow  of  sufficient 
violence  to  break  these  bones  must  likewise  irreparably  injure  the  delicate  and 
important  organ  which  they  protect. 

The  ridge,  or  outer  and  upper  part  of  the  orbit  of  the  eye,  is  occasionally  fr.ac- 
tured.  It  happens  from  falling,  or  mucli  oftener  from  violent  blows.  The  slight- 
est examination  will  detect  the  loosened  pieces,  but  a  professional  man  alone  can 
here  render  effectual  assistance.  All,  however,  that  he  can  do  will  be  gently  to 
replace  the  parts  in  the  natural  situation,  and  contrive  to  confine  them  there  by  ad- 
hesive plasters;  to  obviate  inflammation  by  bleeding,  physic,  and  low  diet,  and 
leave  the  rest  to  nature. 

We  proceed  then  to  the  diseases  of  the  head,  and  the  first  of  these  is  pressure 
ON  THE  BUAiN.  This  may  be  produced  by  some  fluid  thrown  out  between  the  mem- 
branes, or  occupying  and  distending  the  ventricles  of  the  brain.  In  the  grown 
horse  this  rarely  occurs,  but  it  is  well  known  to  breeders  as  an  occasional  disease 
of  the  foal,  under  the  name  of  "water  in  the  head."  The  head  is  either  very 
much  enlarged,  or  strangely  deformed,  or  both;  and  the  animal  dies  either  in  tlie 
act  of  foaling,  or  a  few  days  after  the  birth. 

MEGRIMS. 

There  is  another  kind  of  pressdre  on  the  brain,  resulting  from  an  tmusual  deter- 
mination or  flow  of  blood  to  it.  This  organ  requires  a  large  supply  of  blood  to 
enable  it  to  discharge  its  important  functions.  It  is  supposed  th.at  ten  times  more 
blood  flows  through  the  brain  than  through  any  other  part  of  the  fi-ame  of  equal 
bulk.  Nature,  in  the  horse  more  than  in  many  other  animals,  has  made  some  admi- 
rable provisions  to  cause  this  great  quantity  of  blood  to  flow  into  the  brain  without 
much  velocity,  and  thereby  to  lessen  the  risk  of  suddenly  overloading  it  or  rup- 
turing its  vessels.  The  arteries  pursue  their  course  to  the  brain  in  a  strangely 
winding  and  circuitous  manner;  and  the}'  enter  the  skull  through  bony  holes  which 
will  admit  of  the  enlargement  of  the  vessels  only  to  a  very  limited  extent:  yet,  from 
various  causes,  of  which  the  most  common  is  violent  exercise  in  a  hot  day,  and  the 
horse  being  fat  and  full  of  blood,  more  than  the  usual  quantity  will  be  sent  to  the 
head: — or  from  some  negligence  about  the  harness,  as  the  collar  being  too  small, 
or  the  curb-rein  too  tight,  the  blood  will  be  prevented  from  returning  from  the 
head;  and  thus  the  larger  vessels  of  the  brain  will  be  too  long  and  injuriously  dis- 
tended, and,  what  is  of  more  cDnsequence,  the  small  vessels  which  run  through  the 
subs^^ance  of  the  brain  will  be  enlarged,  and  the  bidk  of  the  brain  will  be  increased, 
and  it  will  press  upon  the  orig-ins  of  the  nerves,  and  produce,  almost  without  warn- 
ing, loss  of  power  and  consciousness. 

The  mildest  affection  of  this  kind  is  known  by  the  name  of  megrims.  It  com- 
paratively rarely  happens  when  the  horse  is  ridden;  but  should  he  be  driven,  and, 
perhaps,  ratiier  quickly,  he  may  perform  a  part  of  his  journey  with  his  usual  cheer- 
fulness and  ease,  when  all  at  once  he  will  stop,  shake  his  head,  be  evidently  giddy, 
and  half  unconscious.  In  a  minute  or  two  this  will  pass  over,  and  he  will  go  on 
again  as  if  nothing  had  happened. 

Frequently,  however,  the  attack  will  be  of  a  more  serious  nature.  He  will  fall 
without  the  slightest  warning,  or  suddenly  run  round  once  or  twice,  and  then  fall. 
He  will  either  lie  in  a  state  of  complete  insensibility,  or  struggle  with  the  utmost 
violence.  In  five  or  ten  minutes  he  will  begin  gradually  to  come  to  himself;  he 
will  get  up  and  proceed  on  his  journey,  yet  somewhat  dull,  and  evidently  affected 
and  exhausted  by  what  had  happened,  although  not  seriously  or  permanently  ill. 

This  is  a  very  dangerous  disease — dangerous  to  the  horse,  which  will  occasion- 
ally die  on  the  spot,  and  peculiarly  dangerous  to  those  who  drive  him,  for  there  will 
frequently  be  no  warning  or  opportunity  to  escape.  It  likewise  happens,  tliat 
whether  the  vessels  have  been  weakened  by  this  violent  distension,  and  afterwards 
offer  less  resistance  to  the  flow  of  blood,  or  whatever  be  the  cause,  a  horse  that  has 
once  been  attacked  by  megrims  is  very  subject  to  a  return  of  the  complaint.  No 
prudent  man  will  drive  a  horse  that  has  had  a  second  attack,  especially  if,  in  the 
intermediate  time,  he  has  not  taken  proper  means  to  prevent  a  recurrence  of  the 
fit. 

At  the  moment  of  attack,  a  person  who  is  able  to  bleed  should  take  three  or 
four  quarts  of  blood  from  the  neck;  or  any  one  can  cut  the  bars  of  the  palate  in 
the  manner  explained  where  we  describe  the  palate,  and  whence  a  considerable 


APOPLEXY— STOMACH-STAGGERS.  81 

and  sufficient  quantity  of  blood  may  be  readily  obtained.  The  driver  should  pat 
and  soothe  the  animal,  and  carefully  examine  the  harness,  and  pursue  his  journey 
as  gently  as  circumstances  will  permit.  When  he  gets  home,  a  dose  of  physic* 
should  be  administered  if  the  horse  can  be  spared,  and  the  quantity  of  dry  food 
lessened,  and  mashes  given,  or  gi-een  meat,  or  the  horse  should  be  turned  out  at 
night,  or  turned  out  altogether  for  two  or  tlirec  months, 

APOPLEXY. 

The  attack  sometimes  assumes  a  still  more  violent  form.  The  horse  falls  and 
dies  at  once.  It  then  rather  resembles,  or  is  the  same  with  apoplexy  in  the  human 
being.  To  this  more  serious  form  of  the  disease  he  is  subject  in  the  stable,  and 
even  at  pasture;  but  there  is  generally  some  warning.  He  will  be  seen  with  the 
head  low,  extended  almost  to  the  ground,  and  supported  against  the  manger.  He 
staggers  as  he  stands.  If  moved,  he  appears  as  if  he  would  fall.  His  sight  and 
hearing  are  evidently  affected.  This  is  not  mad-staggers,  for  no  inflammation  of 
the  brain  is  found;  nor  stomach-staggers,  for  there  is  no  distension  of  the  stomach. 
The  horse  will  continue  in  this  way  from  one  hour  to  twelve.  He  then  falls;  grinds 
his  teeth;  his  eyes  are  open,  protruded,  and  fixed — the  pupil  is  dilated;  there  are 
twitchings  about  the  frame;  the  muzzle  is  cold;  the  vein  of  the  neck  is  evidently 
swelled;  he  is  unable  to  swallow;  the  drink  is  returned  by  the  nostril  or  the  mouth, 
and  the  dung  often  voided  involuntarily:  the  twitchings  increase  to  strong  convul- 
sions, and  death  speedily  closes  the  scene. 

If  there  be  time  for  medical  treatment,  the  course  to  be  pursued  is  plain  enough. 
Bleed  copiously;-)-  take  at  once  eight  or  ten  quarts.  Bleed  from  a  vein  in  prefer- 
ence to  an  ai'tery,  for  an  artery  which  supplies  the  brain  cannot  be  got  at.  JBleed 
from  the  jugular  or  common  neck  vein,  for  that  returns  the  blood  from  the  brain, 
and  a  large  quantity  rapidly  di-awn  from  this  vein  may  possibly  give  relief.  Next 
back-rake,  or  remove  the  dung  from  the  lower  intestine  with  the  hand,  and  give  a 
strong  dose  of  physic:  but  the  case  is  usually  hopeless,  and  the  most  decisive  and 
skilful  treatment  alone  can  avail.  We  decidedly  object  to  two  methods  of  cure 
adopted  by  some  farriers,  and  farmers  too.  The  first  is  to  blow  pepper  (and 
Cayenne  pepper  if  they  can  get  it,)  up  the  nostrils  of  the  horse.  The  violent  sneez- 
ing that  will  be  produced,  if  the  animal  is  not  too  insensible,  must  probably,  or  al- 
most cei-tainly,  rupture  some  of  the  vessels  already  over-distended.  The  other 
practice  is  to  gi^e  spices  and  bark  to  rouse  the  animal.  The  effect  of  these  would 
be  to  quicken  tlie  circulation,  and  to  send  yet  more  blood  to  that  organ  which  al- 
ready had  a  gi-eat  deal  too  much. 

STOMACH-STAGGERS. 

A  disease  not  much  unlike  this  is  known  under  the  name  of  staggers.  There 
are  two  varieties  of  it — the  sleepy  or  stomach-staggers,  and  the  mad-staggcrs;  fre- 
quently, however,  they  are  only  different  stages  of  the  same  disease,  or  vaiying 
with  the  cause  that  produced  them.  In  stomach-staggehs  the  horse  stands  dull, 
sleepj',  staggering;  when  roused  he  looks  vacantly  around  him;  perhaps  seizes  a 
lock  of  hay,  and  dozes  again  with  it  in  his  mouth;  at  length  he  drops,  and  dies:  or 
the  sleepiness  passes  off,  and  delirium  comes  on,  when  he  falls,  rises  again,  drops, 
beats  himself  about,  and  dies  in  convulsions.  The  cause  of  this  is  sufiiciently  evi- 
dent; and  the  disease  never  occurs  except  by  the  fault  of  those  who  have  the 
management  of  the  horse.  It  rises  from  over-feeding.  The  horse  has  been  per- 
mitted to  get  at  a  too  great  quantity  of  food,  or  food  of  an  improper  natiu-e. 
When  he  has  been  kept  for  some  hours  without  eating,  and  has  been  worked 
hard,  and  has  become  thoroughly  liungry,  he  falls  ravenously  upon  every  kind  of 
food  he  can  g-et  at;  swallowing  it  faster  than  his  small  stomach  can  digest  it;  and 
no  water  being  given  to  soften  it,  and  to  hasten  its  passage,  the  stomach  becomes 
crammed,  and,  having  been  previously  exhausted  by  long  fasting,  is  unable  to 
contract  upon  its  contents.  The  food  soon  begiiis  to  ferment  and  to  swell,  caus- 
ing great  distension;  the  brain  sympathizes  with  this  overloaded  organ,  and  stag- 

*  By  physic,  whenever  the  word  occurs  iii  this  treatise,  we  mean  purgative  me- 
dicine. 

fFidl  directions  for  bleeding  will  be  given,  when  we  describe  the  various  ope- 
rations which  it  may  be  necessary  to  perform  on  the  horse. 


82  THE  HORSE. 

gers  are  produced.  We  can  easily  imagine  this,  when  we  remember  the  sad 
headaches  occasionally  arising  from  an  overfilled  or  disordered  stomach.  Some- 
times the  stomach  is  ruptured. 

We  have  little  to  say  of  the  treatment  of  the  disease  so  far  as  medicine  is  con- 
cerned, except  that,  as  it  is  almost  or  quite  impossible  for  the  person  most  accus- 
tomed to  horses  to  distinguish  between  the  early  stage  of  stomacli  and  mad-stag- 
gers, (distension  of  the  stomacli,  and  inflammation  of  the  brain,)  we  should  be 
most  diligent  and  minute  in  our  inquiry  into  the  history  of  the  horse  for  the  pre- 
ceding twenty-four  liours — whether  he  could  have  got  at  an  undue  quantity  of 
food,  or  had  been  worked  hard  and  kept  long  fasting.  Some  say  that  there  is  a 
yellowness  of  tlie  eye,  and  twitching  about  the  breast  in  the  early  stage  of  sleepy 
or  stomach-staggers.  We  have  seen  a  great  many  cases  of  stomach-staggers  with- 
out this  yellowness,  or  these  catchings,  and  we  believe  that  no  one  can  certainly 
distinguish  between  the  two,  and  that  we  must  be  guided  entu'ely  by  the  history 
of  the  case. 

Bleed  very  largel)';  that  cannot  do  harm,  and  in  mad-staggers  is  indispensable. 
Give  a  good  dose  of  physic — that  also  cannot  do  hai-m,  although  in  stomacli-stag- 
gers  it  cannot  do  mucli  good,  for  it  can  scarcely  find  its  way  into  the  over-distended 
stomach,  and  it  certainly  cannot  find  its  way  through  it.  Keeping  the  horse  fi'om 
all  food  will  be  a  very  proper  proceeding  wliich  ever  be  the  disease. 

Some  good  judges  have  affirmed  that  a  horse  was  never  cured  of  stomach-stag- 
gers. U  was  formerly  a  very  difficult  thing,  but  the  stomach-pump  has  done  won- 
ders in  cases  of  poisoning  in  the  human  being,  and,  by  means  of  a  larger  and 
somewhat  altered  pump,  (which  every  veterinary  surgeon,  and,  we  think,  every 
large  proprietor  of  horses,  sliould  have  on  his  premises,)  tliis  enormous  mass  of 
food  may,  without  difficidty,  be  washed  out. 

If,  however,  we  can  say  but  little  of  the  treatment  of  stomach-staggers,  we  have 
much  to  say  of  its  prevention.  It  attacks  old  horses  oftener  tlian  others,  and  horses 
that  have  been  hardly  worked,  or  that  have  been  worked  for  many  hours  without 
food.  Let  no  farmer  delude  himself  with  the  idea  that  it  is  contagious.  If  his 
horses  have  occasionally  slight  fits  of  the  staggers,  or  if  the  disease  carries  off 
several  of  them,  he  may  be  assured  that  there  is  something  wrong  in  his  manage- 
ment. One  horse  may  get  at  the  corn-bin,  and  cram  himself  to  bursting;  but  if 
several  are  attacked  it  is  time  for  him  to  look  about  him.  The  cause  will  gene- 
rally be  found  to  be  too  voracious  feeding — too  much  food  given  at  once,  and  per- 
haps without  water,  after  hard  work  and  long  fasting.  Nothing  is  lost  by  the 
habitual  use  of  the  nose-bag,  and  the  more  equal  division  of  the  hours  of  labor  and 
the  times  of  feeding.  Some  careless  and  thouglitless  people  suffer  their  horses  to 
go  from  morning  to  night  without  being  fed,  and  then  tliey  wonder  if  sometimes 
the  horses  hang  their  heads,  and  droop,  and  cannot  work.  No  horse  should  be 
worked  more  than  foiu'  or  five  hours  without  being  baited. 

There  is  one  consequence  of  this  improper  treatment,  of  which  persons  do  not 
appear  to  be  aware  although  tliey  suffer  severely  from  it.  A  horse  that  has  fre- 
quent half-attacks  of  staggers  very  often  goes  blind.  It  is  not  the  common 
blindness  from  cataract,  but  a  peculiar  glassy  appearance  of  the  eye.  If  the  liis- 
tory  of  these  blind  horses  could  be  told,  it  would  be  found  that  they  had  been 
subject  to  fits  of  drooping  and  dvdness,  and  these  produced  by  absurd  management 
respecting  labor  and  food. 

Staggers  have  been  known  to  occur  when  the  animal  is  at  grass,  but  this  usu- 
ally happens  in  poor,  hard-worked,  half-starved  animals,  and  soon  after  they  have 
been  turned  out,  either  in  rich  pasture,  or  in  a  salt  marsh,  and  in  hot  weather. 

There  are,  however,  few  diseases  of  the  horse  that  are  not  occasionally  epidemic, 
or  produced  by  some  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  of  the  nature  of  which  we  are 
ignorant;  and  stomach-staggers  sometimes  prevails  in  particular  districts  where 
there  is  nothing  remarkably  wrong  in  the  treatment  of  the  horse.  There  is  at  that 
time  something  in  the  atmosphere  which  weakens  the  stomach,  and  disposes  it  to 
indigestion,  and  causes  a  little  error  in  feeding  to  be  dangerous,  or  produces  con- 
siderable disease  under  the  common  circumstances  of  feeding.  When  this  is  the 
case  the  proprietor  of  horses  should  be  particularly  on  their  guard,  for,  in  most  of 
tlie  horses  which  then  die,  the  distended  stomach  will  be  obseived,  and  will  be  the 
actual  cause  of  death.  It  is  very  possible  that,  at  certain  seasons,  some  poisonous 
plants  may  prevail,  or  that  the  hay  may  not  be  so  nutritive  or  digestible,  and  thus 
the  stomach  may  be  weakened.  The  farmer  will  weigh  all  these  things  in  his 
mind,  and  act  accordingly. 


MAD-STAGGERS— TETANUS,  OR  LOCKED-JAW.  83 

MAS-STAGOERS. 

MAn-STAO(3EB9  (inflamiTiation  of  the  brain,  brain  fever,)  can,  as  we  have  said, 
be  at  first  with  difficulty  disting-uishecl  from  the  sleepy  or  stomach-stagg'ers,  but, 
after  a  while,  the  horse  suddenly  begins  to  heave  at  the  flanks — his  nostrils  ex- 
pand— his  eyes  unclose — he  has  a  wild  and  vacant  stare,  and  delirium  comes 
rapidly  on.  He  dashes  himself  furiously  about;  there  is  no  disposition  to  do 
mischief,  but  his  motions  are  sudden  and  violent,  and  accompanied  by  perfect  un- 
consciousness; and  he  becomes  a  terrifying  and  dangerous  animal.  This  continues 
either  until  his  former  stupor  returns,  or  he  has  literally  worn  himself  out  in 
frightful  struggles. 

There  are  only  two  diseases  with  which  it  can  be  confounded,  and  from  both  of 
them  it  is  very  readily  distinguished,  viz.,  colic  and  madness.  In  colic  the  horse 
rises  and  fulls,  but  not  with  so  much  violence;  he  sometimes  plunges,  but  he  more 
often  rolls  himself  about;  he  looks  frequently  at  his  flanks  with  an  expression  of 
pain,  and  he  is  conscious. 

In  madness  there  may  be  more  or  less  violence;  there  is  sometimes  a  determina- 
tion to  do  mischief;  and  there  is  always  consciousness. 

Over-exertion,  when  the  horse  is  too  fat  or  full  of  blood,  or  especially  during  hot 
weather,  is  a  frequent  cause  of  inflammation  of  the  brain;  but  whatever  will  pro- 
duce general  fever,  may  be  the  cause  of  mad-staggers. 

The  treatment  adopted  by  the  best  practitioners  is  too  often  unsuccessful.  The 
horse  should  be  bled  until  he  faints  or  drops;  or,  if  he  be  down,  until  he  is  evident- 
ly faint  and  weak.  Both  the  neck-veins  should  be  opened  at  once,  and  the  fulness 
of  the  stream,  or  the  quickness  with  which  it  is  taken,  is  almost  as  important  as 
the  quantity.  Physic  should  then  be  given.  The  purge  that  acts  most  quickly 
is  the  best,  and  that  is  the  croton  nut,  powdered  at  the  time,  and  given  m  a  drink, 
in  the  dose  of  a  half  drachm,  and  followed  by  smaller  doses  of  ten  grains  each, 
every  six  hours,  with  plenty  of  injections  of  warm  soap  and  water,  xuitil  the  bowels 
are  well  opened.  If  the  croton  is  not  at  hand,  aloes  may  be  given,  but  dissolved 
in  hot  water — an  ounce  of  aloes  at  the  first  dose,  and,  afterwards,  a  quarter  of  an 
ounce  every  four  hours,  until  purging  is  produced.  This  being  eflected,  those  me- 
dicines should  be  given  which  have  a  tendency  to  lessen  the  force  of  the  circula- 
tion, and,  consequently,  the  determination  of  blood  to  the  head.  The  most  pow- 
erful of  these  are  the  foxglove,  and  tartar  emetic,  in  doses  of  a  drachm  each,  tliree 
or  four  times  in  the  day.  Hellebore  should  not  be  given  on  account  of  the  pre- 
viously too  great  determination  of  blood  to  the  brain.  The  head  should  be  blis- 
tered, but  rowels  and  setons  give  useless  pain,  for  the  horse  is  either  cured  or  dead 
before  they  perceptibly  begin  to  act, 

TETASUS,    OK    LOCKED-JAW. 

We  have  described  the  nerves  as  proceeding  from  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow, 
and  conveying  the  power  of  feeling  and  motion  to  the  whole  frame.  This  power 
may  be  best  conceived  by  considering  it  as  an  influence  proceeding  from  the  brain, 
to  every  part.  In  a  state  of  health  it  is  regularly  and  uniformly  distributed;  but 
it  is  much  affected  by  disease.  It  may  rush  on  violently  and  without  interruption, 
and  we  have  cramp,  and  tetanus,  or  locked-jaw.  or  the  stream  may  be  rapid,  but 
with  considerable  suspensions,  and  we  have  fits;  or  it  may  be  quite  suspended,  and 
we  have  palsy. 

Teta:tu8  is  one  of  the  most  dreadful  and  fatal  diseases  to  which  the  horse  is  sub- 
ject. It  is  called  Locked-Jaw,  because  the  muscles  of  the  jaw  are  earliest  and 
most  powerfully  affected.  Tetanus  is  a  constant  spasm  of  all  the  voluntary  mus- 
cles, and  particularly  of  the  neck,  the  spine,  and  the  head.  It  is  generally  slow 
and  very  treacherous  in  its  attack.  The  liorse  for  a  day  or  two  does  not  appear 
to  be  quite  well;  he  doesnot  feed  as  usual;  partly  chews  his  food  and  drops  it;  and 
gidps  his  water.  The  owner  at  lengtJi  finds  out  that  the  motion  of  the  jaws  is  con- 
siderably limited,  and  some  saliva  is  drivelling  from  the  mouth.  If  he  tries  the 
mouth,  he  can  open  it  only  a  very  little  way,  or  the  jaws  are  perfectly  and  rigidly 
closed;  and  thus  the  only  time  in  which  the  disease  could  have  been  successfully 
combated  is  lost.  We  have,  therefore,  given  a  cut  of  a  horse  laboring  under  this 
disease,  which  the  reader  will  do  well  carefully  to  examine  as  we  proceed  with  the 
symptoms,  that  he  may  be  enabled  to  recognize  it  in  its  very  earhest  stage;  and 
the  moment  he  does  recognize  it,  he  will  do  well  to  apply  for  the  vei7  best  advice 


V 


84 


THE  HORSE. 


he  can  get.  Most  of  the  peculiavities  delineated  in  the  cut  will  be  sufficiently  ap- 
parent before  the  jaws  are  locked,  and  while  medicine  can  be  administered  with 
tolerable  ease. 

The  jaws  are  unnaturally  fixed,  and  then  he  observes  that  there  is  a  stifTness  of 
the  neck;  a  difficulty  in  bringing  the  head  round,  and  a  prominence,  and  hardness, 
and  unyieldingness  of  all  the  muscles  of  the  neck;  with  an  unusual  protrusion  of 
the  head.  It  next  occurs  that  the  poor  animal  cannot  bend  liis  head.  The  retrac- 
tor muscle  (fig.  g,  p.  78,)  is  affected  by  spasm,  and  the  eye  is  drawn  into  the  socket 
— squinting  outward — ^and  the  haw  protruding  over  a  poilion  of  it.  The  nostril  is 
expanded,  the  ear  erect,  and  the  countenance  anxious;  the  back  and  loins  are  stiff, 
and  if  he  is  turned  in  his  stall,  tlie  whole  body  turns  at  once  like  an  unbending 
piece  of  wood.  The  muscles  of  the  belly  are  also  affected  by  spasm,  and  he  is 
tucked  up  (his  belly  contracted  and  drawn  up,)  to  a  strange  degree.     The  tail  is 


erect,  and  constantly  quivering.  The  extremities  are  singularly  fixed;  the  hind- 
legs  straddling;  the  fore-legs  projecting  foi'ward  and  outward  (as  some  one  has  aptly 
described  it,)  like  the  legs  of  a  stool.  The  pulse  at  first  not  much  affected,  but 
soon  becoming  quick,  and  small,  and  irregular;  tlie  breathing  more  laborious  as  the 
disease  proceeds;  and  the  countenance  wild  and  haggard,  and  expressive  of  extreme 
agony.  The  pain  which  attends  the  cramp  of  one  limb  will  enable  us  to  judge 
of  that  which  must  accompany  universal  spasm.  If  a  person  goes  near  the  horse, 
or  touches  him  in  the  slightest  way,  although  he  may  be  unable  to  move,  yet  the 
sudden  quickening  of  the  pulse  will  tell  what  the  animal  feels  and  fears.  So  the 
disease  goes  on  for  nine  or  ten  days,  until  the  animal  is  exhausted  by  the  expendi- 
ture of  nervous  energy,  and  the  continuance  of  torture. 

If,  from  strength  of  constitution  or  medical  treatment,  he  should  recover,  the 
first  favorable  symptom  is  a  slight  and  short  remission  of  the  spasm;  the  time  of 
the  remission  gradually  lengthening,  and  the  jaws  a  Httle  relaxing;  but  the  progi'ess 
of  cure  is  exceedingly  slow,  and  the  horse  is  left  very  weak. 

Tetanus  is  evidently  an  affection  of  the  nerves.  A  small  fibre  of  some  nerve 
has  been  injured,  and  the  effect  of  that  injury  has  spread  to  the  origin  of  the  nerve; 
the  brain  has  become  affected,  and  universal  diseased  action  speedily  follows. 
Locked-jaw  generally  arises  from  a  wound,  and  oftenest  a  wound  of  a  tendinous  or 
ligamentous  part;  but  depending  not  either  upon  the  extent  of  the  wound,  or  the 
degree  of  inflammation  which  may  be  excited.  The  time  of  the  attack  is  uncer- 
tain, and  may  be  postponed  until  liie  wound  is  nearly  or  quite  healed.  It  occasion- 
ally follows  nicking,  docking,  cropping,  whether  well  or  ill  performed — whether 
properly  attended  to  afterwards  or  neglected.  It  has  been  traced  to  worms,  and 
particularly  to  bots;  but  we  do  not  think  that  there  is  any  proof  of  this.  Expo- 
sure to  cold  is  a  frequent  cause;  water  dropping  upon  the  back  through  the  de- 
cayed roof  of  a  stable;  or  the  storm  pelting  upon  the  uncovered  and  shivering  ani- 
mal, while  the  thoughtless  owner  has  sheltered  himself. 

The  rational  method  of  cure  would  seem  to  be,  first  to  remove  the  local  cause; 
but  this  will  seldom  avail  much.  The  irritation  is  become  general,  and  the  spas- 
modic action  constitutional.     The  habit  is  formed,  and  will  continue.     It  is  well. 


FITS,  Oil  EPILEPSY.  85 

however,  to  endeavor  to  discover  the  local  cause.  If  it  be  a  wound  in  the  foot, 
let  it  be  touched  with  the  hot  iron  or  the  caustic,  and  kept  open  with  digestive 
ointment.  The  now  irritation  thus  produced,  may  lessen  or  remove  the  old  one. 
If  it  follows  nicking",  let  the  incision  be  made  deeper,  and  stimulated  by  dig-estive 
ointment;  and  if  it  arise  from  docking-,  let  tlie  operation  be  repeated  liig-iier.  In 
treating  the  constitutional  disease,  efforts  must  be  made  to  tranquillize  the  system, 
and  the  most  powerful  agent  is  bleeding.  We  have  known  twenty  pounds  of 
blood  taken  at  once,  and  with  manifest  advantage.  There  is  not  a  more  powerful 
means  of  allaying  general  irritation.  Temporary  relaxation  of  the  spasm  will  at 
least  follow,  and  that  will  give  the  opportunity  to  do  anotlier  tiling  in  order  to  re- 
duce and  quiet  the  disturbed  system,  and  that  is  to  give  pliysic.  Here  again,  that 
physic  is  best  which  is  speediest  in  operation,  and  will  lie  in  tlie  smallest  compass. 
The  croton  has  7io  rival  in  this  respect.  The  first  dose  should  be  a  Imlf-drachm, 
and  the  medicine  i-epeated  every  six  hours,  in  doses  of  ten  grains,  until  it  operates. 
The  bowels,  in  all  tliese  nervous  affections,  are  very  torpid,  and  there  is  little 
danger  of  inflammation  from  an  over  dose  of  pluslc.  The  operation  of  the  physic 
may  be  assisted  by  frequent  injections,  each  containing  a  drachm  of  aloes  dissolved 
in  warm  water — or,  by  means  of  the  pump,  to  which  we  referred  in  page  82, 
whole  pailfuls  of  warm  water  or  very  thin  gruel  may  be  thrown  up. 

Then,  as  it  is  a  diseased  action  of  the  nerves  proceeding  from  the  spinal  mar- 
row, the  whole  of  the  spine  should  be  blistered — three  or  four  inches  wide.  The 
horse  should  be  placed  in  a  warm  stable,  yet  with  pure  air,  and  shoidd  be  clothed 
with  two  or  three  additional  rugs,  or,  w'hat  is  much  better,  slieep-skins  warm  from 
the  animal,  with  the  raw  side  inward,  and  changed  as  soon  as  they  become  dry  or 
putrid. 

Having  bled  largely,  and  physicked  and  blistered,  we  seek  for  other  means  to 
lull  the  irritation,  and  we  have  one  at  hand,  small  in  bulk  and  potent  in  energy — 
opium.  Give  at  once  a  quarter  of  an  ounce,  reduced  to  powder,  and  made  into  a 
drink  with  gruel,  or  in  a  small  ball,  (in  its  crude  state  it  would  be  too  long  in  dis- 
solving in  the  stomach,)  and  give  an  additional  drachm  every  six  hours.  If  the 
jaw  should  be  quite  fixed,  administer  it  in  injections.  The  bowels  must  be  at- 
tended to  during  the  exhibition  of  the  opium,  and  aloes  given  in  small  doses,  to 
keep  them  in  a  lax  state.  Camphor  and  assafostida  may  be  given  by  those  who 
please;  we  are  not  aware  that  they  will  do  injury,  but  opium  is  the  sheet-anchor 
of  the  veterinary  practitioner. 

Great  caution  and  patience  are  requisite  in  administering  the  drinks,  for  the 
elevating  of  the  head  seems  to  be  exceedingly  painful  to  the  horse.  A  ball  may 
be  divided  into  small  pieces,  and  with  a  piece  of  cane  or  whalebone  conveyed  to 
the  back  part  of  the  mouth,  where  it  will  be  dissolved,  and  must  be  swallowed. 

As  soon  as  possible  the  strength  should  be  supported  by  nutritive  food.  The 
appetite  seldom  fails  in  this  disease;  and  it  is  painful  to  see  the  repeated  eager  ef- 
forts of  the  poor  animal  to  allay  his  hunger.  When  his  jaws  are  most  firmly  fixed, 
he  will  sometimes  be  able  to  suck  in  the  liquid  from  a  moist  masli;  if  he  has  the 
slightest  command  over  them,  he  will  contrive  to  swallow  the  greater  part  of  the 
mash:  and  should  there  be  room  to  introduce  the  mouth  of  a  small  horn,  he  will 
thankfully  take  as  much  gruel  as  Ills  attendant  will  give  him.  Until  the  jaws  are 
firmly  locked,  he  may  be  suffered  to  have  hay,  although  he  should  only  chew  it 
and  drop  it  from  the  mouth;  for  this  action  of  the  muscles  of  the  jaws  may  delay 
or  prevent  their  total  closui-e.  Little  medicine  will  be  wanted  as  he  gets  better; 
noui-isliing  food,  not  too  liberally  administered,  will  constitute  the  best  tonic;  and 
should  the  weather  be  sufficiently  warm,  few  things  will  do  him  more  good  than 
to  turn  him  out  for  two  or  three  hours  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  It  will  extend 
the  muscles  of  his  neck,  and  bring  him  to  the  use  of  his  hmbs. 

Against  one  mode  of  treatment  we  enter  our  protest,  from  its  cruelty  and  its  in- 
utihty — the  application  of  cold.  Some  turn  the  animal  out  uncovered  in  a  frosty 
night.  We  have  no  faith  in  the  practice  of  this:  but  placing  the  poor  horse  under 
a  pump,  and  letting  the  water  flow  upon  his  spasmed  limbs  for  hours  together,  or 
dashing  it  violently  upon  him,  wliile  he  crouches  and  groans  all  the  while,  is  both 
cruel  and  useless. 

FITS,    on    EPILEPSY. 

The  sti'eam  of  nervous  Influence  is  sometimes  rapid,  but  the  suspensions  are 
considerable,  and  this  is  tlie  theory  of  fits,  or  epilepsy.     Fortunately  the  horse 


86  THE  HORSE. 

is  not  often  afflicted  with  this  disease,  althoug-h  it  is  not  unknown  to  the  breeder. 
The  attack  is  sudden.  The  animal  stops;  trembles;  looks  vacantly  around  him, 
and  falls.  Occasionally  the  convulsions  wliich  follow  are  slight;  at  other  times  they 
are  terrible.  The  he.ad  and  fore  part  of  the  horse  are  most  affected,  and  the  con- 
tortions are  most  sinp^ular.  In  a  few  minutes  the  convulsions  cease;  he  gets  up; 
looks  aroimd  him  with  a  kind  of  stupid  astonishment;  shakes  his  eai'S;  urines;  and 
eats  or  drinks  as  if  nothing-  had  happened. 

The  only  hope  of  cure  consists  in  discovering  the  cause  of  the  fits;  and  an  ex- 
perienced practitioner  must  be  considted,  if  the  animal  be  valuable;  generally 
speaking,  however,  the  cause  is  so  difficult  to  discover,  and  the  habit  of  fits  is  so 
soon  formed,  and  they  will  so  frequently  retui-n,  even  at  a  gi-eat  distance  of  time, 
that  he  who  values  his  own  safety,  or  the  lives  of  his  family,  will  cease  to  use  an 
epileptic  horse. 


The  stream  of  nervous  influence  is  sometimes  stopped,  and  thence  results  paist. 
The  power  of  the  muscle  is  unimpaired,  but  the  nervous  energy  is  deficient. 
Pais)'  in  the  horse  is  usually  confined  to  tlie  hinder  limbs.  When  purging  has 
been  too  suddenly  stopped,  he  becomes  paralj-tic.  It  is  sometimes  the  conse- 
quence of  violent  inflammation  of  the  bowels.  It  is  produced  by  falls,  blows  on 
the  loins,  injury  in  casting,  and  turning  in  a  narrow  stall.  In  these  latter  cases 
the  spine  has  been  evidently  injured.  Old  carriage  horses,  and  horses  of  draught 
of  every  kind,  although  not  absolutely  paralyzed,  have  often  great  stiffness  in  their 
gait,  and  difficulty  of  turning.  Possibly  they  can  tui'n  one  way  and  not  the  other. 
They  are  unwilling  to  lie  down,  from  experience  of  the  difficulty  they  would  have 
in  rising  again.  These  are  evident  injuries  of  the  spine,  and  a  loss  of  some  of  the 
joints  of  the  loins  or  back,  and  are  without  remedy;  and  so  often  is  palsy.  Bleed- 
ing, physicking,  antimonial  medicines,  and  stimulating  embrocations,  are  the  most 
likely  means  of  cui'e. 

RABIES,    OK    MADNESS. 

There  is  another  disease  of  the  nervous  system  of  which  we  must  speak — kabies, 
or  MADNESS — that  incurable  malady  which  results  from  the  bite  of  a  rabid  or  mad 
animal.  The  poison  of  the  saliva  remains  in  the  wound  for  an  uncertain  time, 
varying  from  three  to  eight  weeks  in  the  horse,  and  then  begins  to  produce 
its  dreadful  effects  on  the  system.  The  attack  of  rabies  (or  hydrophobia,  as  it  is 
commonly,  but  very  improperly  called  in  the  horse  and  other  quadrupeds,  for  they 
have  no  dread  of  water.)  is  usually  very  sudden.  The  animal  will  go  to  work 
apparently  well;  all  at  once  he  will  stop,  tremble,  heave,  paw,  stagger,  and  fall. 
Almost  immediately  he  will  rise;  draw  his  load  a  little  farther;  again  stop,  look 
ab^^ut  him,  and  once  more  fall.  This  cannot  be  confounded  with  megrims,  be- 
cause the  horse  is  perfectly  sensible.  The  sooner  he  is  led  home  the  better,  for 
the  progress  of  the  disease  is  most  i-apid;  and,  if  he  is  not  immediately  destroyed, 
he  should  be  shing,  for  sometimes  a  state  of  the  highest  excitation  speedily  ensues. 
The  horse  kicks  and  plunges  in  the  most  violent  manner;  attempts  furiously  to 
seize  and  bite  the  otlier  horses,  or  his  attendants;  "and  will  level  with  the  ground 
every  thing  before  him,  himself  sweating,  and  snorting,  and  foaming,  amidst  the 
ruins."  In  both  the  ferocious  and  the  harmless  variety  of  the  disease,  staggering 
and  palsy  of  the  hinder  extremities  soon  follow.  We  remember  to  h.ave  seen  a 
beautiful  mare,  sitting  on  her  haunches,  and  unable  to  rise,  yet  pawing  furiously 
with  her  fore-feet,  and  striking  at  every  thing  within  her  reach.  The  thirst  is  ex- 
cessive, and  the  act  of  swallowing  is  usually  performed  with  a  forced  gulping  ef- 
fort, and  the  head  is,  in  a  few  instances,  snatched  violently  from  the  pail.  The 
disease  rarely  extends  beyond  the  third  day. 

After  death,  there  is  uniformly  found  inflammation  at  the  back  part  of  the 
mouth,  and  at  the  top  of  the  windpipe,  and  likewise  in  the  stomach,  and  on  the 
membrane  covering  the  lungs,  and  where  the  spinal  marrow  first  comes  from  the 
brain. 

When  the  disease  can  be  clearly  connected  with  a  previous  bite,  the  sooner  the 
animal  is  destroyed  the  better,  for  there  is  no  cure.  If  the  symptoms  bear  consi- 
denible  resemblance  to  rabies,  although  no  bite  be  suspected,  the  horse  should  at 
least  be  slung,  and  the  medicine,  if  any  be  administered,  given  in  the  form  of  a 


NEUROTOMY,  OR  CUTTING  THE  NERVE.  87 

drink,  and  with  the  hand  well  protected;  because,  if  it  should  be  scratched  in  ball- 
ing the  horse,  or  the  skin  should  have  been  previously  broken,  the  sahva  of  the 
animal  is  capable  of  communicating  the  disease.  Several  farriers  have  lost  their 
lives  from  being  bitten  or  scratched  in  the  act  of  administering  medicine  to  a 
rabid  horse. 

It  is  always  dangerous  to  encourage  dogs  much  about  the  stable,  and  especially 
if  they  become  fond  of  the  horses,  and  are  in  the  habit  of  jumping  up  and  licking 
them.  The  corners  of  horses'  moutlis  are  often  sore  from  the  pressure  of  the  bit; 
and  when  a  coach-dog  in  a  gentleman's  stable — and  it  is  likely  to  happen  in  every 
stable,  and  with  every  dog — becomes  rabid  and  dies,  tlie  horse  too  frequently  fol- 
lows him  at  no  great  distance  of  time. 

If  a  horse  shuuld  be  bitten  by  a  dog  under  suspicious  circumstances,  he  should 
be  carefully  examined,  and  every  wound,  and  even  the  slightest  scratch,  well 
burned  with  the  lunar  caustic,  (nitrate  of  silver,)  asid  the  scab  should  be  removed 
and  the  operation  repeated  on  the  third  day.  The  hot  u-on  dops  not  answer  so 
well,  and  other  caustics  are  not  so  manageable.  In  the  spring  of  1827,  four  horses 
were  bitten  near  Hyde  Park  by  a  mad  dog.  To  one  of  them  the  lunar  caustic 
was  severely  and  twice  applied — he  lived.  The  red  hot  iron  was  unsparingly 
Vised  on  the  others,  and  they  died.  The  caustic  must  reach  every  part  of  the 
wound.  At  the  expii-ation  of  the  fourth  month,  tlie  horse  may  be  considered  to 
be  safe. 

NErROTOMT,  OR    CUTTIIfG    THE    HEBVE. 

To  enable  the  hoi-se  to  accomplish  many  of  the  tasks  we  exact  from  him,  we 
have  nailed  on  his  feet  an  iron  defence.  Without  the  shoe  he  would  not  only  be 
unable  to  travel  over  oiu*  hard  roads,  but  he  would  speedily  become  useless  to  us. 
While,  however,  the  iron  protects  his  feet  from  being  battered  and  bruised,  it  is 
necessarily  inflexible.  It  cramps  and  confines  the  hoof,  and,  without  gi-eat  cai-e, 
entails  on  our  valuable  servant  disease  and  torture. 

Among  the  different  modes  of  palliating  or  removing  the  extreme  pain,  veteri- 
nary surgeons  have  lately  resorted  to  the  division  of  the  nerve  which  goes  to  the 
foot.  We  shall  now  perliaps  be  able  to  understand  the  reason  and  the  effect  of 
the  operation.  Tlie  nerve  of  the  leg,  we  have  said,  is  derived  from  the  union  of 
several  of  the  spinal  nerves,  and  consequently  it  is  a  nerve  of  combined  feehng 
and  motion.  The  fibi-es  connected  with  motion,  however,  are  directed  only  to 
those  parts  which  are  concerned  in  the  production  of  motion,  and  these  are  the 
muscles.  By  the  contraction  of  the  muscles,  caused  by  the  influence  of  the  nerves, 
the  hmbs  are  moved.  The  bones,  the  blood-vessels,  and  other  parts,  are  merely 
passive.  Now  the  muscles  of  the  leg  of  the  horse  do  not  extend  below  the  knee. 
No  part  concerned  in  the  production  of  motion  is  found  below  the  knee,  and  the 
fibres  of  the  nerve  which  are  connected  with  motion  are  all  distributed  above  tliis 
joint;  and  when  we  divide  the  nerve  either  on  the  pastern  or  above  the  fetlock, 
we  do  not  touch  a  single  fibre  connected  with  motion.  Those  which  are  connect- 
ed with  feehng  are  continued  to  the  very  extremity  of  the  foot,  and  these  are  the 
fibres  which  we  divide  in  the  operation  of  neurotomy,  or  nerve-cutting.  We  can- 
not possibly  interfere  with  the  motion  of  the  limb,  but  we  take  away  the  sensibi- 
Uty  or  feeling  of  the  foot,  and  reUeve  the  animal  fi-om  torture;  and,  doing  this, 
we  not  only  render  him  a  service  in  return  for  tlie  many  we  have  received  from 
lum,  but  we  often  and  speedily  abate  tlie  inflammation  of  the  part,  and  give  time 
for  the  use  of  remedies  which  we  should  otherwise  have  been  unable  to  apply,  and 
thus  possibly  retain  liis  services  for  many  a  year. 

It  is  long  before  a  new  operation  or  practice,  however  useful  or  judicious  it 
may  be,  is  generally  adopted,  and,  probably,  the  majority  of  our  readers  are  some 
of  the  last  to  shake  off"  the  prejudices  and  errors  of  their  forefathers  We  have 
heard  it  said  by  many  a  farmer,  and  by  many  a  fai-rier  too — "  What!  cut  the  nerve 
of  the  limb!  Is  not  the  nerve  tlie  very  life  of  the  limb?  Does  not  the  limb  derive 
all  its  support  from  the  nerve?  Will  nut  the  foot  waste  away,  and  even  the  hoof 
di-op  off  ?"  When  this  operation  has  been  improperly  performed,  and  where 
common  sense  would  have  forbidden  it,  and  the  horse,  not  only  freed  from  pain, 
but  from  feehng  too,  has  battered  and  bruised  his  foot,  which  the  sensation  of 
pain  would  not  have  permitted,  and  thus  the  structure  of  the  foot  has  been  injured 
or  destroyed,  and  the  hoof  has  actually  dropped  off"  after  the  division  of  the 
nerve— every  prejudice  has  been  strengtliened,  and  the  operation  has  been  cen- 


88 


THE  HORSE. 


sured  and  neglected.  Now,  although  we  have  shown  that  every  part  of  the  animal 
frame  is  dependant  on  nervous  energy,  we  have  also  shown  that  we  do  not  and 
cannot,  by  this  operation,  injure  those  nerves  on  wliich  nutrition  depends:  these 
are  the  ganglial  nerves,  which  wind  round  the  arteries  and  veins,  and  their  mi- 
nutest branches,  and  enable  them  to  discharge  tlxeir  functions,  and  they  are  not, 
and  cannot  be  touched  in  the  operation  of  unnerving;  nor  can  the  sUghtest  portion 
of  nutriment  be  taken  away  from  the  Umb,  We  divide  only  the  nerve  of  sensa- 
tion; and  if  we  have  used  a  little  common  sense,  and  considered  whether  it  be  a 
case  that  admits  of  the  operation,  and  will  probably  benefit  by  it,  we  shall  g^V€ 
relief  to  him  who  well  deserves  it,  and  will  amply  repay  it. 


A  The  nerve  on  the  inside  of  tlie  off  leg  at  the  edge  of 

the  shank  bone,  and  behind  the  vein  and  artery. 
B  The  continuation  of  the  same  nerve  on  the  pastern,  and 

proceeding  downward  to  supply  the  back  part  of  tlie 

foot  with  feehng. 
c  The  division  of  the  nerve  on  the  fetlock  joint. 
D  The  branch  which  supplies  with  feeling  the  fore  part 

of  the  foot. 
E  The  artery  between  the  vein  and  nerve. 
F  The  continuation  of  the  artery  on  the  pastern,  close  to^ 

and  before  the  nerve, 
^  o  The  vein  before  the  artery  and  nerve, 
u  The  same  vein  spreading  over  the  pastern. 
I   One  of  the  flexor  tendons,  the  perforatus  (perforated.) 
J  The  deeper  flexor  tendon,  the  perforans  (perforating, 

contained  within  the  other.) 
K  The  tendinous  band  in  which  the  flexors  work, 
t   One  of  the  extensors  of  tlie  foot. 
M  The  internal  or  sensible  frog. 
I^M  N  The  posterior  lateral  ligament. 

N  o   The  fleshy  or  sensible  lamina  covering  the  coffin  bon^ 

the  horny  crust  being  removed. 
p   The  horny  crust. 
tl  The  sole. 


Our  cut  gives  a  view  of  the  nerve  on  the  inside,  as  it  approaches  the  fetlock, 
and  goes  over  the  pastern.  It  will  be  seen  that  branches  are  given  off"  above  the 
fetlock,  which  go  to  the  fore  part  of  the  foot,  and  supply  it  with  feeling.  The 
continuation  of  the  nei-ve  below  the  fetlock  is  given  princijjally  to  the  quarters  and 
hinder  part  of  the  foot.  The  first  considei-ation,  then,  with  the  operator  is — Does 
he  wish  to  deprive  the  whole  of  tlie  foot  of  sensation,  or  is  the  cause  of  lameness 
principally  in  the  hinder  part  of  tlie  foot,  so  that  he  can  leave  some  degree  of  feel- 
ing in  the  fore  part,  and  prevent  that  alteration  in  the  tread  and  going  of  the  horse, 
which  the  good  horseman  immediately  detects  ? 

The  horse  is  cast  and  secured,  and  the  limb  to  be  operated  on  removed  from  the 
hobbles  and  extended;  the  hair  having  been  previously  shaved  from  the  pai-t.  The 
operator  then  feels  for  the  throbbing  of  the  artery,  or  the  round  firm  body  of  the 
nerve  itself,  on  the  side  of  the  shank  bone,  or  the  larger  pastem.  The  vein,  ar- 
tery, and  nerve  here  run  close  together,  the  vein  nearest  to  the  front  of  the  leg, 
then  the  artery,  and  the  nerve  behind.  He  cautiously  cuts  through  the  skin,  for 
an  inch  and  a  half  in  length.  The  vessels  will  then  be  brought  into  view,  and  the 
nerve  will  be  distinguished  from  them,  by  its  being  behind,  and  by  its  whiteness. 
A  crooked  needle  with  silk  is  passed  under  it  to  raise  it  a  little;  it  is  dissected  from 
the  cellular  substance  beneath,  and  about  three  quarters  of  an  inch  of  it  cut  out,  the 
first  incision  being  made  at  the  upper  part,  in  which  case  the  second  cut  will  not  be 
felt.  ,The  horse  must  then  be. turned  and  tlie  operation  performed  on  the  other  side, 
for  there  is  a  nervous  trunk  on  botli  sides.  Tlie  wounds  are  now  closed  witli  strips 
of  adhesive  plaster,  a  bandage  placed  over  them,  the  head  tied  up  for  two  dajs. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  EYE,  89 

and  the  animal  kept  rather  low,  and  as  quiet  as  possible.  The  incisions  will  gene- 
rally rapidly  heal,  and  in  three  weeks,  or  a  montli,  and  sometimes  earher,  the  horse 
will  be  fit  for  work. 

For  ring-  bone — tlie  side  cartilages  becoming  bony,  and  partial  stiffness  of  the 
pastern  and  coffin  joints,  the  operation  of  nerving  will  probably  be  useful.  The 
sense  of  pain  being  taken  away,  the  animal  will  use  these  parts  more,  and  partly 
recover  their  natural  action  and  motion.  For  the  same  reason,  in  old  contraction 
of  the  feet,  it  is  highly  beneficial.  The  torture  occasioned  by  the  pressure  of  the 
horny  crust  on  the  sensible  parts  within  being  no  longer  felt,  and  the  foot  coming 
fully  and  firmly  in  contact  with  the  ground,  not  only  is  lameness  relieved,  but  the 
elasticity  and  form  of  the  foot  partially  restored.  Where  there  has  long  existed 
lameness  unattended  with  heat  of  the  foot,  or  alteration  of  shape,  and  the  seat  of 
which  could  not  be  ascertained,  although  probably  existing  between  the  shuttle 
bone  and  the  back  tendon  which  plays  over  it,  neurotomy  may  be  resorted  to  with 
decided  advantage. 

Mischief,  however,  will  result  from  the  operation  if  the  pastern  or  coffin  joints 
are  perfectly  stiff,  because  the  concussion  occasioned  by  the  forcible  contact  of  the 
foot  with  the  ground,  and  unbroken  by  the  play  of  the  joints,  must  necessarily  still 
more  injure  the  bone.  When  the  sole  of  the  foot  is  convex  or  pumiced,  the  effect 
of  neurotomy  will  be  most  destructive.  The  sole,  scarcely  able  to  bear  the  pres- 
sure of  the  coffin-bone  forced  below  its  natural  situation,  even  when  pain  induces 
the  animal  to  put  his  foot  as  gently  as  possible  on  the  ground,  would  now  be  speedi- 
ly worn  through  and  destroyed.  So,  if  inflammation  existed,  although  its  pain 
might  be  removed,  yet  its  progress  would  be  quickened  by  the  bruising  to  which 
the  parts  might  be  subjected,  and  more  especially  would  this  be  the  case  if  there 
were  any  ulceration  of  the  ligaments  or  cartilages.  How  many  cases  will  this  in- 
clude? To  how  many  poor  coach  and  cart-horses  and  hackneys  might  some  years 
of  usefulness  and  enjoyment  thus  be  added i" 

The  value  of  the  operation,  or  the  unpleasant  consequences  which  may  follow 
from  it,  depend  upon  the  judgment  of  the  surgeon;  and  that  judgment  being  duly 
exercised,  we  regard  this  operation  as  one  of  the  most  important  discoveries  in 
hoi'se  practice  in  modern  times. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    ETE. 

The  diseases  of  tlie  eye  constitute  a  very  important,  but  a  most  unsatisfactory  di- 
vision of  our  work;  for  the  maladies  of  this  organ,  although  few  in  number,  are 
frequent  in  their  appearance;  they  are  sadly  obstinate,  and  baffle  all  skill.  The 
eye  of  the  horse  appears  to  be  naturally  more  disposed  to  disease  than  that  of  any 
other  animal  with  which  we  are  acquainted;  and  most  assuredly  there  is  no  domes- 
tic animal,  the  treatment  of  whose  diseases  is  so  much  at  variance  with  common 
sense. 

We  have  spoken  of  Fractuhe  of  the  orbit,  and  its  treatment.  Occasionally  a 
WocjfD  is  inflicted  by  a  passionate  or  careless  servant.  The  eye  itself  is  rarely  in- 
jured. It  is  placed  on  a  mass  of  fat,  and  it  turns  most  readily,  and  the  prong  of 
the  fork  glances  off;  but  the  substance  around  the  eye  may  be  deeply  wounded, 
and  very  considerable  inflammation  may  ensue.  This  should  be  abated  by  poul- 
tices, and  bleeding,  and  physic;  but  no  probe  should  be  used,  under  the  foolish  idea 
of  ascertaining  the  depth  of  the  wound,  for,  from  the  constant  motion  of  the  eye, 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  pass  the  probe  into  the  original  wound,  and  the  effort  to 
accomplish  it  will  give  a  gi-eat  deal  of  pain,  and  increase  the  inflammation. 

The  horse  has  occasionally  a  scaly  eruption  on  the  edges  of  the  eyelids,  attend- 
ed with  great  itching,  in  the  effort  to  allay  which,  by  rubbing  the  part,  the  eye 
may  be  blemished.  The  nitrated  ointment  of  quicksilver,  mixed  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  lard,  may  be  slightly  rubbed  on  the  edges  of  tlie  lids  with  considerable 
good  effect. 

Warts  are  sometimes  attached  to  the  edges  of  the  lids,  and  are  a  source  of  great 
irritation.  When  rubbed  they  bleed,  and  the  common  opinion  is  true  that  they  are 
propagated  by  the  blood.  They  may  be  taken  off  with  a  sharp  pair  of  scissors, 
and  their  roots  touched  with  the  lunar  caustic. 

The  Haw  may  be  thickened,  and  project  on  the  fore  part  of  the  eye.  The  eye 
is  drawn  back  by  the  retractor  muscle  to  relieve  it  from  the  painful  influence  of 
the  light;  and  the  haw  being  thus  pushed  forward,  and  thickened,  and  the  neigh- 
boring parts  thickened,  is  unable  to  retract.  Cooling  applications,  and  bleeding 
12 


90  THE  HORSE. 

and  physic,  will  generally  set  all  right.     The  farrier  who  talks  of  cutting  out  this 
important  organ  must  be  exceedingly  ignorant. 

In  a  very  few  instances  long  continued  inflammation  of  the  haw  is  followed  by 
ulceration  and  eating  away  of  the  cartilage.  If  the  Goulard  lotion,  and  that  suc- 
ceeded by  the  white  vitriol,  fail  to  abate  the  inflammation  or  to  retract  the  part,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  extirpate  it.  The  horse  must  be  cast,  and  the  aid  of  a  vete- 
rinary surgeon  is  indispensable,  for  he  alone  can  determine  how  much  of  the  neigh- 
boring membranes  must  likewise  be  removed. 

COMMON    INFLAMMATIOIT    OF    THE    EYB. 

The  conjunctiva  is  the  seat  of  the  worst  disease,  and  which  is  too  often  destruc- 
tive to  the  eye.  We  may  consider  inflammation  of  the  eye  under  two  forms — the 
common  and  manageable,  and  the  specific  and  flttal.  The  Common  Injiajamation 
is  generally  sudden  in  its  attack.  The  lids  will  be  found  swelled,  the  eyes  par- 
tially closed,  with  some  weeping.  The  inside  of  the  lid  will  be  red,  some  red 
sti-eaks  visible  on  the  white  of  the  eye,  and  the  cornea  slightly  dim.  This  is  usu- 
ally connected  with  some  degree  of  catarrh  or  cold;  but  it  is  as  often  unaccompa- 
nied by  this,  and  depends  on  external  irritation,  as  a  blow,  or  the  presence  of  a  bit 
of  hay-seed  or  oat-husk  within  the  lid,  and  towards  the  outer  corner  where  the 
haw  cannot  reach  it:  therefore  the  lids  should  always  be  carefully  examined  as  to 
this  possible  source  of  the  complaint.  The  health  of  the  animal  is  generally  not 
at  all  affected;  he  feeds  well,  and  performs  his  work  with  his  usu.il  spirit.  Cool- 
ing applications  to  the  eye,  as  the  Goulard's  extract  in  the  proportion  of  a  drachm, 
or  half  an  ounce  of  the  tincture  of  opium  to  a  pint  of  water,  with  mash-diet, 
and  gentle  physic,  will  usually  get  rid  of  this:  or  the  inflammation  will  subside 
without  medical  treatment. 

SPECIFIC    OPHTHALMIA,    OR    MOON-BLINDNESS. 

Should  three  or  four  days  pass,  and  the  inflammation  not  be  abated,  we  may  begin 
to  suspect  that  it  is  the  true  Ophthalmia,  especially  if  the  eye  be  very  impatient  of 
light,  and  the  cornea  be  considerably  clouded:  the  aqueous  humor  then  often  loses 
its  transparency,  even  the  iris  changes  its  color,  and  the  pupil  is  exceedingly  con- 
tracted. We  have  now  an  obstinate  disease  to  combat,  and  one  which  will  gene- 
rally maintain  its  ground  in  spite  of  all  our  efforts.  For  three,  or  four,  or  five 
weeks,  the  inflammation  will  remain  undiminished,  or  if  it  appears  to  yield  on  one 
day,  it  will  return  with  redoubled  violence  on  the  next.  At  length,  and  often  un- 
connected with  any  of  the  means  we  have  been  using,  the  eye  begins  to  bear  the 
light,  the  redness  on  the  membrane  of  the  lid  and  the  white  of  the  eye  somewhat 
suddenly  disappears,  the  cornea  clears  up,  and  the  only  vestige  of  disease  which 
remains  is  a  slight  thickening  of  the  lids,  and  apparent  uneasiness  when  exposed 
to  a  very  strong  light. 

If  we  imagine  that  we  have  got  rid  of  the  disease,  we  shall  be  sadly  disappoint- 
ed, for,  in  the  course  of  six  weeks  or  two  months,  either  the  same  eye  undergoes 
a  second  and  similar  attack,  or  the  other  eye  becomes  affected.  All  again  seems 
to  pass  over,  except  that  the  eye  is  not  so  perfectly  restored,  and  a  slight,  deeply, 
seated  cloudiness  begins  to  appear;  and  after  repeated  attacks,  and  alternations  of 
disease  from  eye  to  eye,  the  affair  terminates  in  opacity  of  the  lens  or  its  capsule, 
attended  with  perfect  blindness  either  of  one  eye  or  both.  This  affection  was  for- 
merly known  by  the  name  of  moon-blindness,  from  its  periodical  return,  and  some 
supposed  influence  of  the  moon.  That  planet,  however,  has  not,  and  cannot  have 
any  thing  to  do  with  it. 

What  is  the  practitioner  doing  all  this  while?  He  is  an  anxious  and  busy,  but 
almost  powerless  spectator.  He  foments  the  eyes  with  warm  water,  or  applies  cold 
lotions  with  the  extract  of  lead  or  opium,  or  poultices  to  which  these  drugs  may 
be  added;  he  bleeds,  not  from  the  temporal  artei-y,  for  that  does  not  supply  the 
orbit  of  the  eye,  but  from  the  angular  vein  at  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye,  or  by 
scarifying  the  lining  of  the  lid,  or  by  subtraciing  a  considerable  quantity  of  blood 
from  the  jugular.  The  scarifying  of  the  lids,  which  may  be  easily  accomplished 
without  a  twitch,  by  exposing  the  inside  of  the  lids,  and  drawing  a  keen  lancet 
slightly  over  it,  is  the  most  effectual  of  all  ways  to  abate  inflammation,  for  we  are 
then  unmediately  unloading  the  distended  vessels.  He  places  his  setons  in  the 
cheek,  or  his  rowels  under  the  jaw;  and  he  keeps  the  animal  low,  and  physics,  or 


SPECIFIC  OPHTHALMIA,  OR  MOON-BLINDNESS.  91 

gives  fever  medicine  (digitalis,  nitre,  and  emetic  tartar;)  or,  as  some  have  done, 
considering'  it  as  a  constitutional  disease,  administers  the  corrosive  sublimate  daily  in 
doses  of  a  scruple.  The  disease,  however,  ebbs  and  flows,  retreats  and  attacks, 
until  it  reaches  its  natural  termination,  blindness  of  one  or  both  eyes. 

The  horse  is  more  subject  to  this  disease  from  the  ag-e  of  four  to  six  years  than 
at  any  others  period.  He  has  then  completed  his  growth:  he  is  full  of  blood,  and 
liable  to  inflammatory  complaints,  and  the  eye  is  the  organ  attacked  from  a  pecu- 
liar predisposition  in  it  to  inflammation,  the  nature  or  cause  of  which  cannot  be  ex- 
plained. Every  affection  of  the  eye  appearing  about  tliis  age  must  be  regarded 
with  much  suspicion.  It  is  a  common  opinion  that  black  horses  are  more  subject 
to  blmdness  than  others.  We  have  considerable  doubt  about  this,  or  rather  we  be- 
lieve that  color  has  no  influence  either  in  producing  or  aggravating  the  disease. 

As  tills  malady  so  frequently  destroys  the  sght,  and  there  are  certain  periods 
when  the  inflammation  has  seemingly  subsided,  and  tlie  inexperienced  person  would 
be  deceived  into  the  belief  that  all  danger  is  at  an  end,  the  eye  should  be  most 
carefully  examined  at  the  time  of  purchase,  and  the  examiner  should  be  fully  aware 
of  all  the  minute  indications  of  previous  or  approaching  disease.  They  are  a  sl'ght 
thickening  of  the  lids,  or  puckering  towards  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye;  a  differ- 
ence in  the  apparent  size  of  the  eyes;  a  cloudiness,  although  perhaps  scarcely  per- 
ceptible, of  the  surface  of  the  cornea,  or  more  deeply  seated,  or  a  hazy  circle  round 
its  edge;  a  gloominess  of  the  eye  generally,  and  dulness  of  the  iris;  or  a  minute, 
faint,  dusky  spot  in  the  centre,  with  or  without  little  fibres  or  Unes  diverging  from  it. 

The  cause  of  this  inflammation  is  undoubtedly  a  strong  predisposition  to  it  in 
the  eye  of  the  horse,  but  assisted  by  the  heated  and  poisoned  air  of  many  stables. 
Some  of  our  readers,  whose  stables  are  not  too  air-light,  see  frequently  a  gi-eat  deal 
of  this  disease;  but  if  they  knew  its  ravages  where  several  horses  are  crowded  to- 
gether, and  scarcely  a  breath  of  air  admitted,  they  would  deem  themselves  com- 
paratively fortunate.  The  heated  air  has  much  to  do  with  the  production  of  the 
disease;  the  poisoned  air  a  great  deal  more;  for  every  one  must  have  observed,  on 
entering  a  close  stable  early  in  the  morning,  strong  fumes  of  hartshorn,  which 
were  painful  to  his  eyes,  and  caused  them  to  water.  What  must  be  the  constant 
action  of  this  on  the  eyes  of  the  horse?  The  dung  of  the  horse,  and  the  litter  of 
the  stables,  when  becoming  putrid,  give  out  fumes  of  volatile  alkali  or  hartshorn; 
but  besides  this,  the  urine  of  the  horse,  for  some  purpose  unknown  to  us,  possibly 
to  teach  us  to  take  better  care  of  this  useful  servant,  begins  very  soon  after  it  is 
voided  to  give  out  an  immense  quantity  of  this  pungent  gas.  If  we  are  scarcely 
able  to  bear  it  when  we  stand  in  the  stable  for  only  a  few  minutes,  we  need  not 
wonder  at  the  prevalence  of  inflammation  in  the  eye  of  the  stabled  horse,  nor  at  the 
difficulty  of  abating  inflammation  while  the  eye  continues  to  be  exposed  to  such 
painful  excitement.  Stables  are  now  much  better  ventilated  than  they  used  to 
be,  and  this  disease  is  not  so  prevalent  as  it  was  fifty  years  ago. 

The  farmer  may  not  be  aware  of  another  cause  of  this  disease,  to  which  his 
horse  is  more  particularly  exposed,  viz.,  confinement  in  a  dark  stable.  Many 
stables  in  the  country  have  no  glazed  windows,  but  there  is  a  flap  which  is  open 
for  a  few  hours  in  the  day,  or  while  the  carter  is  employed  in  the  stable,  and 
when  that  is  shut  down  almost  total  darkness  prevails.  Let  our  reader  consider 
what  are  his  sensations  when  he  suddenly  emerges  from  a  dark  room  into  the  fidl 
glare  of  light:  he  is  dazzled  and  bewildered,  and  some  time  passes  before  his  vi- 
sion is  distinct.  Let  this  be  repeated  several  times  in  the  day,  and  what  will  be 
the  consequence?  The  sight  will  be  disordered,  and  the  eye  irreparably  injured. 
Then  let  him  think  of  his  poor  horse,  who  often  stumbles  and  starts  through  no 
fault  of  his  own,  although  he  is  corrected  for  so  doing,  but  because  his  eyes  are 
necessarily  weakened  by  these  sudden  transitions,  and  disposed  to  take  on  tliis  sad 
inflammation  with  all  its  fatal  results. 

The  propagation  of  various  diseases,  and  this  possibly  more  than  any  other,  from 
the  sire  to  his  progeny,  has  not  been  sufficiently  considered  by  breeders.  Let  a 
stallion  that  is  blind,  or  whose  sight  is  defective,  possess  every  other  point  and 
quality  that  can  be  wished,  yet  he  is  worse  than  useless;  for  a  very  considerable 
proportion  of  his  offspring  will  most  assuredly  inherit  his  weak  eyes,  or  become 
totally  blind.     There  is  no  fact  better  established  than  this. 

The  most  frequent  consequences  of  this  disease  are  cloudiness  of  the  eye,  and 
cataract.  The  cloudiness  is  singular  in  its  nature.  It  will  change  in  twenty-four 
hours  from  the  thinnest  film  to  the  thickest  opacity;  and  as  suddenly  the  eye  will 
nearly  regain  its  perfect  transparency,  but  only  to  lose  it,  and  as  rapidly,  a  second 


92  THE  HORSE. 

time.  The  most  barbarous  methods  have  been  resoi-ted  to  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
moving this  cloudiness.  Chalk,  and  salt,  and  sugar,  and  even  pounded  glass,  have 
been  introduced  into  the  eye  mechanically  to  rub  of  tlie  film.  It  was  forgotten 
that  the  cloudiness  was  the  effect  of  inflammation,  and  that  means  so  harsh  and 
cruel  were  very  likely  to  recall  the  inflammation;  that  these  rough  and  sharp  sub- 
stances must  of  necessity  inflict  excruciating  pain;  and  that,  after  all,  it  generally 
is  not  a  film  on  the  siu'face  of  the  cornea,  but  a  dimness  pervading  its  substance, 
and  even  sinking  deep  within  it,  and  tlierefore  not  capable  of  being  rubbed  off. 
Where  the  cloudinss  can  be  removed,  it  will  be  best  effected  by  first  abating  in- 
flammation; and  then  exciting  the  absorbents  to  take  up  the  grey  deposite,  by 
washing  the  eye  with  a  very  weak  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  containing  not 
more  than  a  gi-ain  of  the  sublimate  to  an  ounce  of  water. 

Opacity  of  the  lens  is  another  consequence  of  inflammation.  A  white  speck 
appears  on  the  centre  of  the  lens,  which  gradually  spreads  over  it,  and  completely 
covers  it.  It  is  generally  so  white  and  pearly  as  not  to  be  mistaken:  at  other  times 
more  hazy,  deceiving  the  inexperienced,  and  occasioning  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the 
professional  man.  We  have  seen  many  instances  in  which  the  sight  has  been  evi- 
dently affected  or  almost  lost,  and  yet  a  different  opinion  has  been  given  by  very 
fair  judges.  The  eye  must  be  exposed  to  the  light,  and  yet  under  the  kind  of 
shelter  to  which  we  have  previously  referred  in  order  to  discover  the  defect.  The 
pupil  of  the  horse  is  seldom  black,  like  that  of  the  human  being,  and  its  greyish 
hue  conceals  the  recent  or  thin  film  wliich  may  be  spreading  over  the  lens. 

Cataract  in  the  eye  of  the  horse  admits  of  no  remedy,  for  two  obvious  reasons: 
the  retractor  muscle  draws  the  eye  back  so  powerfully  and  so  deeply  into  the 
socket  that  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  perform  any  operation;  and,  could  an 
operation  be  performed,  and  the  opaque  lens  removed,  the  sight  would  be  so  im- 
perfect, from  the  rays  of  light  not  being  sufficiently  converged,  that  the  horse 
would  be  worse  to  us  than  a  blind  one.  The  man  who  has  undergone  the  opera- 
tion of  couching,  may  put  a  new  lens  before  his  eye,  in  the  form  of  a  convex 
spectacle,  but  we  could  not  adapt  spectacles  to  the  eye  of  the  horse,  or  fix  them 
there. 

GUTTA    SEHEJfA. 

Another  species  of  blindness,  and  of  which  we  spoke  when  describing  the  reti- 
na, is  GcTTA  Serena,  commonly  called  the  glass  eye.  The  pupil  is  more  than 
usually  dilated;  it  is  immoveable,  and  bright,  and  glassy.  This  is  palsy  of  the  op- 
tic nerve,  or  its  expansion,  the  retina;  and  is  usually  produced  by  determination 
of  blood  to  the  head.  We  have  described  it  as  a  consequence  of  staggers.  So 
much  pressure  has  been  occasioned  on  the  base  of  the  brain,  that  the  nerve  has 
been  injured,  and  its  function  destroyed.  The  treatment  of  Gutta  Serena  is  quite 
as  difficult  as  that  of  cataract.  We  have  heard  of  successful  cases,  but  we  never 
saw  one;  nor  should  we  be  disposed  to  incur  much  expense  in  endeavoring  to  ac- 
complish impossibilities.  Reasoning  from  the  cause  of  the  disease,  we  should  bleed 
and  physic,  and  rowel.  If  we  succeeded,  it  must  be  by  constitutional  treatment.; 
but  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  pressure  would  have  long  ceased,  although  the 
mischief  which  it  had  effected  remained.  As  to  local  treatment,  the  seat  of  disease 
is  out  of  our  reach. 


CHAPTER    VIII 


THE  ANATOMY  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE 
NOSE  AND  MOUTH. 

We  now  pi-oceed  to  the  description  of  the  yace  of  the  horse,  so  called  in  contra- 
distinction from  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  containing  the  brain.  The  nasal  bones, 
or  bones  of  the  nose  {^j  j,  page  52,  and  a,  p.  53^)  are  connected  with  the  frontal 
bones  above,  and  with  the  lachrymal,  i  i,  and  the  bones  of  the  upper  jaw,  /  /,  on 
either  side;  they  are  united  together  by  a  plain  suture,  which  is  a  continuation  of 
the  frontal,  and  they  terminate  in  a  point  at  the  nostril  (/,  p.  49.)  They  are  round- 
ed and  arched  above,  because  they  are  exposed  to  occasional  violence  and  injury. 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  NOSE.  ^ 

which  the  arch-form  will  enable  them  best  to  resist;  and  at  the  base  of  the  arch, 
where  the  main  strength  should  be,  they  are  overlapped  by  the  upper  jaw-bone  as 
we  have  described  the  temporal  bone  overlapping' the  base  of  the  parietal.  These 
bones  form  a  principal  part  of  the  face;  and  the  lenglh,  or  shortness,  and  the  cha- 
racter of  the  face,  depend  upon  them.  The  largeness  and  length  of  these  bones 
constitute  the  striking'  difference  between  the  head  of  the  cart  horse  and  of  the 
blood  horse. 

In  some  horses,  this  arch  is  more  than  usually  developed,  and  there  is,  beside,  a 
prominence  or  increased  archedness  about  half-way  down  the  nasal  bones.  These 
horses  are  said  to  have  Roman  noses,  because  this  arcli  of  the  nose  distinguishes 
the  profile  of  some  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  ancient  Romans.  We  cannot  say 
that  the  breed  of  horses  in  which  the  Roman-nose  usually  occurs,  possesses  supe- 
rior sagacity  or  courage;  they  are  generally  easy,  good-tempered  horses,  excellent 
feeders,  and  hardy  constitutioned,  but  possessing  little  blood.  Many  thorough-bred 
horses  have  a  peculiarity  the  reverse  of  the  Roman-nose.  There  is  a  depression 
or  hollow  about  the  middle  of  the  nasal  bones.  Although  this  be  a  characteristic 
of  breeding,  it  often  accompanies  an  uncontrollable  and  vicious  temper. 

These  bones  form  the  roof  of  an  important  cavity  (see  a,  p.  53.)  The  sides  are 
constituted  above  by  the  nasal  bones,  and,  lower  down,  by  the  upper  jaw-bones,  (sm- 
perior  maxillaries,)  while  plates  from  these  latter  bones  project  and  compose  the 
palate,  which  is  both  the  floor  of  the  nose  and  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  (J,  p.  53.) 

Above,  (near  fig.  8,)  not  visible  in  our  cut,  is  a  bone  called  the  palatine,  although 
it  contributes  very  little  to  the  formation  of  the  pal.ite.  It  is  the  termination  of  the 
palate,  or  the  border  of  the  opening  where  the  cavities  of  the  mouth  and  nose  meet 
(fig.  8.)  The  frontal  sinuses,  b,  and  large  vacuities  in  the  upper  jaw-bone,  and  in 
the  acthmoid,  /,  and  sphenoid  bones,  k,  communicate  with  and  enlarge  the  cavity 
of  the  nose. 

This  cavity  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  thick  cartilage  (r,  p.  53.)  When  we 
open  the  nostril,  we  see  the  membrane  by  which  the  cartilage,  and  the  whole  of 
the  cavity  of  the  nose  is  lined,  and  by  the  color  of  which,  much  more  than  by 
that  of  the  lining  of  the  eyelids,  we  judge  of  the  degree  of  fever,  and  particular- 
ly of  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  or  any  of  the  air  passages.  By  the  sore  places  or 
ulcerations  discovered  on  this  membrane,  we  likewise  determine  on  the  existence 
of  glanders.  This  cavity  is,  on  either  side,  occupied  by  two  bones,  which,  from 
their  being  rolled  up  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  turban,  are  called  the  turbinated 
or  turbin-shaped  bones,  s  S;  part  of  the  cartilage  is  cut  away  to  display  them.  They 
are  as  thin  as  gauze,  and  perforated,  like  gauze,  with  a  thousand  holes.  Between 
them  are  left  sufficient  passages  for  the  air. 

If  they  were  unrolled  they  would  present  a  very  considerable  surface;  and  on 
every  part  of  them  is  spread  the  substance  or  pulp  of  the  olfactory,  or  first  pair  of 
nerves.  These  bones,  lined  with  delicate  membranes,  and  covered  by  the  olfac- 
tory nerves,  are  the  seat  of  smell:  and  they  are  thus  expanded,  because  the  sense 
of  smell  in  the  horse  must,  to  a  very  considerable  degree,  supply  the  place  of  the 
sense  of  touch  and  the  lessons  of  experience  in  the  human  being.  By  this  alone 
is  he  enabled  to  select,  amongst  the  nutritive  and  poisonous  herbage  of  the  mea- 
dow, that  which  would  support  and  not  destroy  liim.  The  troops  of  wild  horses 
are  said  to  smell  the  approach  of  an  enemy  at  a  very  considerable  distance.  In  his 
domestic  state,  the  horse  does  not  examine  the  different  food  which  is  placed  before 
him,  with  his  eye,  but  with  his  nose;  and  if  the  smell  displeases  him,  no  coaxing-  will 
induce  him  to  eat  it.  He  examines  a  stranger  by  the  smell,  and,  by  very  intelligi- 
ble sigTis,  expresses  the  opinion  which  he  forms  of  him  by  this  inquisition.  The 
hoi-se  will  evidentlj-  recognize  his  favorite  groom  when  he  has  nothing  else  to  indi- 
cate his  approach  but  the  sense  of  smell.  These  cavities  are  hkewise  organs  of 
voice.  The  sound  reverberates  through  them,  and  increases  in  loudness,  as  through 
the  windings  of  a  French  horn. 

The  extension  of  the  nostril  at  the  lower  part  of  these  cavities  is  an  important 
part  of  the  face,  and  intimately  connected  with  breeding,  courage,  and  speed.  The 
horse  can  breathe  only  through  the  nose.  All  the  air  which  goes  to  and  returns 
from  the  lungs  must  pass  through  the  nostrils.  In  the  common  act  of  breathing, 
these  are  sufficiently  lai-ge;  but  when  the  animal  is  put  on  his  speed,  and  the  res- 
piration is  quickened,  these  passages  must  dilate,  or  he  will  be  much  distressed. 
The  expanded  nostril  is  a  striking  feature  in  the  blood-horse,  especially  when  he 
has  been  excited  and  not  over-blown.  The  sporting  man  will  not  forget  the  sudden 
effect  which  is  given  to  the  countenance  of  the  hunter,  when  his  ears  become 


94 


THE  HORSE. 


erect,  and  his  nostrils  dilate  as  he  first  hears  the  cry  of  the  hounds,  and  snorts,  and 
scents  them  afar  off^  and  the  painful  and  spasmed  stretching  of  this  part,  in  the  poor 
over-driven  post-horse,  will  show  how  necessary  it  is  that  the  passage  to  the  lungs 
should  be  free  and  open.  The  nostril  should  not  only  be  large,  but  the  skin  and 
substance  which  cover  the  entrance  into  the  nose  should  be  thin  and  elastic,  that 
they  may  more  readily  yield,  when  the  necessity  of  the  animal  requires  a  greater 
supply  of  air,  and  afterwards  return  to  their  natural  dimensions.  Therefore,  na- 
ture, which  adapts  the  animal  to  his  situation  and  use,  has  given  to  the  cart-horse, 
that  is  seldom  blown,  a  confined  nostril,  and  surrounded  by  much  cellular  substance, 
and  a  thick  skin;  and  to  the  horse  of  more  breeding,  whose  use  consists  in  his 
speed  and  his  continuance,  a  wider  nostril,  and  much  more  flexible. 

The  inhabitants  of  some  countries  were  accustomed  to  slit  the  nostrils  of  their 
horses,  that  they  might  be  less  distressed  in  the  severe  and  long-continued  exertion 
of  their  speed.  The  Icelanders  do  so  to  the  present  day.  There  is  no  necessity 
for  this,  for  nature  has  made  ample  provision  for  all  the  ordinary  and  even  extra- 
ordinary exertion  we  can  require  from  the  horse.*  Some  very  powerful  muscles 
proceed  from  different  parts  of  the  face,  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  nostrils,  to 
draw  them  back,  and  dilate  them.  Four  of  them  are  given  in  this  cut,  which  is 
introduced  here  to  complete  our  present  subject,  and-which  will  be  often  referred 
to  in  the  course  of  our  work;  /,  m,  o,  and  ja,  are  muscles  employed  for  this  purpose. 

THE  MUSCLES,  NERVES,  AND  BLOOD-VESSELS  OF  THE  HEAD,  AND 
UPPER  PART  OF  THE  NECK. 


a  The  upper  part  of  the  ligament  of  the  neck. 

b  The  levator  humeri,  (elevator  of  the  shoulder,)  arising  from  the  tubercle  of  the 
occiput,  the  mastoid  (nipple-shaped)  process  of  the  temporal  bone,  and  the 
transverse  processes  (cross  projections)  of  the  four  first  bones  of  the  neck, 
and  the  ligament  of  the  neck,  and  going  to  the  muscles  of  the  shoulders, 
and  the  upper  bone  of  the  arm:  to  draw  forward  the  shoulder  and  arm;  or 
turn  tlie  head  and  neck;  and,  when  the  two  levators  act,  to  depress  the 
head. 

c  The  tendon  common  to  the  complexus  major  (larger  complicated)  and  splenius, 
(splint-like:) — to  the  mastoid  process  of  the  temporal,  to  hold  up  the  head, 
or,  the  muscles  on  one  side  alone  acting,  to  turn  it. 

•  De  Grey,  whose  "  Complete  Horseman"  was  published  in  1657,  recommends 
that  a  stumbling  or  crippled  horse  should  have  his  nose  cut  open,  and  the  two  ten- 
dons which  go  to  the  lip  divided;  and  "this,"  says  he,  "will  give  him  the  use  of 
his  legs  so  perfectly,  as  that  he  will  seldom  or  never  trip  any  more."  Farriers 
adopt  many  absurd  and  cruel  practices  now-a-days,  but  nothing  half  so  barbarous 
as  this. 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  NOSE  AND  LIPS.  -^W" 

d  The  stemo-maxillaris  (belonging*  to  the  breast-bone)  and  upper  jaw,  from  the 
cartilage  in  front  of  the  chest  to  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw:  to  bend  the 
head,  or,  if  one  only  act,  to  bend  it  on  one  side. 

«  The  styb-maxillaris,  from  the  styloid  (pencil-shaped)  or  coracoid  (beak-shaped) 
process  of  the  occiput,  to  the  angle  of  the  jaw:  to  pull  the  jaw  backward 
and  open  it. 

f  The  subscapulo  hyoideus,  from  under  the  shoulder-blade,  to  the  body  of  the  os 
hioydes,  (the  bone  at  the  root  of  the  tongue  formed  like  a  Greek  u,  v.)  to 
draw  back  that  bone. 

g  The  masseter,  (chewing;)  a  most  powerful  muscle,  constituting  the  cheek  of 
the  horse — from  tiie  upper  jaw-bone  into  the  rough  surface  round  the  angle 
of  the  lower — in  conjunction  with  the  temporal  muscle,  to  close  the  mouth 
and  chew  the  food. 

k  The  orbicularis  (circular)  surrounding  the  eye  and  closing  the  lids. 

t  The  zygomaticus,  from  the  zygomatic  arch  and  masseter  to  the  comer  of  the 
mouth,  to  draw  back  the  angle  of  the  mouth. 

k  The  buccinator  (trumpeter)  from  the  inside  of  the  mouth  and  cheeks  to  the 
angle  of  the  mouth,  to  draw  it  back. 

/  The  nasalis  labii  superioris  (belonging  to  the  nose  and  upper  lip)  from  a  de- 
pression at  the  junction  of  the  superior  maxillary  and  malar  bones  to  the 
angle  of  the  nostril:  to  raise  the  lip,  and  dilate  the  nostrils. 

m  Dilator  naris  lateralis  (side  dilatar  of  the  nostril)  reversed  to  show  the  vessels 
and  nerves  which  it  covers,  going  from  the  covering  of  the  nasal  and  frontal 
bones,  to  the  angle  of  the  mouth  and  side  of  the  nostril — to  retract  the 
upper  lip  and  dilate  the  nostrils. 

n  Dilator  magnus  (great  dilator)  assisting  in  the  same  office. 

0  Depressor  labii  inferioris  (puller  down  of  the  under  lip)  to  the  sides  of  the  under 
lip:  to  pull  it  down. 

p  Orbicularis  oris  (circular  muscle  of  the  mouth)  surrounding  the  mouth:  to  close 
the  lips,  and  dilate  the  nostrils. 

q  The  upper  portion  of  the  parotid  gland  (gland  near  the  ear)  reversed  to  show 
the  blood  vessels  and  nerves  beneath  it. 

r  The  parotid  duct  piercing  the  cheek  to  discharge  the  saliva  into  the  mouth. 

s    The  maxillary  gland  (gland  of  the  lower  jaw)  with  its  duct. 

t   The  jugular  (neck)  vein  after  the  two  branches  have  united. 

u  At  this  letter,  the  submaxillary  artery,  a  branch  of  the  jugular  and  the  parotid 
duct,  pass  under  and  within  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw;  they  come  out 
again  at  w,  and  climb  up  the  cheek  to  be  distributed  over  the  face. 

V    The  vein  and  artery  passing  under  the  zygomatic  arch. 

X  A  branch  of  the  fifth  pair,  the  sensitive  nerve  of  the  face,  emerging  from  under 
the  parotid  gland. 

y  The  main  branch  of  the  portio  dura  (hard  portion)  of  the  seventh  pair,  the  mo- 
tor (moving)  nerve  of  the  face  coming  out  from  beneath  the  parotid  gland 
to  spread  over  the  face. 

z  Branches  of  both  nerves  with  small  blood-vessels. 

There  are  also  four  distinct  cartilages  attached  to  the  nostrils,  which,  by  their 
elasticity,  bring  back  the  nostrils  to  their  former  dimensions  as  soon  as  the  muscles 
cease  to  act.  The  bones  of  the  nose  (a  a,  p.  52,  and/,  p.  49,)  are  also  sharpened 
off  to  a  point  to  give  wider  range  for  the  action  of  the  muscles;  while  the  carti- 
lages are  so  contrived,  as  not  only  to  discharge  the  office  we  have  mentioned,  but 
to  protect  this  projection  of  bone  from  injury. 

There  are  two  circumstances  wliich,  more  than  many  others,  will  enable  the 
veterinary  surgeon,  and  the  owner  of  a  horse,  accurately  to  judge  of  the  charac- 
ter and  degree  of  many  diseases,  and  to  which  very  few  pay  sufficient  attention: 
these  are  the  pulse,  of  which  we  shall  presently  speak,  and  the  color  of  the  mem- 
brane of  the  nose,  at  which  we  have  hinted  a  few  pages  back,  and  of  which  we 
would  again  remind  the  reader.  It  is  the  custom  of  most  veterinary  surgeons,  and 
of  almost  every  horseman  who  takes  any  pains  to  ascertain  for  himself  the  state  of 
his  sick  horse,  to  turn  down  the  under  eyelid,  and  to  form  his  opinion  by  the  color 
which  its  lining  presents.  If  it  be  very  red,  there  is  considerable  fever;  if  it  be 
of  a  pale  pinkish  hue,  there  is  little  danger.  The  nose  is  more  easily  got  at;  the 
surface  presented  to  the  view  is  more  extensive;  the  sympathy  with  almost  all  the 
important  organs  is  greater;  and  the  changes  produced  by  disease  are  more  strik- 


96  THE  HORSE. 

ing'  and  more  conclusive.  Let  the  reader  first  make  himself  well  acquainted  with 
the  uniform  pale  pink  appearance  of  that  portion  of  the  membrane  which  covers 
the  lower  part  of  the  cartila^noiis  partition  between  the  nostrils,  when  the  horse 
is  in  health,  and  quiet;  then  the  increased  blush  of  red,  betokening  some  excite- 
ment of  tlie  system;  the  streaked  appearance  of  inflammation  commenced,  and 
threatening  to  increase — the  intense  florid  red,  of  acute  inflammation;  the  pale 
ground  with  patches  of  vivid  red,  showing  the  half  subdued  but  still  existing  fever; 
the  uniform  color,  although  somewhat  redder  than  natural,  predicting  a  return  to 
a  healthy  circulation;  the  paleness  approaching  to  white,  marking  the  stage  of  de- 
bility, and  sometimes  intermingled  with  radiations  of  crimson,  inducing  the  suspi- 
cion of  lurking  mischief;  and  the  dark  livid  color  of  approaching  stagnation  of  the 
vital  current:  these,  with  all  their  shades  of  difference,  will  be  guides  to  his 
opinion  and  treatment,  which  every  one  who  has  studied  them  will  highly  appre- 
ciate. 

NASAL    GLEET,    OK    DISCHARGE    FROM    THE    NOSE. 

The  most  frequent  disease  of  this  cavity  is  an  increased  and  thicker  discharge 
of  fluid  from  the  nose.  It  may  be  properly  called  a  Nasal  Gleet.  There  is  a 
constant  secretion  of  fluid  to  lubricate  and  moisten  the  membrane  that  lines  the 
cavity  of  the  nose,  which,  under  catarrh  or  cold,  is  increased  in  quantity,  and  al- 
tered in  appearance  and  consistence.  This  will  properly  belong  to  our  account 
of  catarrh  or  cold;  but  that  to  which  we  immediately  refer  is  a  continued  and  of- 
tentimes profuse  discharge  when  every  symptom  of  catarrh  and  fever  has  passed 
away;  an  almost  incredible  quantity  of  thickened  mucus,  of  different  colors:  if  the 
horse  is  at  grass,  almost  as  green  as  the  food  on  which  he  lives;  or,  if  he  be 
stabled,  white,  straw-colored,  brown,  or  even  bloody,  and  sometimes  evidently 
mingled  with  matter  or  pus;  and  either  constantly  running,  or  snorted  out  in 
masses  many  times  in  the  day;  teasing  the  horse,  and  a  perfect  nuisance  in  the 
stable,  and  to  the  rider.  AVe  have  known  this  continue  several  months,  and  even- 
tually desti'oy  the  horse. 

If  the  discharge  be  not  offensive  to  the  smell,  nor  mixed  with  any  matter,  it  is 
probablv  merely  an  increased  and  somewhat  vitiated  secretion  from  the  cavities  of 
the  nose;  and,  all  fever  having  disapjjeared,  will  frequently  yield  to  small  doses  of 
blue  vitriol,  from  one  to  two  drachms,  and  given  twice  in  the  day.  If  fever  or 
cough  remain,  the  cough  medicine  which  will  hereafter  be  described  must  be  com- 
bined with  the  tonic.  If  the  discharge  be  mingled  with  pus,  and  very  ofl^ensive, 
the  vegetable  tonics,  gentian  and  ginger,  may  be  added  to  the  copper  in  doses  of 
two  drachms  of  the  former,  and  one  of  the  latter;  but  there  is  then  reason  to  ap- 
prehend that  the  discharge  will  not  be  controlled,  and  will  terminate  in  glanders. 
Turning  into  a  salt  marsh  will  occasionally  eflfect  a  cure,  when  both  the  mineral 
and  the  vegetable  tonics  have  failed. 

GLANDERS. 

The  next  and  most  formidable  of  all  the  diseases  to  which  the  horse  is  subject  is 
Glanders.  It  is  described  by  writers  fifteen  hundred  years  ago,  and  it  was  then, 
and  is  now,  not  only  a  loathsome,  but  an  incurable  disease:  we  shall  therefore 
principally  confine  ourselves  to  the  consideration  of  its  symptoms,  nature,  and 
causes,  and  prevention,  and  degree  of  contagion,  and  these  will  afford  too  much 
matter  of  interest  to  the  farmer. 

If  we  could  obtain  an  authentic  history  of  the  glandered  horse,  we  should  find 
that,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  if  the  disease  were  bred  in  him,  he  had  been 
dull,  off"  his  feed,  losing  flesh,  and  his  coat  staring;  and  that  these  appearances  had 
for  several  weeks  preceded  the  characteristic  symptoms  of  glanders.  These  symp- 
toms, however,  may  lead  to,  or  be  the  causes  of  other  diseases,  or  they  may  pass 
away,  and  the  horse  may  return  to  perfect  health.  That  which  would  be  consi- 
dered as  the  earliest,  and  an  unquestionable  symptom  of  glanders,  would  be  an 
increased  discharge  from  one  or  both  nostrils;  diflTerent  from  the  discliarge  of  ca- 
tarrh, because  it  is  usually  lighter  and  clearer  in  its  color,  and  more  glutinous  or 
sticky.  When  rubbed  between  the  fingers  it  has,  even  in  an  early  stage,  a  pecu- 
Ear,  clammy,  bird-limy  feel.  It  is  not  discharged  occasionally,  and  in  large  quan- 
tities, like  the  mucus  of  catarrh,  but  it  is  constantly  running  from  the  nostril. 

It  is  a  singular  circumstance,  for  which  no  satisfactory  account  has  yet  been 
given,  that  when  one  nostril  alone  is  attacked,  it  is  in  a  great  majority  of  cases  the 


GLANDERS.  97 

near  or  left.  M.  Dupuy,  the  director  of  the  veterinary  school  at  Toulouse,  gives 
a  most  sing-ular  account  of  this.  He  says  that  out  of  eight  hundred  cases  of  glan- 
ders that  came  under  his  notice,  only  one  was  afTected  in  tlie  right  nostril. 

This  discharge,  in  cases  of  infection,  may  continue,  and  in  so  slight  a  degree  as 
to  be  scarcely  perceptible  for  many  weeks  or  months  before  the  healtli  and  capa- 
bilities of  the  horse  seem  to  be  injured.  It  will  remain  for  a  long  time  almost 
transparent,  yet  gluey;  and  then  it  will  begin  to  be  mingled  with  pus;  retaining, 
however,  its  sticky  character,  and  being  rarely  offensive  in  the  early  stages.  The 
constant  flow  of  this  secretion,  and  its  stickiness,  with  the  absence  of  cough  either 
before  or  during  the  discharge,  will  be  the  only  symptoms.  In  process  of  time, 
however,  pus  mingles  with  the  discharge,  and  then  another  and  a  characteristic 
symptom  appears.  Some  of  this  is  absorbed,  and  the  neighboring  g-lands  become 
affected;  and,  if  there  be  discharge  from  both  nostrils,  the  glands  within  the  under 
jaw  will  be  on  both  sides  enlnrged.  If  the  discharge  be  from  one  nostril  only, 
the  swelled  gl?nd  will  be  found  on  that  side  alone.  Glanders,  however,  will  fre- 
quently exist  at  an  early  stage  without  these  swelled  glands,  and  some  other 
diseases,  as  catarrh,  will  produce  them.  Then  we  must  look  out  for  some  peculi- 
arity about  these  glands,  and  we  shall  readily  find  it.  The  swelling  may  be  at 
first  somewhat  large  and  diffused,  but  the  surrounding  enlargement  soon  goes  off, 
and  one  or  two  small  distinct  glands  remain;  and  they  are  not  in  the  centre  of  the 
channel,  but  adhere  closely  to  the  jaw  on  the  affected  side. 

The  membrane  of  the  nose  may  now  be  examined,  and  will  materially  guide 
our  opinion.  It  will  either  be  of  a  dark  purplish  hue,  or  almost  of  a  leaden  color, 
or  of  any  shade  between  the  two;  or,  if  there  be  some  of  the  redness  of  inflam- 
mation, it  will  have  a  purple  tinge;  but  there  will  never  be  tlie  faint  pink  blush 
of  health,  or  the  intense  and  vivid  red  of  usual  inflammation.  Spots  of  ulceration 
will  probably  appear  on  the  membrane  covering  the  cartilage  of  the  nose — not 
simple  sore  places,  or  streaks  of  abrasion,  and  quite  superficial,  but  small  ulcers 
usually  approaching  to  a  circular  form,  deep,  with  the  edges  abrupt  and  promi- 
nent. \\  hen  these  appearances  are  observed,  there  can  be  no  doubt  about  the 
matter.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  to  ascertain  that  these  ulcers  do  actually 
exist,  for  spots  of  mucus  adhering  to  the  membrane  have  been  more  than  once 
taken  for  them.  The  finger  should,  if  possible,  be  passed  over  the  supposed  ul- 
cer, to  determine  whether  it  can  be  wiped  away,  and  it  should  be  recollected,  as 
we  have  already  hinted  when  describing  the  duct  that  conveys  the  tears  to  the 
nose,  that  the  orifice  of  that  duct,  just  within  the  nostril,  and  on  the  inner  side  of 
it,  has  been  mistaken  for  a  cancerous  ulcer.  I'his  orifice  is  on  the  continuation  of 
the  common  skin  of  the  muzzle  which  runs  a  little  way  up  the  nostril,  while  the 
ulcer  of  glanders  is  on  the  proper  membrane  of  the  nose  above;  and  the  line  of 
separation  between  the  two  is  evident  on  the  slightest  inspection. 

It  is  proper  to  state  that  this  discharge  has  continued  luiattended  by  any  other 
disease,  or  even  by  ulceration  of  the  nostril  for  two  or  three  years,  and  yet  the 
horse  was  decidedly  glandered  from  the  beginning,  and  capable  of  propagating 
the  malady. 

When  ulcers  on  the  membrane  of  the  nose  have  appeared,  the  constitution  will 
be  evidently  affected.  The  horse  will  lose  flesh;  his  belly  will  be  tucked  up;  his 
coat  will  be  unthrifty,  and  readily  come  off;  cough  will  be  heard;  the  appetite  will 
be  impaired;  the  strength  will  fail;  the  discharge  from  the  nose  will  grow  more 
purulent,  discolored,  bloody,  stinking;  the  ulcers  in  the  nose  will  be  larger  and 
more  numerous;  and,  the  air-passages  being  obstructed,  a  grating,  choaking  noise, 
will  be  heard  at  every  act  of  breathing.  The  lungs  are  now  diseased;  they  a'-e 
filled  with  tubercles  or  ulcerations;  and  the  horse  at  length  dies  an  emaciated  and 
loathsome  object. 

The  symptons  frequently  vary,  and  to  a  most  puzzling  degi'ee.  The  discharge 
will  be  so  slight  as  scarcely  to  be  perceived,  and  known  only  by  its  stickiness;  and 
the  glands  will  not  be  in  the  least  degree  enlarged.  At  other  times  a  very  small 
enlarged  gland  may  be  found,  adhering  to  the  jaw,  and  may  be  stationary  month 
after  month,  and  the  surgeon  may  be  told  that  there  has  never  been  discharge  from 
the  nose.  He  will,  however,  be  wrongly  informed  here;  it  has  most  assuredly  ex- 
isted, although  perhaps  to  no  great  degree,  at  some  former  period,  and  he  will 
generally  without  much  difficulty  discover  it  then,  although  perhaps  in  so  small  a 
quantity  that  the  groom  or  carter  will  deny  its  existence;  and  he  will  principally" 
satisfy  himself  with  respect  to  it,  by  its  gluey  feeling. 
13 


98  THE  HORSE. 

Glanders  have  often  been  confounded  with  strangles,  and  by  those  who  ought  to 
have  known  better.  Strangles  are  pecviliar  to  young  horses.  The  early  stage  re- 
sembles common  cold,  with  some  degree  of  fever  and  sore  throat;  generally  with 
distressing  cough,  or  at  least  frequent  wlieezing;  and  when  the  enlargement  ap- 
pears beneath  the  jaw,  it  is  not  a  single  small  gland,  but  a  swelling  of  the  whole 
of  the  substance  between  the  jaws;  growing  harder  towards  the  middle;  and  after 
a  while  appearing  to  contain  a  fluid,  and  breaking.  In  strangles  the  membrane  of 
the  nose  will  be  intensely  red,  and  the  discharge  from  the  nose  profuse,  and  puru- 
lent, or  mixed  witli  matter  almost  from  the  first;  and  when  the  tumor  has  bui'st, 
the  fever  will  abate,  and  the  horse  will  speedily  get  well. 

Should  the  discharge  from  the  nose  continue  for  a  considerable  time  after  the 
horse  has  recovered  from  strangles,  as  it  sometimes  does,  there  is  no  cause  for  fear. 
Simple  strangles  need  never  degenerate  into  glanders.  Good  keep,  and  small 
doses  of  the  blue  vitrol  given  internally,  will  gradually  make  all  right. 

Glanders  have  been  confounded  with  catarrh  or  cold,  but  the  distinction  between 
them  is  plain  enough.  Fever  accompanies  cold,  and  loss  of  appetite,  and  sore 
throat;  (the  quidding  of  the  food,  and  gulping  of  the  water,  are  sufficient  indica- 
tions of  the  latter  of  these;)  the  discharge  from  the  nose  is  profuse,  and  perhaps 
purulent;  and  the  glands  under  the  jaw,  if  swelled,  ai-e  moveable,  and  there  is  a 
thickening  around  them,  and  they  are  tender  and  hot.  With  proper  treatment  the 
fever  abates;  the  cough  disappears;  the  swellings  under  the  throat  subside,  and  the 
discharge  from  the  nose  gradually  ceases,  or,  if  it  remain,  it  is  usually  very  differ- 
ent from  that  which  characterizes  glanders.  In  glanders,  there  is  seldom  cough  of 
any  consequence,  and,  generally,  no  cough  at  all. 

A  running  from  the  nose,  small  in  quantity,  and  from  the  smallness  of  its  quan- 
tity drying  about  the  edges  of  the  nostril,  and  so  presenting  some  appearance  of 
stickiness,  will,  in  a  few  cases,  remain  after  severe  catarrh,  and  especially  after  the 
influenza  of  spring;  and  these  have  gradually  assumed  the  character  of  glanders, 
and  more  particularly  when  they  have  been  accompanied  by  enlarged  glands  and 
ulceration  in  the  nose.  Here  the  aid  of  a  judicious  veterinary  surgeon  is  indispen- 
sable; and  he  perhaps  will  experience  considerable  difficulty  in  deciding  the  case. 
One  circumstance  will  principally  guide  him.  No  disease  will  run  on  to  glanders 
which  has  not,  to  a  considerable  and  palpable  degi-ee,  impaired  and  broken  down 
the  constitution;  and  every  disease  that  does  this  will  run  on  to  glanders.  He  will 
look  then  to  the  general  state  and  condition  of  the  horse,  as  well  as  to  the  situation 
of  the  glands,  the  nature  of  the  discharge,  and  character  of  the  ulceration. 

If,  after  all,  he  is  in  doubt,  an  experiment  may  be  resorted  to,  which  wears  in- 
deed the  appearance  of  cruelty,  and  which  only  the  safety  of  a  valuable  animal,  or 
of  a  whole  team,  can  justify:  he  will  inoculate  an  ass  or  a  horse  already  condemn- 
ed to  the  hounds  with  the  matter  discharged  from  the  nose.  If  the  horse  be  glan- 
dered,  the  symptoms  of  glanders  or  farcy  will  appear  in  the  inoculated  animal  in 
the  course  of  a  few  days. 

The  history  we  have  given  of  the  symptoms  of  glanders  will  pretty  clearly  point 
out  its  nature.  It  is  an  affection  of  the  membrane  of  the  nose.  Some  say  that  it 
is  the  production  of  tubercles,  or  minute  tumors  in  the  upper  cells  of  the  nose, 
which  may  long  exist  undetected,  and  hard  to  be  detected  except  by  a  scarcely 
perceptible  running  from  the  nostril,  caused  by  the  slight  irritation  which  they 
occasion.  These  tubercles  gradually  become  more  numerous;  they  cluster  togeth- 
er, suppurate,  and  break;  and  small  ulcerations  are  formed.  The  ulcers  discharge 
a  poi^pnods  matter,  which  is  absorbed  and  taken  up  by  the  neighboring  glands, 
and  which,  with  greater  or  less  rapidity,  vitiates  the  constitution  of  the  animal,  and 
is  capable  of  communicating  the  disease  to  others.  Other  surgeons  content  them- 
selves with  saying  that  it  is  an  inflammation  of  the  membrane  of  the  nose,  which 
may  assume  an  acute  or  chronic  form,  or  in  a  very  short  time,  or  exceedingly  slow- 
ly, run  on  to  ulceration. 

The  malady  proceeds  as  we  have  already  described  it,  but,  before  its  termination, 
becomes  connected  with  farcy.  Few  horses  die  of  glanders  without  exhibiting 
some  appearance  of  farcy;  and  farcy,  in  its  latter  stages,  is  almost  invariably  ac- 
companied by  glanders:  they  are  different  forms  or  stages  of  the  same  disease. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  membrane  of  the  nose  is  the  original  seat  of 
glanders;  that  the  disease  is  for  a  time  purely  local;  that  the  inflammation  of  the 
tubercles  must  proceed  to  suppuration  before  that  matter  is  formed  on  which  the 
poisoning  of  the  constitution  depends;  that  the  whole  circulation  does  at  length 
become  empoisoned;  and  that  the  horse  is  destroyed  by  the  general  irritation  and 
disease  produced. 


GLANDERS.  99 

Glanders  may  be  either  bred  In  the  horse,  or  communicated  by  contagion.  What 
we  have  further  to  remark  on  this  malady  will  be  arranged  under  these  two  heads. 

Improper  stable  management  we  believe  to  be  a  far  more  frequent  cause  of 
glanders  than  contagion.  The  air  which  is  necessary  to  respiration  is  changed  and 
empoisoned  in  its  passage  through  the  lungs,  and  a  fresh  supply  is  necessary  for 
the  support  of  life.  That  supply  may  be  sufficient  barely  to  support  life,  but  not 
to  prevent  the  vitiated  air  from  again  and  again  passing  to  the  lungs,  and  produc- 
ing irritation  and  disease.  The  membrane  of  the  nose,  possessed  of  extreme  sen- 
sibility for  the  purposes  of  smell,  is  easily  irritated  by  this  poison,  and  close  and 
ill-ventilated  stables  oftenest  witness  the  ravages  of  glanders.  Professor  Coleman 
relates  a  case,  which  proves  to  demonstration  the  rapid  and  fatal  agency  of  this 
cause.  "In  the  expedition  to  Quiberon,  the  horses  had  not  been  long  on  board 
the  transports,  before  it  became  necessary  to  shut  down  the  hatchways,  (we  believe 
for  a  few  hours  only;)  the  consequence  of  this  was,  that  some  of  them  were  suf- 
focated, and  that  all  the  rest  were  disembarked  either  glandered  or  farcied."* 

In  a  close  stable,  the  air  is  not  only  poisoned  by  being  repeatedly  breathed,  but 
there  ai-e  other  and  more  powerful  sources  of  mischief.  The  dung  and  the  urine 
are  suffered  to  remain  fermenting,  and  giving  out  injurious  gases.  In  many  dark 
and  ill-managed  stables,  a  portion  of  the  dung  may  be  swept  away,  but  the  urine 
lies  for  days  at  the  bottom  of  the  bed,  the  disgusting  and  putrifying  nature  of 
which  is  ill  concealed  by  a  little  fresh  straw  which  the  lazy  horsekeeper  scatters 
over  the  top. 

The  stables  of  the  gentleman  are  generally  kept  hot  enough,  and  far  too  hot, 
although,  in  many  of  them,  a  more  rational  mode  of  treatment  is  beginning  to  be 
adopted;  but  they  are  lofty  and  roomy,  and  the  horses  are  not  too  much  crowded 
together,  and  a  most  scrupulous  regard  is  paid  to  cleanliness.  Glanders  seldom 
prevail  there.  The  stables  of  the  farmer  are  ill-managed  and  filthy  enough,  and 
the  ordure  and  urine  sometimes  remain  from  week  to  week,  until  the  horse  lies  on 
a  perfect  dunghill,  while  there  is  no  declivity  to  drain  away  the  moisture,  nor  any 
regular  pavement  to  prevent  it  from  soaking  into  the  earth,  nor  any  water  to  clean 
even  the  surface,  but  the  only  instrument  of  purification  is  an  old  stumped  broom. 
Glanders  seldom  prevail  there;  for  the  same  carelessness  which  permits  the  filth 
to  accumulate,  leaves  many  a  cranny  for  the  wind  to  enter,  and  sweep  away  the 
deleterious  fumes  from  this  badly  roofed  and  unceUed  place. 

The  stables  of  the  horse-dealer  are  hot  enough;  but  a  principle  of  strict  clean- 
liness is  enforced,  for  there  must  be  nothing  to  offend  the  eye  or  the  nose  of  the 
customer;  and  there  glanders  are  seldom  found:  but  if  the  stables  of  many  of  our 
post-horses,  and  of  those  employed  on  our  canals,  be  examined,  almost  too  low  for 
a  ta.ll  horse  to  stand  upright — too  dark  for  the  accumulation  of  filth  to  be  perceiv- 
ed—too far  from  the  eye  of  the  master — Ill-drained,  and  ill-paved — and  governed 
by  a  false  principle  of  economy,  which  begrudges  the  labor  of  the  man,  and  the 
cleanhness  and  comfort  of  the  animal — these  will  be  the  very  hot-beds  of  the  dis- 
ease, and  in  many  of  these  establishments  it  is  an  almost  constant  resident. 

When  speaking  of  inflammation  of  the  eye,  and  the  effect  of  ill-ventilated  sta- 
bles in  producing  it,  we  remarked  that  the  urine  of  the  horse  contained  an  unusu- 
ally large  quantity  of  hartshorn;  that  the  litter  wetted  by  it  was  disposed  most  ra- 
pidly to  ferment,  and  that  the  gases  extricated  must  be  extremely  prejudicial  to  so 
delicate  an  organ.  It  may,  then,  be  easily  Imagined  that  the  constant  presence  of 
those  pungent  fumes,  and  the  irritation  which  they  would  cause  on  that  membrane 
which  is  the  very  seat  of  smell,  must  predispose  for,  and  often  generate  a  disease 
which  is  primarily  an  affection  of  this  membrane. 

Glanders  may  be  produced  by  any  thing  that  injures,  or  for  a  length  of  time  acts 
upon,  and  weakens,  the  vital  energy  of  this  membrane.  They  have  been  known 
to  follow  a  fracture  of  the  bones  of  the  nose.  They  have  been  the  consequence 
of  violent  catarrh,  and  particularly  the  long  continued  discharge  from  the  nostrils, 
of  which  we  have  spoken.  They  have  been  produced  by  the  injection  of  stimu- 
lating and  acrid  substances  up  the  nostril;  and  every  thing  that  weakens  the  con- 
stitution generally,  will  lead  to  glanders.  It  Is  not  only  from  bad  stable-manage- 
ment, but  from  the  hardships  which  they  endure,  and  the  exhausted  state  of  their 
constitution,  that  post  and  machine-horses  are  so  subject  to  glanders;  and  there  is 
scarcely  an  inflammatory  disease  to  which  the  horse  is  subject,  that  Is  not  occasion- 
ally wound  up  and  terminated  by  the  appearance  of  glanders. 

•  See  Percival's  excellent  Lectures  on  the  Veterinary  Art,  vol.  Hi,  p.  455. 


100  THE  HORSE. 

Glanders,  however,  are  highly  contagious.  The  fanner  cannot  be  too  well  aware 
of"  this;  and,  considering  the  degree  to  which  they  often  prevail,  tlie  legislature 
would  be  justified  in  interfering  by  some  severe  enactments,  as  they  liave  done  in 
the  case  of  the  small-pox  in  the  human  subject.  The  early  and  marked  symptom 
of  glanders  is  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils  of  a  peculiar  characttr;  and  if  that, 
even  before  it  becomes  purulent,  be  rubbed  on  a  wound,  or  on  a  mucous  surface, 
as  the  nostrils,  it  will  produce  a  similar  disease.  Glanders  are  not  communicated 
by  the  air  or  breath.  If  the  division  between  two  horses  were  sufficiently  high  to 
prevent  all  smelling  and  snorting  at  each  other,  and  contact  of  every  kind,  and 
they  drunk  not  out  of  the  same  pail,  a  sound  horse  might  live  for  years,  uninfect- 
ed, by  tlie  side  of  a  glandered  one.  The  matter  of  glanders  has  been  mixed  up 
into  a  ball,  and  given  to  a  healthy  horse,  without  effect;  yet  in  another  experiment 
of  the  same  kind,  the  poor  animal  died.  The  mouth  or  gullet  had  probably  some 
small  wounds  or  ulcers  in  it.  Some  horses  have  eaten  the  liay  left  by  those  that 
were  glandered,  and  no  bad  consequence  has  followed;  but  others  have  been  speedi- 
ly infected.  The  glanderous  matter  must  come  in  contact  with  a  wound,  or  fall 
on  some  membrane,  thin  and  delicate  like  that  of  the  nose,  and  through  which  it 
may  be  absorbed.  It  is  easy,  then,  accustomed  as  horses  are  to  smell  each  other, 
and  to  recognize  each  other  by  the  smell;  eating  out  of  tlie  same  manger,  and 
drinking  from  the  same  pail,  to  imagine  that  the  disease  may  be  very  readily  com- 
municated. One  horse  has  passed  another  when  he  was  in  the  act  of  snorting,  and 
has  become  glandered.  Some  fillies  have  received  the  infection  from  the  matter 
blown  by  ihe  wind  across  a  lane,  when  a  glandered  horse,  in  the  opposite  field,  has 
claimed  acquaintance  by  neighing  or  snorting.  It  is  almost  impossible  for  an  in- 
fected horse  to  remain  long  in  a  stable  with  others,  without  irreparable  mischief. 

If  some  persons  underrate  the  danger,  it  is  because  tlie  disease  may  remain  un- 
recognized in  the  infected  horse  for  some  months,  or  even  years;  and  therefore 
when  it  appears,  it  is  attributed  to  other  causes,  or  to  after  inoctdation.  We  would 
deeply  impress  it  on  the  mind  of  the  farmer,  that  no  glandered  horse  should  be 
employed  on  his  farm  in  any  kind  of  work,  or  permitted  to  remain  for  a  day  on  his 
premises:  nor  should  a  glandered  horse  be  permitted  to  work  on  any  road,  or  even 
to  pasture  on  any  field.  He  may  be  capable  of  work  for  years  after  the  disease 
has  become  undoubted,  but  mischief  may  so  easily  and  extensively  be  effected,  that 
the  public  interest  demands  that  every  infected  animal  should  be  summarily  des- 
troyed, or  given  over  for  experiment  to  a  veterinary  surgeon,  or  recognized  vete- 
rinary establishment. 

Our  opinion  of  the  treatment  of  glanders  is  implied  in  what  we  have  just  stated. 
There  are  a  few  instances  of  the  spontaneous  cure  of  chronic  glanders,  or  glanders 
long  established  and  slow  in  their  progress.  The  discharge  has  existed  for  a  con- 
siderable time;  at  length  it  has  gradually  diminished,  and  has  ceased  without  me- 
dical ti-eatment:  but  in  the  majority  of  these  supposed  cases,  the  matter  was  only 
pent  up  for  a  while,  and  then,  bursting  from  its  confinement,  flowe<l  again  in  dou- 
ble quantity:  or  if  glanders  have  not  reappeared,  the  horse,  in  eighteen  or  twenty- 
four  months,  has  become  farcied,  or  consumptive,  and  died.  We  view  these  cures 
with  much  suspicion:  but  even  allowing  that  some  have  occun-ed,  they  are  so  few 
and  far  between,  that  oiu*  expressed  opinion  of  the  incurable  nature  of  the  disease, 
in  the  present  state  of  veterinary  knowledge,  is  scarcely  affected.  As  for  medi- 
cine, there  is  scarcely  a  drug  to  which  a  fair  ti-ial  has  not  been  given,  and  many 
of  them  I  lave  had  a  temporary  reputation;  but  they  have  passed  away,  one  after 
the  other,  and  are  no  longer  used.  The  blue  vitriol  and  the  Spanish-fly  have  held 
out  longest,  and  in  a  few  cases,  either  nature,  or  these  medicines,  have  done  won- 
ders; but,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  they  have  palpably  failed.  Where  the  life 
of  a  valuable  animal  is  at  stake,  and  the  owner  takes  every  precaution  to  prevent 
infection,  he  may  subject  the  horse  to  medical  treatment;  but  we  indignantly  ob- 
ject to  the  slitting  of  the  nostril,  and  scraping  of  the  cartilage,  and  searing  of  the 
gland,  and  firing  the  frontal  and  nasal  bones,  and  to  those  injections  of  pepper  and 
mustard,  corrosive  subhmate  and  vitriol,  by  which  tlie  horse  has  been  tortured,  and 
the  practitioner  disgraced.  At  the  veterinary  school,  and  by  veterinary  surgeons. 
It  will  be  most  desirable  that  every  experiment  should  be  tried  to  discover  a  reme- 
dy for  this  pest;  but,  in  ordinary  instances,  he  is  not  faithful  to  his  own  interest  or 
that  of  his  neighbors,  who  does  not  remove  the  possibility  of  danger  in  the  most 
summary  way. 

Supposing  that  glanders  have  made  their  appearance  in  the  stables  of  a  farmer, 
is  there  any  danger  after  he  has  Temoved  or  destroyed  the  infectud  horse  ? — cer- 


W  FARCY.  101 

tainly  tlicre  is,  but  not  to  the  extent  that  is  commonly  supposed.  There  is  no 
necessity  for  pulling-  down  the  racks  and  mangers,  or  even  the  stable  itself,  as  some 
have  done.  The  poison  resides  not  in  the  breath  of  the  animal,  but  in  the  nasal 
discharq-e,  and  that  can  only  reach  certain  parts  of  the  stable;  and  if  the  mangers, 
and  racks,  and  bales,  and  partitions,  are  first  well  scraped,  and  next  scoured  with 
soap  and  water,  and  then  thoroughly  washed  with  a  solution  of  the  chloride  of 
lime,  (one  pint  of  the  chloride  to  a  pailful  of  water,)  and  the  walls  are  lime-washed, 
and  the  head-gear  burned,  and  the  clothing  baked  and  washed,  and  the  pails  new 
painted,  and  the  iron- work  exposed  to  a  red  heat,  all  danger  will  cease. 

The  tricks  which  some  dealers  resort  to  at  fairs  and  markets,  in  order  to  con- 
ceal the  existence  of  glanders,  are  most  infamous,  and  should  be  visited  with  the 
severest  penalty  of  the  law.  Having  given  the  horse  a  brushing  gallop,  that  he 
may  thoroughly  clear  the  nose,  some  of  them  blow  powdered  alum  up  the  nostrils 
a  little  while  before  he  is  shown;  others  use  white  vitriol;  and  although  the  horse 
may  be  sadly  tortured,  about  which  they  care  nothing,  the  discharge  is  for  some 
hours  stayed.  Others  roll  up  a  pledget  of  tow,  and  introduce  it  into  the  nostril, 
sufficiently  high  to  escape  common  observation.  Both  these  tricks  may  be  dis- 
covered by  tl»e  uneasiness  of  the  animal,  and  his  repeated  efforts  to  sneeze,  as  well 
as  by  his  general  appearance,  and  if  the  disease  be  far  advanced,  most  assuredly 
by  the  red  or  raw  appearance  of  the  nose,  and  by  the  stinking  breath. 

Happy  should  we  be  if  we  could  say  any  thing  satisfactory  of  the  prevention  of 
glanders.  The  danger  from  exposure  to  infection  can  scarcely  be  avoided  by 
those  who  travel  much,  and  whose  horses  must  stand  in  stables  the  inmates  of 
which  are  so  piomiscuous,  and  so  frequently  changed.  Although  we  cannot  pre- 
vent contagion,  we  have  moi-e  power  in  preventing  the  disease  from  occurring 
without  contagion,  and  that  is  a  point  of  importance,  at  least  if  the  opinion  of 
Professor  Coleman  be  correct,  that  not  one  horse  in  a  thousand  receives  the 
disease  from  contagion.  To  this,  however,  we  cannot  subscribe,  for  not  only  the 
history  of  cavalry  regiments,  but  the  experience  of  every  breeder  and  proprietor 
of  horses,  will  prove  the  infectious  nature  of  the  complaint. 

No  fact  is  more  certain  than  that  he  who  will  keep  a  glandered  horse  in  his 
stable,  or  work  him  in  his  team,  will  sooner  or  later  lose  the  greater  part  of  his 
stud.  However,  the  generation  of  the  disease  may  certainly  be  much  prevented, 
and  the  first  and  most  effectual  mode  of  prevention  will  be  to  keep  the  stables 
cool  and  well  ventilated,  for  the  hot  and  poisoned  air  of  low  and  confined  stables 
is  one  of  the  most  prevalent  causes  of  glanders. 

Ne.xt  to  ventilation  stands  cleanliness;  for  the  foul  air  from  the  fermenting  litter, 
and  ui'ine  and  dung,  must  not  only  be  highly  injurious  to  health  generally,  but  ir- 
ritate and  predispose  to  inflammation  that  delicate  membrane  which  is  the  primary 
seat  of  the  disease.  If  to  this  be  added  regular  exercise,  and  occasional  green 
meat  during  the  summer,  and  carrots  in  the  winter,  we  shall  have  stated  all  that 
can  be  done  in  the  way  of  prevention.  The  fltrmer's  horse  in  his  cool  or  cold  sta- 
ble, and  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year  running  loose  when  not  at  work,  would 
be  exempt  from  glanders,  if,  at  the  market  and  the  fair,  he  were  not  so  much  ex- 
posed to  contagion.  In  truth,  glanders  may  be  considered  as  the  consequence  of 
the  stabling  of  the  horse.  In  South  America  and  in  Arabia  they  are  unknown; 
but  wherever  the  European  plan  of  stabling  has  been  introduced,  glanders  have 
followed  in  its  train:  and,  therefore,  if  any  means  are  resorted  to  for  the  cure  of 
glanders,  the  first,  and  perhaps  the  only  effectual  one,  would  be  to  remove  every 
exciting  cause  of  the  disease;  to  restore  the  horse  almost  to  a  state  of  nature;  to 
turn  him  out  for  a  long  time,  or  at  least  to  throw  open  his  stable  as  much  as  the 
season  and  the  weather  will  permit.  Experience,  however,  tells  us  that,  although 
the  symptoms  have  disappeared  when  the  exciting  causes  of  disease  have  been  re- 
moved, and  the  horse  has  returned  to  his  stable  after  a  twelvemonth's  run  appa- 
rently sound,  every  symptom  has  gradually  shown  itself  again  when  these  causes 
have  been  once  more  called  into  action. 


Farcy  is  intimately  connected  with  glanders;  they  will  run  into  each  other,  or 
their  symptoms  will  mingle  together,  and  before  either  arrives  at  its  fatal  termina- 
tion, its  associate  will  almost  invariably  appear.  An  animal  inoculated  with  the 
matter  of  farcy  will  often  be  afflicted  with  glanders,  while  the  matter  of  glanders 
will  frequently  produce  farcy.     They  are  different  types  or  stages  of  the  same 


102  THE  HORSE.  ^^ 

disease.  There  is,  however,  a  very  material  difference  in  their  sjmfiptoms  and  pro- 
gress, and  this  most  important  of  all,  that,  wliile  glanders  are  generally  incurable, 
farcy,  in  its  early  stage  and  mild  form,  may  be  successfully  treated. 

Veterinary  writers  tell  us  that  it  is  a  disease  of  the  absorbents  in  the  skin.  The 
small  arteries  are  employed  in  building  up  and  nourishing  the  various  parts  of  the 
body;  and  another  set  of  vessels  are  busied  in  taking  up  and  carrying  away  that 
which  is  worn  out  and  useless.  There  is  no  part  of  the  body  on  which  thousands 
of  these  little  tubes  do  not  open.  Those  of  the  skin  are  not  only  employed  in  re- 
moving useless  materials,  but  in  taking  up  various  substances,  and  principally  fluids 
which  may  be  in  contact  with  the  skin.  The  little  vessels  which  are  thus  occu- 
pied, collect  together  and  form  larger  branches,  which  run  in  company  with  the 
superficial  veins,  and,  therefore,  farcy  was  once  supposed  to  be  a  disease  of  the 
veins,  and  the  tumors  by  which  it  is  characterized  accompany  the  course  of  the 
veins.  The  poison  which  they  take  up  produces  inflammation  in  them,  which 
gradually  spreads  along  the  absorbent,  and  causes  it  to  swell. 

These  vessels,  small  as  they  are,  contain  valves,  like  those  in  the  common  pump, 
which  permit  the  fluid  to  pass  one  way,  but  prevent  its  return.  The  inflammation, 
which  pursues  the  natural  course  of  the  fluid  through  these  tubes,  that  is,  towards 
the  reservoir  into  which  it  is  thrown  before  it  enters  the  heart,  seems  to  be  arrested 
by  these  valves,  and  they  inflame  and  swell;  and,  therefore,  the  first  indication  of 
this  disease,  even  before  any  drooping,  or  loss  of  condition,  or  of  appetite,  is  gene- 
rally the  appearance  of  little  tumors — -farcy  buds — close  to  some  of  the  veins,  fol- 
lowing the  course  of  tlie  veins,  and  connected  together  by  a  kind  of  cord,  which 
farriers  call  corded  veins.  When  they  are  few  and  small  they  may  possibly  exist 
for  several  weeks  without  being  observed;  but  at  length  they  increase  in  number 
and  in  size,  and  become  painful  and  hot,  and  some  of  them  begin  to  ulcerate.  They 
appear  usually  about  the  face  or  neck,  or  inside  of  the  thigh,  and  in  the  latter  case 
there  is  some  general  enlargement  of  the  limb,  and  lameness. 

In  some  cases,  however,  the  horse  will  droop  for  many  a  day  before  the  appear- 
ance of  the  buttons  or  farcy  buds;  his  appetite  will  be  impaired;  his  coat  will  stare; 
he  will  lose  flesh.  The  poison  is  evidently  at  work,  but  has  not  gained  sufficient 
power  to  cause  the  absorbents  to  swell.  In  a  few  instances  these  buds  do  not  ul- 
cerate, but  become  hard  and  difficult  to  disperse.  The  progress  of  the  disease  is 
then  suspended,  and  possibly  for  many  months  the  horse  will  appear  to  be  restored 
to  health;  but  he  bears  the  seeds  of  the  malady  about  him,  and,  all  at  once,  the 
farcy  assumes  a  virulent  form,  and  hurries  him  off".  These  buds  have  sometimes 
been  confounded  with  the  little  tumors  or  lumps  of  surfeit.  They  are  generally 
higher  than  these  tumors;  not  so  broad;  have  a  more  knotty  feel,  and  are  princi- 
pally found  on  the  inside  of  the  limbs  instead  of  the  outside. 

The  increase  of  these  buds  marks  the  progress  of  the  disease,  and  that  progress 
is  retarded  by  the  resistance  of  these  valves.  The  ulcers  spread  around,  and  are 
cured  with  considerable  difficulty.  Larger  tumors  appear  in  the  groin  and  be- 
tween the  fore-leg,  and  ulcerate  and  spread,  and  the  hollows  and  burrowings  run 
deep  in  every  direction,  and  the  horse  becomes  a  miserable  and  loathsome  object. 
Glanders  speedily  appear,  and  death  ensues. 

Few  things  are  more  unlike,  or  more  perplexing,  than  the  different  forms  which 
farcy  assumes  at  diff'erent  times,  One  of  the  legs,  and  particularly  one  of  the 
hinder  legs,  will  suddenly  swell  to  an  enormous  size.  At  night  the  horse  will  ap- 
pear to  be  perfectly  well,  and,  in  the  morning,  one  leg  will  be  three  times  the 
size  of  the  other,  with  considerable  fever,  and  scarcely  the  power  of  moving  the 
limb. 

We  do  not  mean  that  enlargement  of  the  hind  leg,  with  red  shining  skin,  and 
exudation  of  fluid  on  the  skin,  reaching  from  the  fetlock  to  the  heel,  round  and 
smooth,  very  painful,  attended  with  extreme  lameness,  and  which  the  groom  calls 
a  farcy  humor.  This  wUl  yield  to  frequent  fomentation,  and  a  good  dose  of  physic. 
It  is  effusion  of  fluid  beneath  the  skin,  from  want  of  exercise  and  over-feeding. 
The  enlargement  of  farcy  occupies  more  of  the  limb,  and  presents  an  uneven  sur- 
face, with  sudden  projections  and  depressions,  and  betrays  in  some  part  the  corded 
absorbent,  and  the  inflamed  and  swelled  valve. 

At  other  times  the  head  will  be  subject  to  this  enlargement — the  muzzle  will 
particularly  swell,  and  a  stinking  discharge  will  issue  from  the  nose.  Sometimes 
the  horse  will  gradually  lose  flesh  and  strength;  he  will  be  hide-bound — mangy 
eruptions  will  appear  in  different  parts;  the  legs  will  swell;  cracks  will  appear  at 
the  heels,  and  the  inexperienced  person  may  conceive  it  to  be  a  mere  want  of 
condition  combined  with  grease. 


^^  FARCY.  103 

Farcy,  like  glanders,  springs  from  infection,  or  from  bad  stable  management. 
It  is  produced  by  all  the  causes  which  give  rise  to  glanders;  but  with  this  differ- 
ence, that  it  is  more  frequently  generated,  and  is  sometimes  strangely  prevalent 
in  particular  districts.  It  will  attack,  at  the  same  time,  several  horses  in  the  same 
ill-conducted  stable,  and  others  in  the  neighborhood,  who  have  been  exposed  to 
the  same  predisposing  causes.  The  practitioner  is  always  afraid  of  seeing  too 
much  of  this  disease  when  he  meets  with  one  case  of  farcy,  where  there  has  been 
gross  inattention  to  the  horses.  Some  have  denied  that  it  is  a  contagious  disease. 
They  must  have  had  little  experience.  It  is  true  that  the  matter  of  farcy  must 
come  in  contact  with  a  wound,  or  sore,  in  order  to  communicate  the  disease;  but 
accustomed  as  horses  are  to  nibble  and  play  with  each  other,  and  sore  as  the  corn- 
ers of  the  mouth  are  frequently  rendered  by  the  bit,  it  is  easy  to  imagine  that  this 
may  often  be  effected;  and  experience  tells  us  that  a  horse  having  farcy-ulcers 
connot  be  suffered  to  remain  witli  others  without  extreme  risk.  We  recollect  an 
instance  in  which  virulent  and  fatal  fircy  was  communicated  by  a  scratch  from  the 
currycomb  which  had  been  previously  used  on  a  glandered  horse. 

I'he  treatment  of  farcy  varies  with  the  form  it  assumes.  In  the  button  or  bud 
farcy,  a  mild  dose  of  physic  should  be  first  administered.  The  buds  should  be 
then  carefully  examined,  and  if  any  of  them  have  broken,  the  budding  iron,  of  a 
dull  red  heat,  should  be  applied  to  them;  or  if  matter  should  be  felt  in  them,  show- 
ing that  they  are  disposed  to  break,  they  should  be  penetrated  with  the  iron. 
These  wounds  should  be  daily  inspected,  and  if,  when  the  slough  of  the  cautery 
comes  off,  they  look  pale,  and  foul,  and  spongy,  and  discharge  a  thin  matter,  they 
should  be  frequently  washed  with  a  lotion  composed  of  a  drachm  of  corrosive 
sublimate  dissolved  in  an  ounce  of  rectified  spirit;  the  other  buds  should  likewise 
be  examined,  and  opened  with  the  iron  as  soon  as  they  evidently  contain  matter. 
When  the  wounds  begin  to  look  red,  and  the  bottom  of  them  is  even  and  firm, 
and  they  discharge  a  thick  white  or  yellow  matter,  the  friar's  balsam  will  speedily 
heal  them.  As,  however,  the  constitution  is  now  tainted,  local  applications  will  not 
be  sufficient,  and  the  disease  must  be  attacked  by  internal  medicines  as  soon  as 
the  physic  has  ceased  to  operate.  The  corrosive  sublimate  will  be  the  best  alter- 
ative, and  may  be  given  in  doses  of  ten  grains,  gradually  increased  to  a  scruple, 
with  two  drachms  of  gentian  and  one  of  ginger,  and  repeated  morning  and  night 
until  the  ulcers  disappear,  unless  the  horse  is  violently  purged,  or  the  mouth  be- 
comes sore,  when  a  di-achm  of  blue  vitriol  may  be  substituted  for  the  corrosive 
sublimate.  During  this  the  animal  should  be  placed  in  a  large  box,  with  a  free 
circulation  of  air;  and  green  meat,  or  carrots,  the  latter  more  particularly,  should 
be  given  him,  with  a  fair  allowance  of  corn.  If  he  could  be  turned  out  during  the 
day,  it  would  be  advantageous;  but  at  all  events  he  should  be  daily  exercised.  It 
is  related  by  Mr.  Blaine  that  a  horse,  so  reduced  as  not  to  be  able  to  stand,  was 
drawn  into  a  field  of  tares,  and  suffered  to  take  his  chance:  the  consequence  was, 
that  when  he  had  eaten  all  within  his  reach,  he  was  able  to  rise  and  search  for 
more,  and  eventually  recovered.*  In  an  early  stage  of  the  disease,  and  if  glanders 
have  not  appeared,  this  treatment  will  frequently  succeed.  If,  after  the  wounds 
have  healed,  the  absorbents  should  continue  to  be  corded,  a  blister,  or  light  firing, 
will  probably  be  serviceable. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  a  horse  which  has  experienced  one  attack  of  farcy 
will  be  very  subject  to  a  relapse,  and,  therefore,  should  be  regarded  with  a  watch- 
ful eye,  and  occasional  alteratives  of  JEthiop's  mineral,  with  turpentine,  in  the  pro- 
portions of  one  drachm  of  the  former  and  four  of  the  latter,  made  into  a  ball  with 
linseed  meal,  should  be  given,  and  green  meat  or  carrots,  when  circumstances  will 
permit.f 

In  the  species  of  farcy  attended  with  enormous  swelling,  it  will  be  prudent  to 
bleed  moderately  as  well  as  to  pliysic.  The  iron  will  not  be  necessary,  but  the  same 
alterative  medicine  will  be  useful,  and  the  leg  should  be  frequently  fomented  with 
warm  water.  In  both  cases,  although  the  air  should  be  fresh  and  cool,  the  horse 
should  be  warmly  clothed. 

The  Water  Fahct,  confounded  by  name  with  the  common  farcy,  and  by  which 
much  confusion  has  been  caused  and  a  great  deal  of  mischief  done,  is  a  th-opsicai 

*Blaine's  Veterinary  Outlines,  p.  467. 

■(■The  old  farriers  had  a  strange  and  barbarous  way  of  attempting  to  cure  the 
farcy.  They  mixed  together  a  variety  of  stimulating  di'ugs,  and  sewed  them  in  the 
horse's  ear,  and  set  him  to  hard  work  on  straw  and  water. 


104  THE  HORSE. 

affection  of  the  skin,  either  of  the  chest  or  of  the  limbs  generally,  and  belongs  to 
another  part  of  our  subject. 

A  tumor  termed  a  Polypus  sometimes  occupies  one  of  the  nostrils.  It  will  grow 
to  a  very  large  size,  obstructing  the  breatliing,  and  sadly  annoying  the  horse.  As 
this  can  only  be  removed  by  an  operation  which  a  veterinary  surgeon  alone  is 
competent  to  perform,  we  do  not  describe  it  particularly. 

THE    LIFS. 

The  lips  of  the  horse  are  far  more  important  organs  than  many  suppose.  They 
are,  in  a  manner,  the  hands  of  the  horse;  and  if  any  one  will  take  the  trouble  to 
observe  the  manner  in  which  he  gathers  up  his  corn  with  them,  and  collects  together 
the  grass  before  he  divides  it  with  his  nippers,  he  will  be  satisfied  that  the  horse 
would  be  no  more  able  to  convey  the  food  to  his  mouth  without  them,  than  the  hu- 
man being  could  without  his  hands.  This  has  even  been  put  to  tlie  test  of  experi- 
ment. The  nerves  which  supply  the  lips  were  divided  in  a  poor  ass,  to  illustrate  some 
point  of  physiology.  The  sensibility  of  the  lips  was  lost,  and  he  knew  not  when  he 
touched  his  food  with  them;  the  motion  of  the  lips  was  lost,  and  he  could  not  get 
the  oats  between  his  teeth,  although  the  manger  was  full  of  them;  at  length,  driven 
by  hunger,  he  contrived  to  lick  up  a  few  of  them  with  his  tongue,  but  when  they 
were  on  his  tongue,  the  greater  part  of  them  were  rubbed  off  before  he  could  get 
them  into  his  mouth.  It  is  on  account  of  this  use  of  the  lips,  that  the  faces  of  all 
quadrupeds  are  so  lengthened  that  the  lips  may  be  brought  into  contact  with  the 
food  without  inconvenience  or  injury  to  other  parts  of  the  face.  Several  muscles 
go  to  the  lips  from  different  parts  of  the  jaw  and  face.  Some  of  them  are  shown 
in  the  cut,  p.  94.  The  orbicularis  or  circular  muscle,  p,  employed  in  pushing  out 
the  lips,  and  closing  them,  and  enabling  the  horse  to  seize  and  hold  his  food,  is 
particularly  evident;  and  in  our  explanation  of  the  cut,  the  action  of  other  muscles, 
t,  k,  m,  and  o,  was  described.  The  nerves  likewise,  y,  taking  their  course  along 
the  cheek,  and  principally  supplying  the  lips  with  the  power  of  motion,  and  those, 
2,  proceeding  from  the  foramen  or  hole  in  the  upper  jaw,  deserve  attention. 

The  lips  are  composed  of  muscles  for  tlie  sake  of  strength,  and  of  a  multitude 
of  small  glands,  which  secrete  a  fluid  that  covers  the  inside  of  the  lips  and  the 
gums,  in  order  to  prevent  friction,  and  likewise  furnishes  a  portion  of  the  moisture 
so  necessary  for  the  proper  chewing  of  the  food.  The  skin  covering  the  lips  is 
very  thin,  because,  if  tliese  are  the  hands  of  the  horse,  they  should  possess  con- 
siderable feeling;  and  for  the  same  purpose  likewise,  they  are  scantily  covered  with 
hair,  and  that  hair  is  fine  and  short;  and  long  hairs  or  feelers,  called  the  beard,  are 
superadded  for  the  same  purpose.  The  horse  is  guided  and  governed  principally 
by  the  mouth,  and  therefore  the  lips  are  endowed  with  extraordinary  sensibihty,  so 
that  the  animal  feels  the  slightest  motion  of  the  hand  of  the  rider  or  driver,  and, 
as  it  were,  anticipates  his  very  thoughts.  The  fineness  or  goodness  of  the  rnouth 
consists  in  the  exquisite  feeling  of  the  mouth,  and  depends  on  the  thinness  of  this 
membrane.  We  shall  say  more  of  this  when  we  have  described  the  lower  jaw  and 
palate. 

The  lips  of  the  horse  should  be  thin,  if  the  beauty  of  the  head  be  regarded,  for 
if  they  ai-e  loaded  with  fat  they  cannot  be  so  sensible  as  they  ought  to  be;  yet,  al- 
though thin,  they  should  evidently  possess  power,  and  be  strongly  and  regularly 
closed.  A  firm,  compressed  mouth  gives  a  favorable  and  no  deceptive  idea  of  the 
muscular  power  of  tlie  animal.  Lips  apart  from  each  other,  and  hanging  down, 
indicate  weakness  or  old  age,  or  dulness  and  sluggishness. 

I'he  depth  of  the  mouth,  or  the  distance  from  the  fore  part  to  the  angle  of  the 
lips,  should  be  considerable,  first,  for  the  sake  of  beauty.  A  short  protuberant 
mouth  would  be  a  bad  finish  to  the  tapering  face  of  the  blood  horse;  more  room 
is  likewise  given  for  the  opening  of  the  nostril,  which  we  have  seen  to  be  an  im- 
portajit  consideration.  The  bridle  will  not  be  carried  well,  and  the  horse  will  hang 
heavy  on  hand,  if  there  be  not  considerable  depth  of  mouth. 

The  angles  of  the  lips  are  frequently  made  sore  or  wounded  by  the  smallness  or 
shortness  of  the  snaffle,  and  by  the  unnecessary  and  cruel  tightness  of  the  bearing 
rein.  This  rein  not  only  gives  the  horse  a  grander  appearance  in  harness,  and 
places  the  head  in  that  position  in  which  the  bit  most  powerfully  presses  upon  the 
jaw,  but  there  is  no  possibility  of  driving  without  it,  unless  the  arm  of  the  driver 
were  as  strong  as  that  of  Hercules;  and  most  certainly  there  is  no  safety  if  it  be 
not  used.     There  are  few  horses  who  will  not  bear,  or  bwe  upon  something,  and  it 


THE  BONES  OF  THE  MOUTH— THE  PALATE.       105 

is  better  to  let  them  bore  upon  themselves,  than  upon  the  arm  of  the  driver. 
Without  this  control,  many  of  them  would  hang  their  heads  low,  and  be  disposed 
every  moment  to  stumble,  and  would  defy  all  pulling-,  if  they  tried  to  run  away. 
There  is,  and  can  be  no  necessity,  however,  for  using  a  bearing-rein  so  tight  as  to 
cramp  the  muscles  of  the  head,  and  wliich  is  indicated  by  the  animal's  continually 
tossing  up  his  head:  they  may  indeed  be  cramped  to  such  a  degree,  that  the  horse 
is  scarcely  able  to  bring  his  head  to  the  ground  when  turneil  to  grass.  The  tight 
rein  injui-es  and  excoriates  the  angles  ot  the  lips,  and  frequently  brings  on  poll- 
evil.  We  saw  a  poor  horse  at  work,  unroughed,  daring  a  severe  frost.  He  was 
continually  sliding  about,  and  in  dang-er  of  falling.  The  stupid  driver  buckled  the 
bearing-rein  as  tight  as  he  could,  to  keep  hini.  up,-  and  the  consequence  was,  that, 
by  the  sudden  and  forcible  pressing  upon  the  iron  in  the  slips  which  would  still 
every  moment  occur,  the  corners  of  the  mouth  were  absolutely  cut  th.rough  to  a 
considerable  depth.  Except  it  be  a  restive  or  determined  horse,  there  should  be 
little  more  bearing  on  the  mouth  than  is  generally  used  in  riding.  This  the  horse 
likes  to  feel,  and  it  is  necessary  for  him  in  the  swift  gallop.  We  must  have  the 
bearing-rein,  M'hatever  some  men  of  humanity  may  say  against  it;  but  we  need  not 
use  it  cruelly. 

THE    BONES    OF    THE    MOUTH. 

» 

The  bones  in  and  giving  form  to  the  motith,  are  the  superior  maxillary,  or  upper 
jaw,  (6,  p.  49,  and  /,  p.  52,)  containing  the  grinders,  the  anterior  maxillary,  or 
lower  part  of  the  upper  jaw,  (b,  p.  49,  «,  p.  52,  r,  p.  53,)  containing  the  upper- 
nippers  or  cutting-teeth;  the  palatine  bone  (below  8,  p.  53)  and  the  posterior 
maxillary  or  under  jaw,  (a,  p.  49,  and  w,  p.  53,)  containing  all  the  under  teeth.  We 
will  speak  of  them  very  shortly,  in  the  order  in  which  we  have  mentioned  them. 

The  superior  maxillary  is,  with  the  exception  of  the  lower  jaw,  the  largest  bone 
in  the  face.  It  unites  above  with  the  lachrymal  bone,  (i,  p.  52;)  and,  more  on  the 
side,  with  the  malar  or  cheek  bone,  k;  and  a  portion  of  it,  continued  ujiward,  and 
underneath,  enters  into  the  orbit.  Above,  and  on  the  front  of  the  face,  it  unites 
with  the  bones  of  the  nose,  J  ,■  and  below,  with  the  inferior  maxillary,  n.  That 
which  most  deserves  not.ce  in  it,  externally,  is  the  ridge  or  spine,  seen  at  6,  p.  49, 
but  better  delineated  in  the  cut  of  the  head,  p.  52,  continued  from  the  base  of  the 
zygomatic  arch,  and  across  the  malar  bone.  It  and  the  surface  beneath  serve  to 
give  attachment  to  the  musseter  muscle,  concerned  almost  as  much  as  the  tempo- 
ral one,  in  tlie  act  of  chewing.  The  dark  spot  (at  p.  52,  and  seen  hkewise  at  p. 
49)  marks  the  foramen  or  hole,  througii  which  a  branch  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves 
proceeds  to  give  sensibility  to  the  lower  part  of  the  face.  As  it  approaches  the 
teeth,  this  bone  separates  into  two  plates,  and  these  are  divided  by  long  par- 
titions which  contain,  and  firmly  hold,  the  upper  grinders.  The  lower  plate 
then  projects  inwards,  and  forms  (/,  p.  53)  the  principal  part  of  the  roof  of  the 
mouth,  and  the  floor  of  the  cavity  of  the  nose.  The  corresponding  bone  on  the 
other  side  meets  its  fellow  in  the  centre  of  the  palate.  The  upper  jaw-bone  con- 
tains in  it  large  cavities,  beside  the  cavities  for  the  teeth,  and  these  open  into  and 
enlarge  the  cavity  of  the  nose.  They  are  coimected  with  the  voice,  but  not  with 
the  smell,  for  the  expansion  of  the  olfactory  or  smelling  nerve  has  never  been 
traced  beyond  the  bones  and  membranes  of  the  proper  cavity  of  the  nose.  The 
maxillary  sinuses  are  generally  filled  with  matter  in  bad  cases  of  glanders. 

Below  these  are  ihe  anterior  maxillary  bones,  (/,  p.  49,  a,  p.  53,)  containing  the  up- 
per cutting-teeth,  with  the  tushes  belonging  to  both  the  upper  and  anterior  bones. 
I'hese  are  the  bones  to  which  (see  cut,  p.  53)  the  upper  lip  is  attached.  1  he 
superior  and  anterior  maxillai-y  bones  are  separated  in  animals  with  long  faces, 
like  the  horse,  that,  by  overlapping  each  other,  strength  might  be  gained. 

The  palatme  bone  forms  but  a  very  small  portion  of  tlie  palate;  it  surrounds  the 
edge  of  the  communication  between  the  cavity  of  the  nose  and  the  back  parts  of 
the  mouth. 

THE    PAI.ATE. 

Adhering  to  a  portion  of  all  three  of  the  bones  just  described,  and  being  the 
lining  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  is  the  hard  palate,  {t,  p.  53,)  composed  of  a  fii-m 
dense  substance,  divided  into  several  ridges,  called  bars.  The  cut  gives  a  view 
of  them. 

14 


106 


THE  HORSE. 


The  cut  will  point  out  the  bleeding  place,  if  the  horse  should  be  attacked  with 
the  megrims  on  a  journey,  and  the  rider  or  driver  should  not  have  a  lancet.  Pre- 
cisely in  a  line  between  the  middle  and  second  cutting-teeth,  and  a  little  more  than 
an  inch  within  the  mouth,  the  artery  and  vein  make  a  curve.  They  may  there  be 
cut  down  upon  with  a  sharp  knife,  and  a  plentiful  stream  of  blood  will  be  obtain- 
ed, which  will  usually  stop  of  itself  when  two  or  three  quarts  of  blood  have  been 
obtained.  The  artery  being  cut  across  will  shrink,  and  soon  cease  to  bleed,  and 
the  application  of  a  sponge  filled  with  cold  water  will  generally  stop  the  bleeding 
of  the  vein.  No  injury  will  result  from  the  division  of  the  nerve,  for  it  is  a  mere 
nerve  of  feeling,  distributed  over  those  parts. 

CUT  OF  THE  PALATE. 

a  The  palate  divided  into  ridges  or  bar»< 

b  A  strip  dissected  up  to  show  the  vessels 
and  nerve  beneath. 

c  The  palatine  artery. 

d  The  palatine  vein. 

e  The  palatine  nerve  between  the  artery 
and  the  vein. 

/  The  cheek  divided,  showing  the  direc- 
tion of  the  muscular  fibres. 

g  The  grinders. 

h  The  nippers. 

»   The  tushes. 


Should  the  cut  be  made  a  little  too  much  on  one  side,  and  about  the  middle  of  the 
second  incisor  tooth,  the  artery  may  be  wounded  longitudinally,  but  not  divided, 
and  there  may  be  very  great  difficulty  in  stopping  the  blood.  We  recollect  a  horse 
which  almost  bled  to  death  from  the  artery  being  thus  wounded.  If,  however,  a  large 
and  firm  pledget  of  lint  or  tow  be  rolled  round  a  piece  of  twine,  and  that  tied  firmly 
round  the  front  teeth,  the  pressure  on  the  part  will  effect  the  desired  purpose;  or 
should  this  in  a  very  few  cases  fail,  a  gag  may  be  easily  contrived  to  press  upon 
the  pledget,  and  the  bleeding  will  immediately  cease. 

We  are  speaking  of  this  as  a  make-shift  sort  of  bleeding  when  the  horse  is  on  a 
journey;  but  we  should  decidedly  object  to  tlie  cutting  of  the  bars  as  the  usual 
mode  of  taking  blood.  The  blood  cannot  be  measured;  the  degree  of  inflamma- 
tion cannot  be  ascertained  by  the  manner  in  which  it  coagulates,  and  there  may  be 
difficulty  to  the  operator,  and  annoyance  and  pain  to  the  horse  in  stopping  the 
bleeding. 


Some  of  the  lower  bars  occasionally  swell,  and  rise  to  a  level  with,  and  even 
beyond  the  edge  of  the  teeth,  and  they  are  very  sore,  and  the  horse  feeds  badly 
on  account  of  the  pain  he  suffers  from  the  pressure  of  the  food  on  the  bars.  This 
is  called  the  Lampas;  and  it  may  arise  from  inflammation  of  the  gvims,  propagated 
to  the  bars,  when  the  horse  is  shedding  his  teeth;  (and  young  horses  are  more 
subject  to  it  than  others;)  or  from  some  slight  febrile  tendency  in  the  constitution 
generally,  as  when  a  young  horse  has  lately  been  taken  up  from  grass,  and  has 
been  over-fed,  or  not  sufficiently  exercised. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  the  swelling  will  soon  subside  without  medical  treatment; 
or  a  few  mashes,  and  gentle  alteratives,  will  relieve  the  animal.  A  few  shght  cuts 
across  the  bars  with  a  lancet  or  penknife,  and  taking  care  to  avoid  the  principal 
artery  and  vein  of  the  palate,  the  situation  of  which  has  been  just  pointed  out,  will 


THE  LOWER  JAW. 


107 


relieve  the  inflammation,  and  cause  the  swelling  to  subside;  indeed,  this  scarifica- 
tion of  the  bars  will  seldom  do  harm,  although  it  is  far  from  being  so  necessary  as 
is  supposed.  To  the  brutal  custom  of  the  farrier,  wlio  sears  and  burns  down  the 
bai-s  with  a  red  hot  iron,  we  do  most  peremptorily  object.  It  is  torturing  the  horse 
to  no  purpose;  and  it  is  rendering  that  part  callous,  on  the  delicate  sensibility  of 
which  all  the  pleasure  and  safety  of  riding  and  driving  depend.  It  may  be  pru- 
dent in  case  of  lampasto  examine  the  grinders,  and  more  particularly  the  tushes, 
to  see  whether  either  of  them  is  endeavoring  to  make  its  way  through  the  gum. 
If  with  the  gum  lancet,  or  penknife,  two  incisions  across  each  other  be  made  on 
the  tooth,  the  horse  will  experience  immediate  relief. 

THE    I,OWER    JAW. 

The  posterior  or  lower  jaw  may  be  considered  as  forming  the  floor  of  the  mouth, 
(«,  p.  49,  or  w,  p.  55.)  The  body  or  lower  part  of  it  contains  the  under  cutting 
teeth,  and  the  tushes;  the  sides  are  two  flat  pieces  of  bone,  containing  the  grinders. 
On  the  inside,  and  opposite  to  a,  p.  49,  is  a  hole  through  which  blood-vessels  and 
nerves  enter  to  supply  the  teeth,  and  some  of  which  escape  again  at  another  hole 
on  the  outside,  and  near  the  nippers.  The  branches  are  broader  and  thinner, 
rounded  at  the  angle  of  the  jaw,  and  terminating  in  two  processes.  One,  the  co- 
racoid,  from  its  sharpness  or  supposed  resemblance  to  a  beak,  passes  under  the  zy- 
gomatic arch,  (see  p.  49,)  and  the  temporal  muscle,  arising  from  the  whole  surface 
of  the  parietal  bone,  (see  p.  55,)  is  inserted  into  it,  and  wrapped  round  it;  and  by 
its  action,  principally,  the  jaw  is  moved,  and  the  food  is  ground.  The  other,  the 
condyloid,  or  rounded  process,  is  received  into  the  glenoid  (shallow)  cavity  of  the 
temporal  bone,  at  the  base  of  the  zygomatic  arch,  and  forms  the  joint  on  which  the 
lower  jaw  moves.  This  joint  is  easily  seen  in  the  cut  at  page  49;  and  being  placed 
so  near  to  the  insertion  of  the  muscle,  or  the  centre  of  motion,  the  temporal  mus- 
cle  must  act  with  very  considerable  mechanical  disadvantage,  and  must  possess  im- 
mense power. 

This  joint  is  admirably  contrived  for  the  purpose  which  the  animal  requires.  It 
will  admit  freely  and  perfectly  of  the  simple  motion  of  a  hinge,  and  that  is  the  mo- 
tion of  the  jaw  in  nipping  the  herbage  and  seizing  the  corn.  But  the  grass,  and 
more  particularly  the  corn,  must  be  crushed  and  bruised  before  it  is  fit  for  diges- 
tion. Simple  champing,  which  is  the  motion  of  the  human  lower  jaw,  and  that  of 
most  beasts  of  prey,  would  very  imperfectly  break  down  the  corn.  It  must  be  put 
into  a  mill;  it  must  be  actually  ground. 

It  is  put  into  a  mill,  and  as  perfect  a  mill  as  imagination  can  conceive. 

The  following  cuts  represent  the  glenoid  cavity  in  a  carnivorous,  or  flesh-eating, 
and  herbivorous,  or  grass-eating  animal,  viz.  the  tiger  and  the  horse:  the  one  re- 
quiring a  simple  hinge-like  motion  of  the  lower  jaw  to  tear  and  crush  the  food;  the 
other  a  lateral  or  grinding  motion  to  bring  it  into  a  pulpy  form.  First  examine  this 
cavity  in  the  tiger,  represented  at  B.  At  the  root  of  the  zygomatic  process  D,  is 
a  hollow  with  a  ridge  along  the  greater  pai-t  of  the  upper  and  inner  side  of  it, 
standing  to  a  considerable  height,  and  curling  over  the  cavity.     At  the  lower  and 


opposite  edge  of  the  cavity,  but  in  the  outside,  is  a  similar  ridge,  E,  likewise  rising 
abruptly  and  curling  over.  At  C  is  another  and  more  perfect  view  of  tliis  cavity 
in  a  different  direction.     The  head  of  the  lower  jaw  is  received  into  this  hollow 


108  THE  HORSE. 

and  presses  against  these  ridges,  and  is  partially  surrounded  by  them,  and  forms 
with  them  a  very  strong  joint,  where  dislocation  is  scarcely  possible,  and  admitting 
the  hinge-like  or  cranching  motion  to  its  fullest  extent;  permitting  the  animal  vio- 
lently to  seize  his  prey,  to  hold  it  firmly,  and  to  crush  it  to  pieces;  but,  from  the 
extent  and  curling  form  of  the  ridges,  forbidding,  except  to  a  very  slight  degree, 
all  lateral,  and  grinding  motion,  and  this  because  the  animal  does  not  want  it. 

The  food  of  the  horse  must  he  ground — simple  bruising  and  champing  would  not 
reduce  it  sufficiently  small  for  tlie  piu-poses  of  digestion.  Then  observe  the  dif- 
ferent construction  to  effect  this.  A  gives  the  glenoid  cavity  of  tiie  horse.  First, 
there  is  the  upper  ridge  assuming  a  rounded  form,  F,  and  therefore  called  the 
mastoid  process,-  and — a  peculiai-ity  in  the  horse — the  mastoid  process  of  the  squa- 
mous portion  of  the  temporal  bone:  sufficiently  strong  to  support  the  pressure  and 
action  of  the  lower  jaw  when  cropping  the  food  or  seizing  an  enemy,  but  not  en- 
circling the  head  of  that  bone,  and  reaching  only  a  little  way  along  tlie  side  of  the 
cavity,  where  it  terminates,  having  its  edges  rounded  off,  so  as  to  admit,  and  to  be 
evidently  destined  for  a  circular  motion  about  it.  Then,  at  the  other  and  lower 
edge  of  the  cavity,  and  on  the  outside,  G,  is  placed,  not  a  curling  ridge  as  in  the 
tiger,  but  a  mere  tubercle:  and  for  what  reason?  evidently  to  limit  this  lateral  or 
circular  motion — to  permit  it  as  far  as  the  necessities  of  the  animal  require  it,  and 
then  to  arrest  it — but  how?  not  suddenly  or  abruptly;  but  this  tubercle,  of  which 
we  have  already  spoken  as  strengthening  this  portion  of  the  zygomatic  arch,  yet, 
now  discharging  another  office,  has  a  smooth  and  gradual  ascent  to  it,  up  which 
the  lower  jaw  may  climb  to  a  certain  extent,  and  then,  by  degrees,  be  stopped. 
We  speak  not  now  of  the  moveable  cartilage  which  is  placed  in  tliis  cavity,  and 
between  the  bones,  to  render  the  motion  easier  and  freer.  It  is  found  in  this  joint 
in  every  quadruped;  and  it  is  found  wherever  motions  are  rapid  and  of  long  con- 
tinuance. 

So  great  is  the  conformity  between  the  structure  of  the  animal  and  his  destina- 
tion, that  a  tolerable  student  in  natural  history,  by  the  mere  inspection  of  the  gle- 
noid cavity,  will  at  once  determine  whether  the  animal  to  which  it  belonged  was 
carnivorous,  and  wanted  no  lateral  motion  of  the  jaw;  or  omnivorous,  living  occa- 
sionally on  all  kinds  of  food,  and  requiring  some  degi-ee  of  grinding  motion;  or 
herbivorous,  and  needing  the  constant  use  of  this  admirably  constructed  mill. 

At  g,  page  94,  is  represented  the  masseter  muscle,  an  exceedingly  strong  one, 
constituting  the  cheek  of  the  horse  arising  from  the  superior  maxillary  under  the 
ridge  continued  from  the  zygomatic  arch,  and  inserted  into  the  lower  jaw,  and  par- 
ticularly round  the  rough  border  at  the  angle  of  the  jaw.  This  acts  with  the  tem- 
poral muscle  in  closing  the  jaw,  and  in  giving  the  dij-ect  cutting  or  champing  mo- 
tion of  it. 

Inside  of  the  lower  jaw,  on  each  side,  and  occupying  the  whole  of  the  hollowed 
portion  of  them,  and  opposite  to  the  masseters,  ax*e  the  pterygoid  muscles,  going 
from  the  jaws  to  bones  more  in  the  centre  of  the  channel,  likewise  shutting  the 
mouth,  and  also,  by  their  alternate  action,  giving  that  grinding  motion  which  we 
have  described. 

The  space  between  the  branches  of  the  lower  jaw,  called  the  channel,  is  of  con- 
siderable consequence.  It  may  be  a  little  too  wide,  and  then  the  face  may  have  a 
clumsy  appearance;  but  if  it  be  too  narrow  the  horse  will  never  be  able  to  bend 
his  head  freely  and  gracefully;  he  will  be  always  pulling  and  boring  upon  the 
hand,  nor  can  he  possibly  be  well  reined  in. 

The  jaws  contain  the  teeth,  which  are  the  millstones  employed  in  this  operation. 
The  mouth  of  the  horse  at  five  years  old  contains  forty  teeth,  viz.  six  nippers  or 
cutting  teeth  in  front,  a  tush  on  each  side,  and  six  molars,  or  grinding  teeth,  above 
and  below;  they  are  contained  in  cavities  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  surrounded 
by  bony  partitions,  to  which  they  are  accurately  fitted,  and  by  which  they  are 
firmly  supported.  For  a  little  way  above  these  bony  cavities,  they  are  surrounded 
by  a  hard  substance  called  the  gum,  so  dense,  indeed,  and  adhering  so  closely  to 
the  teeth  and  the  jaws,  as  not  to  be  separated  without  veiy  great  difficulty;  singu- 
larly compact,  that  it  may  not  be  wounded  by  the  hard  or  sharp  particles  of  the 
food,  and  almost  devoid  of  feeling,  for  the  same  purpose. 


THE  TEETH. 


109 


Seven  or  eight  months  before  the  foal  is  born,  the  germs  or 
beginnings  of  the  teeth  are  visible  in  the  cavities  of  the  jaws. 
The  tooth  grows,  and  presses  to  the  surface  of  the  gum,  and 
forces  its  way  through  it;  and  at  the  time  of  birth  the  first 
and  second  grinders  have  appeared,  large  compared  with  the 
size  of  the  jaw,  and  seemingly  filling  it.  In  the  course  of  se- 
ven or  eight  days  the  two  centre  nippers  are  seen  as  here  re- 
presented. 

They  likewise  appear  to  be  large,  and  to  fill  the  front  of  the 
mouth,   although  they  will  afterwards  be  found  to  be  small, 
compared  with  the  permanent  teeth  that  follow.    In  the  course 
of  the  first  month  the  third  grinder  appears  above  and  below, 
and  not  long  after,   and  generally  before  six  weeks  have  ex- 
pired, another  incisor  above  and  below  will  be  seen  on  each 
side  of  the    two    first,    which  have    now    considerably 
grown,  but  not  attained  their  perfect  height.     This  cut 
will  then  represent  the  appearance  of  the  moutli. 

At  two  months,  the  centre  nippers  will  have  reached 
their  natural  level,  and  between  the  second  and  third 
lonth  the  second  pair  will  have  overtaken  them.  They 
will  then  begin  to  wear  a  little,  and  the  outer  edge, 
which  was  at  first  somewhat  raised  and  sharp,  is  brought 
to  a  level  with  the  inner  edge,  and  so  the  mouth  con- 
tinues until  sometime  between  the  sixth  and  ninth  month, 
when  another  nipper  begins  to  appear  on  each  side  of 
the  two  first,  making  six  above  and  below,  and  com- 
pleting the  coifs  mouth;  after  which,  the  only  observa- 
ble difierence,  until  between  the  second  and  third  year, 
is  in  the  wear  of  these  teeth. 
The  term  nipper  is  familiar  to  the  horseman  and  the  farrier,  and  much  better 
expresses  the  action  of  these  teeth  than  the  word  incisor  or  cutter,  which  is  adopted 
by  anatomists.  Whoever  has  observed  a  horse  in  the  act  of  browsing,  and  the 
twitch  of  the  head  which  accompanies  the  separation  of  each  portion  of  gi-ass,  will 
perceive  that  it  is  nipped  or  torn  rather  than  cut  off. 

These  teeth  are  covered  with  a  polished  and  exceedingly  hard  substance,  called 
the  enamel;  indeed,  it  is  so  hard  that  it  almost  bids  defiance  to  the  action  of  a  file. 
It  spreads  over  that  portion  of  the  teeth  which  appears  above  the  gum,  and  not 
only  so,  but  as  they  are  to  be  so  much  employed  in  nipping  the  grass,  and  gather- 
ing up  the  animal's  food,  and  in  such  employment  even  this  hard  substance  must 
be  gradually  worn  away,  a  portion  of  it,  as  it  passes  over  the  upper  surface  of  the 
teeth,  is  bent  inward,  and  sunk  into  the  body  of  the  teeth,  and  forms  a  little  pit  in 
them;  and  the  iHside  and  bottom  of  this  being  blackened  by  the  food,  constitutes 
the  mark  of  the  teeth,  by  the  gradual  disappearance  of  which,  in  consequence  of 
the  wearing  down  of  the  teeth,  we  are  enabled  for  several  years  to  judge  of  the 
age  of  the  animal. 

Dealers  often  talk  of  the  filling  up  of  the  tooth.  This  Is  altogether  a  vulgar 
error.  The  mark  never  fills  up.  The  peculiar  cementing  substance,  which  occu- 
pies the  funnel  or  pit  made  by  the  dipping  in  of  the  enamel,  never  grows  up,  but 
tlie  ridge  of  enamel  around  it  is  worn  down,  and  then  the  blackness  at  the  bottom 


is  rubbed  off. 


The  colt's  nipping  teeth  are  round  in  front,  some- 
what hollow  towards  the  mouth,  and  present  at  first 
a  cutting  surface,  with  the  outer  edge  rising  in  a 
slanting  direction  above  the  inner  edge.  This,  how- 
ever, soon  begins  to  wear  down  until  both  surfaces 
are  level,  and  the  mark,  which  was  originally  long 
and  narrow,  becomes  shorter,  and  wider,  and  fainter. 
At  six  months  the  four  nippers  are  beginning  to  wear 
to  a  level.  The  annexed  cut  will  convey  some  idea 
of  the  appearance  of  the  teeth  at  twelve  months. 
The  four  middle  teeth  are  evidently  level — the  cor- 
ner ones  becoming  so.  The  mark  in  the  two  middle 
teeth  is  wide  and  faint;  in  the  two  next  teeth  it  is 
darker,  and  longer,  and  narrower;  and  in  the  corner 
teeth  it  is  darkest,  and  longest,  and  narrowest. 


110  >    *  THE  HORSE. 

We  may  now  speak  of  the  back  teeth,  or  grinders.  They  will  not  guide  us  far 
in  ascertaining  the  age  of  the  animal,  for  we  cannot  easily  inspect  them;  but  there 
are  some  interesting  particulars  connected  with  them.  The  foal  is  born  with  two 
grinders  in  each  jaw,  above  and  below,  or  they  appear  within  three  or  four  days 
after  the  birth;  and  before  the  expiration  of  a  month  they  are  succeeded  by  a 
third,  more  behind.  The  grinders  are,  like  the  cutting-teeth,  covered  with  enamel 
on  the  sides,  but  not  on  the  top,  though  several  portions  of  enamel  enter  into  their 
substance.  They  have  a  great  deal  more  to  do  than  the  nippers,  and  are  employ- 
ed in  grinding  down  the  hardest  portion  of  the  food;  nature  has,  therefore,  made 
an  additional  provision  for  their  sti-ength  and  endurance. 

This  cut  presents  a  grinder  sawn  across.  It  seems  to  be  a  most  irregular  and 
intricate  machine;  but  the  explanation  of  it  is  not  diffi- 
cult. The  tooth  is  formed  and  prepared  in  cavities 
within  the  jaw-bones.  A  delicate  membranous  bag,  con- 
taining a  jelly-like  substance,  is  found,  in  the  unborn 
animal,  in  a  little  cell  within  the  jaw-bone.  It  assumes, 
by  degi'ees,  the  form  of  the  tooth  that  is  to  appear,  and 
'  then  the  jelly  within  the  membrane  begins  to  change  to 
bony  matter;  and  a  hard  and  beautiful  crystallization  is 
Vy  formed  on  the  membrane  without,  and  so  we  have  the 
cutting-tooth  covered  by  its  enamel.  In  the  formation, 
however,  of  each  of  the  grinders  of  the  horse,  there  are  originally  five  of  these  inem- 
branous  bags  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  four  in  the  lower,  filled  with  jelly.  This  jelly, 
by  degrees,  gives  place  to  a  bony  matter,  which  is  thrown  out  by  little  vessels  pe- 
netrating into  it,  and  is  represented  by  the  darker  portions  of  the  cut  with  central 
black  spots.  The  crystallization  of  enamel  can  be  traced  around  each,  and  so  there 
would  be  five  distinct  bones  or  teeth.  A  third  substance,  however,  is  now  secreted, 
(which  is  represented  by  the  white  spaces,)  and  is  a  powerful  cement,  uniting  all 
these  distinct  bones  into  one  body,  and  making  one  tooth  of  the  five:  this  being 
done,  another  coat  of  enamel  spreads  over  the  sides,  but  not  the  top,  and  the  tooth 
is  completed.  By  no  other  contrivance  could  we  have  the  grinding  tooth  capable, 
without  injury  and  without  wearing,  to  rub  down  the  hay,  and  oats,  and  beans, 
which  constitute  the  stable-food  of  horses.  The  teeth  of  the  animal  who  lives  on 
flesh,  and  the  upper  part  of  Avhose  teeth  alone  are  covered  with  this  enamel,  and  even 
the  nipping  teeth  of  the  horse,  with  the  simple  well  of  enamel  running  a  certain 
way  down  their  centre,  would  soon  be  rubbed  down  and  destroyed.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  have  columns  of  enamel  penetrating  thi-ough  the  whole  substance  of  the 
tooth.  There  is  another  advantage — the  bony  matter,  and  the  cement  by  which 
the  different  shells  are  united,  and  which  occupy  the  spaces  between  the  columns 
of  enamel,  soon  begin  to  wear  awa)%  while  the  enamel  i-emains;  and  thence  results 
the  irregular  sui-face  of  the  grinding  teeth,  being  that  kind  of  surface  which  it  is 
necessary  for  them  to  possess  in  order  to  efi'ect  the  purpose  for  which  tliey  were 
intended. 

The  grinders  in  the  lower  jaw,  having  originally  but  four  of  these  bags  or  shells, 
are  smaller,  and  narrower,  and  more  regular,  than  the  upper  ones.  They  are  not 
placed  horizontally  in  either  jaw;  but  in  the  lower  the  higher  side  is  within,  and 
shelving  gi-adually  outward;  in  the  upper  jaw  the  higher  side  is  without,  shelving 
inward,  and  thus  the  grinding  motion  is  most  advantageously  perfoi-med.  There 
is  also  an  evident  difference  in  the  appearance  and  structure  of  each  of  the  grind- 
ers, so  that  a  careful  observer  could  tell  to  which  jaw  every_  one  belonged,  and 
what  situation  it  occupied — but  we  should  depart  from  the  object  of  our  work  if 
we  entered  into  these  minutiae. 

At  the  completion  of  the  first  year,  a  fourth  gi-inder  usually  comes  up,  and  the 
yearling  has  then,  or  soon  afterwards,  six  nippers  and  four  grinders  above  and  be- 
low in  each  jaw,  which,  with  the  alteration  in  the  appearance  of  the  nippers  we 
have  just  described,  will  enable  us  to  calculate  pretty  nearly  the  age  of  the  foal, 
subject  to  some  variations  arising  from  the  period  of  weaning',  and  the  nature  of 
the  food. 

At  the  age  of  one  year  and  a  half,  the  mark  in  the  central  nippers  will  be  much 
shorter  and  fainter;  that  in  the  two  other  pairs  will  have  undergone  an  evident 
change,  and  all  the  nippers  will  be  flat. 

At  two  years  all  tins  will  be  more  manifest.  The  accompanying  cut  deserves 
attention,  as  giving  an  accurate  representation  of  the  nippers  in  the  lower  jaw  of 
a  two  year-old  colt. 


THE  TEEl'H. 


..»*' 


Ill 


About  this  period  a  fifth  grinder  will  push  out, 
and  now,  likewise,  will  commence  another  process. 
The  first  teeth  are  adapted  to  the  size  and  wants  of 
the  young  animal.  They  are  sufficiently  large  to 
occupy  and  to  fill  the  colt's  jaws;  but  when  the  jaws 
are  expanded  with  the  increasing  growth  of  the  ani- 
mal, the  teeth  are  separated  too  far  from  each  other 
to  be  useful,  and  another  and  larger  set  is  required. 
Evident  provision  is  made  for  these  even  before  the 
colt  is  foaled.  In  cavities  in  the  jaw,  beneath  the 
first  and  temporary  teeth,  are  to  be  seen  the  rudi- 
ments of  a  second  and  permanent  set.  These  gra- 
dually increase,  and  some  with  greater  rapidity  than 
others,  and  pressing  upon  the  roots  or  fangs  of  the 
first  teeth;  the  consequence  of  this  pressure  is,  not  that  the  first  teeth  are  forced 
out,  but  the  portion  pressed  upon  gradually  disappears;  it  is  absorbed — taken  up, 
and  carried  away,  by  numerous  little  vessels,  whose  ofiice  it  is  to  get  rid  of  the 
worn  out  or  useless  part  of  the  system.  This  absorption  continues  to  proceed  as 
the  second  teeth  grow  and  press  upon  their  predecessors,  until  the  whole  of  the 
fang  is  gone,  and  the  crown  of  the  tooth,  or  that  part  of  it  which  was  above  the 
gum,  having  no  longer  firm  hold,  drops  out,  and  the  second  teeth  appear,  larger 
and  stronger,  and  permanent.  In  a  few  instances,  however,  the  second  teeth  do 
not  rise  immediately  under  the  temporary  or  milk  teeth,  but  somewhat  by  their 
side;  and  then,  instead  of  this  gradual  process  of  absorption  and  disappearance 
from  the  point  of  the  root  upwards,  the  root  being  compressed  sideways,  diminishes 
throughout  its  whole  bulk;  the  crown  of  the  tooth  diminishes  with  the  root;  and 
the  whole  is  pushed  out  of  its  place,  to  the  forepart  of  the  first  grinder,  and  re- 
mains for  a  considerable  time,  under  the  name  of  a  wolf's  tooth,  causing  swelling 
and  soreness  of  the  gums,  and  frequently  wounding  the  cheeks.  These  would  be 
gradually  quite  absorbed,  but  the  process  might  be  slow,  and  the  annoyance  would 
be  great;  and  therefore  it  is  proper  to  get  rid  of  these  diminutive  teeth,  either  by 
punching  them  out,  or  drawing  them  as  soon  as  they  are  perceived. 

This  change  of  teeth  commences  in  those  which  earliest  appeared,  and,  there- 
fore, the  front  or  first  grinder  gives  way  at  the  age  of  two  years,  and  is  succeeded 
by  a  larger  and  permanent  tooth.  Now,  likewise,  seriously  commences,  in  too 
many  cases,  the  roguery  of  horse-dealers  and  breeders.  A  colt  rapidly  increases 
in  value  as  his  age  and  growth  increase.  A  three-year-old  colt  is  worth  twenty- 
five  per  centum  more  than  a  two-year-old  one;  and  if  a  dealer  has  a  strong  and 
likely  colt  that  was  dropped  early  in  the  year,  and  whose  form  and  points  might 
deceive  the  unwary,  he  is  anxious  to  pass  him  if  he  can  for  a  three-year-old.  To 
accomplish  this,  he  must  give  him  a  three-year-old  mouth;  and  between  two  years 
and  a  half  and  three  years  the  two  middle  nippers  are  displaced,  and  succeeded 
by  two  permanent  teeth. 

During  the  period  between  the  falling  out  of  the  central  milk  nippers  and  the 
coming  up  of  the  permanent  ones,  the  colt,  having  a  broken  mouth,  may  have 
some  difficulty  in  grazing.  If  he  should  fall  away  considerably  in  condition,  he 
should  be  fed  with  mashes  and  corn,  or  cut  meat. 

This  cut  will  represent  a  three  year  old 
mouth.  The  central  teeth  are  larger  than 
the  others,  with  two  grooves  in  the  outer 
convex  surface,  and  the  mark  is  long,  narrow, 
deep,  and  black;  and  not  having  yet  attain- 
ed their  full  growth,  they  are  not  so  high  as 
the  others.  The  mark  in  the  two  next  nip- 
pers is  nearly  worn  out,  and  it  is  wearing 
away  in  the  corner  nippers.  Is  it  possible 
to  give  this  mouth  to  an  early  two-year-old? 
The  ages  of  all  horses  are  reckoned  from 
Ma)',  but  some  are  foaled  even  so  early  as 
January,  and  being  actually  four  months  over 
the  two  years,  if  they  have  been  well  nursed 
and  fed,  and  are  strong  and  large,  they  may, 
with  the  mexperienced,  have  an  additional 


112 


THE  HORSE 


year  put  upon  them.  The  central  nippers  are  punched  or  drawn  out,  and  the 
others  appear  three  or  four  months  earlier  than  they  otherwise  would.  In  the  na- 
tural process,  they  could  only  rise  by  long"  pressing  upon,  and  causing  the  absorp- 
tion of  the  first  set.  The  fii-st  set  mechanically  oppose  their  rising-,  and  that  oppo- 
sition being-  removed,  it  is  reasonable  to  imagine  that  their  progress  will  be  more 
ra])id.  Three  or  four  months  will  be  gained,  and  tliese  three  or  foui-  months  may 
enable  the  breeder  to  term  him  a  late  colt  of  a  preceding  year.  To  him,  however, 
who  is  accustomed  to  horses,  (although  it  is  long  practice  alone  which  could  g-ive 
this  facility  of  judgment,)  the  general  form  of  the  animal,  the  little  development 
of  the  forehand,  tlie  continuance  of  the  mark  on  the  next  pair  of  nippers,  its  more 
evident  existence  in  the  corner  ones,  some  enlargement  or  irregularity  about  the 
gums  from  the  violence  used  in  forcing  out  tlie  teeth,  the  small  growth  of  the  first 
and  fifth  grinders,  and  the  non-appearance  of  tlie  sixth  grinder,  which  if  it  is  not 
through  the  gum  at  three  years  old,  is  swelling  under  it,  and  preparing  to  get 
through,  any  or  all  of  these  circumstances,  carefully  attended  to,  will  be  a  sufficient 
security  against  deception. 

It  is  so  unusual  to  look  at  the  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  of  a  young  horse,  that  the 
dealer  who  wishes  to  give  a  false  appearance  of  age,  frequently  confines  his  ope- 
ration to  the  lower  jaw,  and,  in  consequence  of  this,  when  the  teeth  of  the  lower 
jaw  are  thus  made  to  push  out,  they  are  still  below  the  gum  in  the  upper  jaw, 
although,  in  the  natural  process,  they  ai-e  cut  a  little  sooner  in  the  upper  than  in 
the  lower  jaw.     It  may,  therefore,  be  good  pohcy  always  to  examine  both  jaws. 

A  horse,  then,  at  three  years  old  ought  to  have  the  central  permanent  nippers 
gi'owing — the  other  two  pairs  wasting — six  grinders  ui  each  jaw,  above  and  below 
— the  first  and  fifth  molars  level  with  the  others,  and  the  sixth  protruding.  The 
sharp  edge  of  the  new  incisors,  although  it  could  not  be  well  expressed  in  our  cut, 
will  be  very  evident  when  compared  with  the  neighboring  teeth. 

As  the  permanent  nippers  grow,  and  press  upon  the  teeth  at  their  side,  those ' 
teeth  will  begin  gradually  to  diminish.     Not  only  will  the  mark  be  wearing  out, 
but  the  crowns  of  the  teeth  will  be  considerably  smaller. 

At  three  years  and  a  half,  or  between  that  and  four,  the  next  pair  of  nippers 
will  be  changed,  and  the  mouth  at  that  time  cannot  be  mistaken.  The  central  nip- 
pers will  have  attained  nearly  their  full  growth;  a  vacuity  will  be  left  v/here  the 
second  stood,  or  they  will  begin  to  peep  above  the  gum — and  the  corner  ones  will 
be  diminished  in  breadth — worn  down — and  the  mark  becoming  small  and  faint. 
At  this  period,  likewise,  the  second  pair  of  grinders  will  be  shed,  and,  previous  to 
this,  will  be  the  attempt  of  the  dealer  to  give  to  his  three-year-old  an  additional 
year,  but  the  fraud  may  be  detected  by  an  examination  similar  to  that  which  we 
have  already  described. 

At  four  years,  the  central  nippers  will  be 
fully  developed;  the  sharp  edge  somewhat 
worn  off;  the  mark  shorter,  wider,  and  faint- 
er: the  next  pair  will  be  up,  but  they  will 
be  small,  with  the  mark  deep,  and  extending 
quite  across  them;  and  the  corner  nippers, 
larger  than  the  inside  ones,  yet  smaller  than 
they  were,  flat,  and  the  mark  nearly  effaced; 
the  sixth  grinder  will  have  risen  to  a  level 
with  the  others,  and  the  tushes  will  begin  to 
appear. 

Now,  more  than  at  any  other  time,  will  the 
dealer  be  anxious  to  put  an  additional  year 
upon  the  animal,  for  the  difference  between 
a  foiu- -year-old  colt,  and  a  five-year-old  horse, 
in  strength,  utility,  and  value,  is  very  great; 
but  the  want  of  wear  in  the  other  nippers — the  small  size  of  the  corner  ones — the 
little  growth  of  the  tush — the  smallness  of  the  second  grinder — the  low  fore-hand — 
the  legginess  of  the  colt,  and  the  thickness  and  little  depth  of  the  mouth,  will,  to 
the  man  of  common  experience  among  horses,  at  once  detect  the  cheat. 

The  tushes  (see  p.  106)  are  four  in  number,  two  in  each  jaw,  situated  between 
the  nippers  and  the  grinders,  much  nearer  to  the  former  than  the  latter,  and  nearer 
in  the  lower  jaw  than  in  the  upper,  but  this  distance  increasing  in  both  jaws  with 
the  age  of  the  animal.  In  shape  it  somewhat  resembles  a  cone;  it  protrudes  about 
an  inch  from  the  gum,  and  has  its  extremity  sharp-pointed  and  curved.     At  the  age 


THE  TEETH. 


113 


of  which  we  are  now  speaking,  the  tushes  are  almost  peculiar  to  the  horse,  and 
castration  does  not  appear  to  prevent  or  retard  their  development.  All  mares, 
however,  have  the  beginnings  of  them  in  the  chambers  of  the  jaw,  and  they  ap- 
pear externally  in  the  mujority  of  old  mares.  Their  use  is  not  evident:  perhaps 
in  the  wild  state  of  the  animal  they  are  weapons  of  offence;  so  as  that  he  can  moi-e 
firmly  seize,  and  more  deeply  wound  his  enemy. 

The  breeder  often  attempts  to  hasten  the  appearance  of  the  tush,  and  he  cuts 
deeply  through  the  gum  to  remove  the  opposition  which  that  would  afford.  To  a 
little  extent  he  succeeds.  He  may  possibly  gain  a  few  weeks,  but  he  cannot  gain 
more;  for  the  resistance  of  the  gum  is  not  like  that  of  a  sohd  and  firmly  fixed  tooth, 
and  is  much  more  easily  overcome  by  the  regular  process  of  nature.  After  all, 
there  is  much  uncertainty  as  to  the  appearance  of  the  tush,  and  it  may  vary  from 
the  fourth  year  to  four  years  and  six  months.  It  belongs  in  the  upper  jaw,  both 
to  the  inferior  and  superior  maxillary  bones;  (see  n,  p.  52;)  for,  while  its  fang  is 
deeply  imbedded  in  the  inferior  maxillary,  the  tooth  penetrates  the  process  of  the 
superior  maxillary  at  the  union  of  those  bones. 

At  four  years  and  a  half,  or  between  that  and  five,  the  last  important  change 
takes  place  in  the  mouth  of  tlie  horse.  The  corner  nippers  are  shed,  and  the  per- 
manent ones  begin  to  appear;"  tl\e  central  nippers  are  considerably  worn,  and  the 
next  pair  are  beginning  to  show  marks  of  usage.  The  tush  has  now  protruded, 
and  is  generally  a  full  half  inch  in  height;  externally  it  has  a  rounded  prominence, 
with  a  groove  on  either  side,  and  within  it  is  evidently  hollowed.  Our  readers 
need  not  be  told  that  from  the  rising  of  the  corner  nipper  the  animal  changes  its 
name — the  colt  becomes  a  horse,  and  tlie  filly  a  mare. 

At  five  years  the  horse's  mouth  is  almost 
perfect.  The  corner  nippers  are  quite  up, 
with  the  long  deep  mark  iiTegular  on  the  in- 
side; and  the  other  nippers  bearing  evident 
tokens  of  increasing  wearing.  Tiie  tush  is 
much  grown;  the  grooves  have  almost  or 
quite  disappeared;  and  the  outer  surface  is 
regularly  convex:  it  is  still  as  concave  with- 
in, and  with  the  edge  nearly  as  sharp  as  it 
was  six  months  before;  the  sixth  molar  is 
quite  up,  and  the  third  molar  is  wanting. 
This  last  circumstance,  if  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  animal,  and  particularly  before, 
and  the  wearing  of  the  centre  nippers,  and 
the  gi-owth  and  shape  of  the  tushes,  be  like- 
wise carefully  attended  to,  will  prevent  deception,  if  a  late  four-year-old  be  at- 
tempted to  be  substituted  for  a  five.  The  nippers  may  be  brought  up  a  few 
months  before  their  time,  and  the  tusJies  a  few  weeks,  but  the  grinder  is  with 
difficulty  displaced.     The  three  last  grinders  and  the  tushes  are  never  shed. 

At  six  years  the  mark  on  the  centre 
nippers  is  worn  out.  There  will  still  be 
a  difference  of  color  in  the  centre  of  the 
tooth.  The  cement  filling  the  hole  made 
by  the  dipping  in  of  the  enamel  will  pre- 
sent a  browner  hue  than  the  other  part  of 
the  tooth,  and  it  will  be  evidently  sur- 
rounded by  an  edge  of  enamel,  and  there 
will  even  remain  a  little  depression  in  the 
centre,  and  also  a  depression  round  this 
case  of  enamel;  but  the  deep  hole  in  the 
centre  of  the  teeth,  with  the  blackened 
siu-face  wliich  it  presents,  and  the  elevated 
edge  of  enamel,  will  have  disappeared. 
Persons  not  much  accustomed  tq  horses 
have  been  sadl}'  puzzled  here.  They  ex- 
pected to  find  a  plain  surface  of  an  uni- 
form color,  and  knew  not  what  conclusion  to  draw  when  there  was  both  discolor- 
ation and  irregularit}-. 

In  the  next  incisors  the  mark  is  shorter,  broader,  and  fainter;  and  in  the  corner 
ceeth  the  edges  of  the  enamel  are  more  regular;  and  the  surface  is  evidently  worn. 
15 


114 


THE  HORSE. 


The  tuslj  h:\s  attained  its  full  growth,  being  nearly  or  quite  an  inch  in  length,  con- 
vex outwaicl,  concave  within,  tending  to  a  point,  and  the  extremity  somewhat 
curved.     The  tliird  grinder  is  fairly  up,  and  all  the  grinders  are  level. 

Now,  or  perhaps  at  a  period  of  six  months  before,  the  horse  may  be  said  to  have 
a  perfect  mouth.  All  the  teeth  are  produced  fully  grown,  and  have  hitherto  sus- 
tained no  material  injury.  During  these  important  changes  of  the  teeth,  the  ani- 
mal has  suffered  less  than  could  be  supposed  possible.  With  children,  the  period 
of  teething  is  fraught  with  danger.  Dogs  are  subject  to  convulsions,  and  hundreds 
of  them  die  from  the  irritation  caused  by  the  cutting  or  shedding  of  their  teeth; 
but  the  horse  appears  to  feel  little  inconvenience.  The  gums  and  palate  are  oc- 
casionally somewhat  hot  and  swollen,  but  the  slightest  scarification  will  remove 
this.  The  teeth  of  the  horse  are  more  necessary  to  him  than  those';  of  the  other 
animals  are  to  them.  The  child  may  be  fed,  and  the  dog  will  bolt  his  victuals,  but 
the  food  of  the  horse  must  be  well  ground  down,  or  the  nutriment  cannot  be  ex- 
tracted from  it. 

At  seven  years  the  mark,  in  tlie  way  in 
which  we  have  described  it,  is  worn  out 
in  the  four  central  nippers,  and  fast 
wearing  away  in  the  corner  teeth;  and  the 
tush  is  beginning  to  be  altered.  It  is 
rounded  at  the  point;  rounded  at  the 
edges;  still  round  without;  and  begin- 
ning to  get  round  inside. 

At  eight  years  old  the  mark  is  gone 
from  all  the  bottom  nippers,  the  tush  is 
rounder  in  every  way,  and  the  mark  is 
now  said  to  be  out  of  the  mouth.  There 
is  nothing  remaining  in  the  bottom  nip- 
pers which  can  afterwards  clearly  show 
the  age  of  the  horse,  or  justify  the  most 
experienced  examiner  in  giving  a  positive 
opinion. 

Dishonest  dealers  have  been  said  to  re- 
sort to  a  method  of  prolonging  the  mark 
in  the  lower  nippers.  It  is  called  bishop- 
ing,  from  the  name  of  the  scoundrel  who 
mvented  it.  The  horse  of  eight  or  nine 
years  old  is  thrown,  and,  with  an  engra- 
ver's tool,  a  hole  is  dug  in  the  now  al- 
most plain  surface  of  the  corner  teeth, 
and  in  shape  and  depth  resembling  the 
mark  in  a  seven-year-old  horse.  The 
whole  is  then  burned  with  a  heated  iron, 
and  a  permanent  black  stain  is  left;  the 
next  pair  of  nippers  are  sometimes  light- 
ly touched.  An  ignorant  man  would  very 
easily  be  imposed  on  by  this  trick;  but 
the  irregular  appearance  of  the  cavity,  the  diffusion  of  the  black  stain  around  the 
tushes,  the  sharpened  edges  and  concave  inner  surface  of  which  can  never  be 
given  again,  and  the  marks  on  the  upper  nippers,  together  with  the  general  con- 
formation of  the  horse,  can  never  deceive  the  careful  examiner. 

Horsemen,  after  the  horse  is  eight  years  old,  are  accustomed  to  look  to  the  nip- 
pers in  the  upper  jaw,  and  some  conclusion  has  been  drawn  from  the  appearances 
which  they  present.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  mark  remains  in  them  some 
years  after  it  is  obliterated  from  the  nippers  in  the  lower  jaw;  because  the  hard 
substance,  or  kind  of  cement,  by  which  the  pit  or  funnel  in  the  centre  of  the  tooth 
is  occupied,  does  not  reach  so  high,  and  there  is  consequently  a  greater  depth  of 
tooth  to  be  worn  away  in  order  to  reach  it;  and  because  the  upper  nippers  are  not 
so  much  exposed  to  friction  and  wear  as  the  under.  The  lower  jaw  alone  is 
moved,  and  pressed  forcibly  upon  the  food:  the  upper  jaw  is  witliout  motion,  and 
has  only  to  resist  that  pressure. 

There  are  various  opinions  as  to  the  intervals  between  the  disappearance  of  the 
marks  from  the  different  cutting  teeth.  Some  have  averaged  it  at  two  years,  and 
others  at  one.     We  aie  inclined  to  adopt  the  latter  opinion,  and  then  the  age 


THE  TEETH.  115 

would  be  thus  tletermined:  at  nine  yeai-s  tlie  mark  will  be  worn  from  the  middle 
nippei-s — from  the  next  pair  at  ten,  and  from  all  the  upper  nippers  at  eleven. 
Durint^  these  periods  the  tush  is  likewise  undergoing'  a  manifest  chang'e:  it  is  blunt- 
er, shorter,  and  rounder.  In  what  degree  this  takes  place  in  the  different  periods, 
long  and  most  favorable  opportunities  for  observation  can  alone  enable  the  liorse- 
man  to  decide,  or  rather  we  believe  that  the  tush  alone  will  not  enable  us  to  form 
a  very  accurate  judgment. 

Tlie  tushes  are  exposed  to  but  little  tear  and  wear.  The  friction  against  them 
must  be  slight,  proceeding  only  from  the  passage  of  the  food  by  them,  and  from 
the  motion  of  the  tongue,  or  from  the  bit;  and  their  alteration  of  form,  although 
generally  as  we  have  described  them,  is  frequently  uncertain.  The  tush  will  some- 
times be  blunt  at  eight,  and  remain  pointed  at  eighteen;  and  occasionally,  accord- 
ing to  the  direction  which  they  take,  or  degree  in  which  they  rub  against  each 
other,  the  tushes  on  the  different  sides  will  present  an  apparent  variation  of  one  or 
two  years.     The  upper  tush,  althougli  the  latest  in  appearing,  is  soonest  worn  away. 

Are  thei-e  any  circumstances  to  guide  our  judgment  after  this?  There  are  those 
which  will  prepare  us  to  guess  at  the  age  of  the  horse,  or  to  approach  within  a  few 
years  of  it,  until  he  becomes  very  old:  but  there  are  none  whicli  will  enable  us 
accurately  to  determine;  and  the  indications  of  age  must  now  be  taken  from  the 
shape  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  nippers.  At  eight,  they  are  all  oval,  the  length 
of  the  oval  running  across  from  tooth  to  tooth:  but  as  the  horse  gets  older,  the 
teeth  diminish  in  size,  and  they  at  first  diminish  in  width  and  not  in  thickness. 
They  become  a  little  apart  from  each  other,  and  their  surfaces  are  rounded.  At 
nine,  the  centre  nippers  are  evidently  so — at  ten,  the  others  begin  to  have  the  oval 
shortened.  At  eleven,  tlie  second  pair  of  nippers  are  quite  rounded,  and  at  thir- 
teen, the  corner  ones  have  that  appearance.  At  foui-teen,  the  faces  of  the  central 
nippers  become  somewhat  triangular.  At  seventeen,  they  are  all  so.  At  nineteen, 
the  angles  begin  to  wear  off",  and  the  central  teeth  are  again  oval,  but  in  a  reversed 
direction,  viz.,  from  outward,  inward;  and  at  twenty-one,  they  all  wear  this  form. 
This  is  the  opinion  of  some  continental  veterinary  surgeons,  and  Mr.  Percival  first 
presented  them  to  us  in  an  English  dress.  We  believe  the  statement  is  correct  to 
a  very  considerable  extent,  but  we  leave  our  readers  to  form  their  own  judgment. 

It  would  be  foil)'  indeed  to  expect  accuracy  at  this  advanced  age  of  the  horse, 
when  we  are  bound  to  confess,  that  the  rules  we  have  laid  down  for  determining 
this  matter  at  an  earlier  period,  although  they  are  recognized  by  horsemen  gene- 
rally, and  referred  to  in  coui-ts  of  justice,  will  not  guide  us  in  every  case.  Stabled 
horses  have  the  mark  sooner  worn  out  than  those  that  are  at  grass,  and  a  crib-biter 
m.ay  deceive  the  best  judge  by  one  or  two  years.  The  age  of  the  horse,  likewise, 
being  uniformly  calculated  from  the  1st  of  May,  it  is  sometimes  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult, or  almost  impossible,  about  that  time,  to  determine  whetlier  the  animal  be  a 
late  foal  of  one  year,  or  an  early  one  of  the  next.  At  nine  or  ten,  the  bars  of  the 
mouth  become  less  prominent,  and  their  regular  diminution  will  designate  increas- 
ing age.  At  eleven  or  twelve,  the  lower  nippei's  change  their  original  upright  di- 
rection, and  project  forward  or  horizontally;  and  they  become  yellow  and  covered 
with  tartar.  They  are  yellow,  because  the  teeth  must  grow  to  answer  to  the  wear 
and  tear  of  them;  but  the  enamel  which  covered  their  surface  when  they  were  first 
produced  cannot  be  repaired,  and  that  which  wears  this  yellow  color  in  old  age  is 
the  part  which,  in  youth,  was  in  the  socket,  and  therefore  destitute  of  enamel. 

The  upper  nippers  become  arched,  and  project  over  the  lower  ones,  wearing 
down  the  outer  edge,  and  gradually  making  that  the  lowest,  which  was  at  first  con- 
siderably the  highest. 

The  general  indications  of  old  age,  independent  of  the  teeth,  are  deepening  of 
the  hollows  over  the  eyes — gi'ay  hairs,  and  particularly  over  the  eyes,  and  about 
the  muzzle;  thinness  and  hanging  down  of  the  lips;  sharpness  of  the  withers;  sink- 
ing of  the  back;  lengthening  of  the  quarters;  and  the  disappearance  of  windgalls, 
spavins,  and  tumors  of  every  kind. 

Of  the  natural  age  of  the  horse  we  should  form  a  very  erroneous  estimate,  from 
the  early  period  at  which  he  is  now  worn  out  and  destroyed.  Mr.  Blaine  tells  us 
of  a  gentleman  who  had  three  horses,  which  died  at  the  ages  of  thirty- five,  thirty- 
seven,  and  thirty-nine.  Mr.  Cully  mentions  one  that  received  a  ball  in  his  neck  at 
the  battle  of  Preston,  in  1715,  and  which  was  extracted  at  his  death,  in  1758;  and 
Mr.  Percival  gives  an  account  of  a  barge  horse  that  died  in  his  sixty -second  year- 
There  cannot  be  a  severer  satire  on  the  English  nation,  than  that,  from  the  ab- 
surd practice  of  running  our  race-horses  at  two  and  three  years  old,  and  working 


116  THE  HOUSE. 

others  in  various  ways,  long  before  their  limbs  are  knit,  or  their  strength  come,  and 
cruelly  exacting  from  them  services  far  beyond  their  powers,  their  age  does  not 
average  a  sixth  part  of  that  of  the  last-mentioned  horse.  The  scientific  author  of 
the  "Animal  Kingdom"  declares,  that  "it  may  be  safely  asserted,  that  more  horses 
are  consumed  in  England,  in  every  ten  years,  than  in  any  other  country  in  the 
world  in  ten  times  that  period,  except  those  which  perish  in  war." 

This  point  has  with  the  English  been  too  long  considered  as  one  of  mere  profit 
and  loss;  and  it  has  been  thought  to  be  cheaper  to  bring  the  young  horse  early  into 
work,  and  in  a  short  time  to  exhaust  his  whole  strength,  than  to  maintain  him  for 
a  long  period,  and  at  a  considerable  expense,  almost  useless.  The  matter  requii-es 
much  consideration,  and  we  think  much  reformation  too. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    TEETH. 

Of  the  diseases  of  the  teeth  in  the  horse,  we  know  little.  Carious  or  hollow  teeth 
have  occasionally,  but  not  often,  been  seen;  but  the  edges  of  the  grinders  from  the 
wearing  off  of  the  enamel,  or  the  irregular  growth  of  the  teeth,  become  rough, 
and  wound  the  inside  of  the  cheek;  it  is  then  necessary  to  adopt  a  summary  but 
effectual  method  of  cure,  namely,  to  rasp  them  smooth.  Many  bad  ulcers  have 
been  produced  in  the  mouth  by  the  neglect  of  this. 

The  teeth  sometimes  grow  irregularly  in  length,  and  this  is  particularly  the  case 
with  the  grinders,  from  not  being  in  exact  opposition  to  each  other  when  the  mouth 
is  shut.  The  growth  of  the  teeth  still  going  on,  and  there  being  no  mechanical 
opposition  to  it,  one  of  the  back  teeth,  or  a  portion  of  one  of  them,  shoots  up  half 
an  inch  or  more  above  the  others.  Sometimes  it  penetrates  the  bars  above,  and 
causes  soreness  and  ulceration;  at  other  times  it  interferes  partially,  or  altogether, 
■with  the  grinding  motion  of  the  jaws,  and  the  animal  pines  away  without  the  cause 
being  suspected.  Here  the  saw  should  be  used,  and  the  projecting  portion  re- 
duced to  a  level  with  the  other  teeth.  The  horse  which  has  once  been  subjected  to 
this  operation  should  afterwards  be  frequently  examined,  and  especially  if  he  lose 
condition;  and,  indeed,  every  horse  that  gets  thin  or  out  of  condition,  without  fever, 
or  any  other  apparent  cause,  should  have  his  teeth  and  mouth  carefully  examined, 
and  especially  if  he  quids  (partly  chewing  and  then  dropping,)  his  food,  without 
any  indication  of  sore  throat,  or  if  he  holds  his  head  somewhat  on  one  side,  while 
he  eats,  in  order  to  get  the  food  between  the  outer  edges  of  the  teeth.  A  horse 
that  has  once  had  very  irregular  teeth  is  materially  lessened  in  value,  for,  although 
they  may  be  sawn  down  as  carefully  as  possible,  they  will  project  again  at  no  great 
distance  of  time. 

THE    TONGUE. 

The  tongue  is  the  organ  of  taste,  and  employed  in  disposing  the  food  for  grind- 
ing between  the  teeth,  and  afterwards  collecting  it  together,  and  conveying  it  to 
the  back  part  of  the  mouth  in  order  to  be  swallowed.  It  is  also  the  main  instru- 
ment in  drinking,  and  the  canal  through  which  the  water  passes  in  the  act  of 
drinking.  The  root  of  it  is  firmly  fixed  at  the  bottom  of  the  mouth  by  a  variety 
of  muscles;  the  fore  part  is  loose  in  the  mouth.  It  is  covered  by  a  continuation  of 
the  membrane  which  lines  the  mouth,  and  which,  doubling  beneath,  and  confining 
the  motions  of  the  tongue,  is  called  its  fraenum,  or  bridle.  On  the  back  of  the 
tongue,  this  membrane  is  thickened  and  roughened,  and  is  covered  with  nume- 
rous conical  papilla,  or  little  eminences,  on  which  the  fibres  of  a  branch  of  the 
fifth  pair  of  nerves  expand,  and  on  which  the  sense  of  taste  depends.  The  vari- 
o»is  motions  of  the  tongue  are  accomplished  by  means  of  the  ninth  pair  of  nerves. 
The  substance  of  the  tongue  is  composed  of  muscular  fibres,  with  a  great  deal  of 
fatty  matter  interposed  between  them,  and  which  gives  to  this  organ  its  peculiar 
softness. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    TONftUE. 

The  tongue  is  sometimes  exposed  to  injury  from  cai'elessness  or  violence  in  the 
act  of  drenching,  or  administering  a  ball,  being  pressed  against,  and  cut  by  the 
edges  of  the  grinders.  A  little  diluted  tincture  of  myrrh,  or  alum,  dissolved  in 
water,  or  even  nature  unassisted,  will  speedily  heal  the  wound.  The  horse  will 
bite  his  tongue — most  frequently  in  his  sleep.     If  the  injury  be  trifling,  it  requires 


THE  SALIVARY  GLANDS.  117 

little  care;  but  in  some  instances   a   portion  of  tlie  tongue  will  be  torn  or  nearly- 
bitten  oft",  and  the  assistance  of  a  veterinary  practitioner  will  be  needed. 

Bladders  will  sometimes  appear  along  the  under  side  of  the  tongue,  which  will 
increase  to  a  considerable  size,  and  the  tongue  itself  will  be  mucli  enlarged,  and 
the  animal  will  be  unable  to  swallow,  and  a  great  quantity  of  ropy  saliva  will  drivel 
from  the  mouth.  This  disease  often  exists  without  the  nature  of  it  being  suspect- 
ed. It  resembles  what  is  called  the  bluin  in  the  cow,  which  is  a  very  serious  com- 
plaint in  that  animial,  frequently  connected  with  much  fever,  and  terminating  in 
suffocation.  If  the  mouth  of  the  horse  be  opened,  one  large  bladder,  or  a  suc- 
cession of  bladders  of  a  purple  hue,  will  be  seen  to  extend  along  the  whole  of  the 
under  side  of  the  tongue.  If  they  be  lanced  freely  and  deeply,  from  end  to  end, 
the  swelling  will  very  rapidly  abate,  and  any  little  fever  that  remains  may  be  sub- 
dued by  cooling  medicine.  The  cause  of  this  disease  is  not  clearly  known.  It 
usually  proceeds,  perhaps,  from  indigestion,  connected  with  a  general  tendency 
to  inflammation. 

THE    SALIVARY    GLANDS, 

In  order  that  the  food  may  be  properly  ground  down  to  prepare  it  for  digestion, 
it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  previously  moistened.  The  food  of  the  stabled 
horse,  however,  is  dry,  and  his  meal  is  generally  concluded  without  any  fluid  be- 
ing oft'ered  to  him.  Nature  has  made  a  provision  for  this.  It  has  placed  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  mouth  various  glands  to  secrete,  and  that  plentifully,  a  limpid 
fluid,  somewhat  salt  to  the  taste:  this  fluid  is  conveyed  from  the  glands  into  the 
mouth  by  various  ducts  in  the  act  of  chewing,  and,  being  mixed  with  the  food, 
renders  it  more  easily  ground,  more  easily  passed  afterwards  into  the  stomach,  and 
better  fitted  for  digestion. 

The  principal  of  these  is  the  parotid  gland,  (see  cut,  p.  94.)  It  is  placed  in  the 
hollow  which  extends  from  the  root  of  the  ear  to  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw.  A 
portion  of  it,  q,  is  represented  as  turned  up,  to  show  the  situation  of  the  blood- 
vessels underneath.  In  almost  every  case  of  cold  connected  with  sore  throat,  the 
parotid  gland  is  enlarged,  and  is  immediately  evident  to  the  feeling,  and  even  to 
the  eye.  It  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of  small  glands  connected  together, 
and  a  little  tube  proceeding  from  each  to  carry  off' the  secreted  fluid.  These  tubes 
unite  in  one  common  duct.  At  the  letter  u,  the  parotid  duct  is  seen  to  pass  un- 
der the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw,  together  with  the  submaxillary  artery,  and  a  branch 
of  the  jugular  vein,  and  they  come  out  again  at  w.  At  r,  the  duct  is  seen  separat- 
ed from  the  other  vessels,  chmbing  up  the  cheek,  and  piercing  it  to  discharge  its 
contents  into  the  mouth  opposite  to  the  second  grinder.  The  quantity  of  fluid 
thus  poured  into  the  mouth,  from  each  of  the  parotid  glands,  amounts  to  a  pint 
and  a  half  in  an  hour  during  the  action  of  chewing;  and  sometimes,  when  the  duct 
has  been  accidently  opened,  it  has  spirted  out  to  the  distance  of  several  feet. 

The  parotid  gland  sympathizes  with  every  inflammatory  affection  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  throat,  and  therefore  it  is  found  swelled,  hot,  and  tender,  in  almost 
every  catarrh  or  cold.  The  cold  is  to  be  attacked  by  the  usual  means;  and  a  sti- 
mulating application,  almost  amounting  to  a  blister,  well  rubbed  over  the  gland, 
will  best  subdue  the  inflammation  of  that  body. 

In  bad  strangles,  and  sometimes  in  violent  cold,  tliis  gland  will  swell  to  a  great 
size,  and  ulcerate,  or  an  obstruction  will  arise  in  some  part  of  the  duct,  and  the 
accumulating  fluid  will  burst  the  vessel,  and  a  fistulous  ulcer  will  be  formed,  very 
difficult  to  heal.  A  veterinary  surgeon  alone  will  be  competent  to  the  treatment 
of  either  case;  and  the  principle  by  which  he  will  be  guided  wiU  be  to  heal  the 
abscess  in  the  gland  as  speedily  as  he  can;  or,  if  the  ulcer  be  in  the  duct,  either  to 
restore  the  passage  through  the  duct,  or  to  form  a  new  one,  or  to  cut  off"  the  flow 
of  the  saliva  by  the  destruction  of  the  gland. 

The  second  source  of  the  saliva  is  from  the  submaxillary  glands,  or  the  glands 
under  the  jaw.  One  of  them  is  represented  at  s,  p.  94.  The  submaxillary  glands 
occupy  the  space  underneath,  and  between  the  sides  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  con- 
sist of  numerous  small  glands,  each  with  its  proper  duct,  which  urate  together, 
and  form  on  each  side  a  common  duct  or  vessel,  that  pierces  through  the  muscles 
at  the  root  of  the  tongue,  and  opens  in  little  projections  or  heads  upon  the  froenum 
or  bridle  of  the  tongue,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  from  the  front  teeth.  When  the 
horse  has  catarrh  or  cold,  these  glands,  like  the  parotid  gland,  enlarge.  This 
often  takes  place  after  strangles,  and  several  distinct  kernels  are  to  be  felt  under 


118  THE  HORSE. 

the  jaw.  We  have  already  stated  that  they  may  be  distinguished  from  those  swell- 
ings -which  accompany  or  indicate  glanders,  by  their  being  larger,  generally  not 
so  distinct,  more  in  the  centre  of  tlie  channel  or  space  between  the  jaws,  and  never 
adhering  to  the  jaw-bones.  The  farriers  call  them  vives,  and  often  adopt  cruel 
and  absurd  methods  to  disperse  them,  as  burning  them  with  a  hghted  candle,  or 
hot  iron,  or  even  cutting  them  out.  They  will,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  gra- 
dually disperse,  as  the  disease  which  produced  them  subsides;  or  they  will  yield 
to  slightly  stimulating  embrocations;  or,  if  they  are  obstinate  in  their  continuance, 
they  are  of  no  further  consequence  than  as  indicating  that  the  horse  has  labored 
under  severe  cold  or  strangles. 

During  catarrh  or  inflammation  of  the  mouth,  the  little  projections  marking 
the  opening  of  these  ducts  on  eitlier  side  of  the  bridle  of  the  tongue  are  apt  to 
enlarge,  and  the  mouth  under  the  tongue  is  a  little  red,  and  hot,  and  tender.  The 
farriers  call  these  swellings  bauds  or  paps,  and  as  soon  as  they  discover  them, 
mistaking  the  efl"ect  of  disease  for  the  cause  of  it,  set  to  work  to  cut  them  close  off. 
The  bleeding  which  follows  this  operation  somewhat  abates  tlie  local  inflammation, 
and  aflTords  temporary  relief:  but  the  wounds  will  not  speedily  heal;  the  saliva 
continues  to  flow  from  the  orifice  of  the  duct,  and  running  into  the  irregularities 
of  the  wound,  cause  it  to  spread  and  deepen;  and  even  when  it  heals,  the  mouth 
of  the  duct  being  frequently  closed,  and  the  saliva  continuing  to  be  seci-eted  by 
the  submaxillary  gland,  it  accumulates  in  the  duct,  until  that  vessel  bursts,  and 
abscesses  are  formed,  which  eat  deeply  under  the  root  of  the  tongue,  and  long 
torment  the  poor  animal,  and  when  closed,  after  a  great  deal  of  trouble,  are  very 
apt  to  break  out  again  for  months  and  years  afterwards. 

Ail  that  is  necessary  with  regard  to  these  paps  or  barbs  is  to  abate  the  Inflam- 
mation or  cold  which  caused  them  to  swell,  and  they  will  very  soon  and  perfectly 
subside.  He  who  ever  talks  of  cutting  them  out  is  not  fit  to  be  trusted  with  a 
horse. 

A  third  source  of  saliva  is  from  glands  under  the  tongue  (the  sublingual  glands,') 
which  open  by  many  little  orifices  under  tlie  tongue,  resembling  little  folds  of 
the  skin  of  the  mouth,  hanging  from  the  lower  surface  of  the  tongue,  or  found  on 
the  bottom  of  the  mouth.  These  likewise  sometimes  enlarge,  during  cold  or  in- 
flammation of  the  mouth,  and  then  tliey  are  called  gigs  and  bladders,  a.ndjlaps  in 
the  mouth.  They  have  the  appearance  of  small  pimples,  and  the  farrier  is  anxious 
to  cut  them  off",  or  burn  them  down.  The  better  way  is  to  let  them  alone,  for  in 
a  few  days  they  will  generally  disappear.  Sliould  any  ulceration  follow  them,  a 
little  tincture  of  myrrh,  or  a  solution  of  alum,  will  readily  heal  them. 

Beside  these  three  principal  sources  of  saliva,  there  are  little  glands  to  be  found 
tlilckly  studded  on  every  part  of  the  mouth,  cheeks  and  hps,  which  pour  out  a 
considerable  quantity  of  fluid,  to  assist  In  moistening  and  preparing  the  food.     , 

Connected  with  these  glands,  and  particularly  with  the  submaxillary  and  parotid 
glands,  and  being  either  an  Inflammation  of  them,  or  of  the  cellular  substance 
around  them,  Is 

THE    STRANGLES. 

This  is  a  disease  principally  incident  to  young  horses — usually  appearing  between 
the  fourth  and  fifth  year,  and  oftener  in  the  spring  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
year.  It  is  preceded  by  cough,  and  can  at  first  be  scarcely  distinguished  from 
common  cougli,  except  that  there  is  more  discharge  from  the  nostinl,  of  a  yellow- 
ish color,  mixed  with  matter,  but  generally  without  smell;  and  likewise  a  consi- 
derable discharge  of  ropy  fluid  from  the  mouth,  and  greater  swelling  than  usual 
under  the  throat.  This  swelling  Increases  with  uncertain  rapidity,  accompanied 
by  some  fever,  and  disinclination  to  eat,  partly  arising  from  the  fever,  but  more 
from  the  pain  the  animal  feels  in  the  act  of  chewing.  There  Is  considerable  thirst; 
but  after  a  gulp  or  two,  the  horse  ceases  to  drink,  yet  is  evidently  desirous  of 
more.  In  the  attempt  to  swallow,  and  sometimes  when  not  drinking,  a  convulsive 
cough  comes  on,  which  almost  threatens  to  suffocate  the  animal,  and  thence  pro- 
bably the  name  of  the  disease.  The  tumor  is  about  tiie  centre  of  the  channel 
under  the  jaw;  it  soon  fills  the  whole  of  the  space,  and  is  evidently  one  uniform 
body,  and  may  tlius  be  distinguished  from  glanders,  or  tlie  enlarged  glands  of  ca- 
tarrli.  At  length  the  centre  of  it  becomes  more  prominent  and  softer,  and  it 
evidently  contains  a  fluid.  This  rapidly  increases,  the  tumor  bursts,  and  a  great 
quantity  of  pus  is  discharged.     As  soon  as  the  tumor  has  broken,  the  cough  sub- 


CANKER  AND  WOUNDS  IN  THE  MOUTH.  119 

sides,  and  the  horse  speedily  mends,  although  some  degi-ee  of  weakness  may  hang 
about  him  for  a  considerable  time. 

Of  the  cause  of  the  disease  we  can  say  but  little.  Few  horses,  possibly  none, 
escape  its  attack;  but,  that  attack  having  passed  over,  the  animal  is  free  from  it 
for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  Catarrh  may  precede,  or  may  predispose  to  the  at- 
tack; and  undoubtedly  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  has  much  to  do  with  it,  for 
both  its  prevalence  and  its  severity  are  connected  with  certain  seasons  of  the  year 
and  changes  of  the  weather.  There  is  no  preventive  for  the  disease,  nor  do  we 
believe  tliat  there  is  any  thing  contagious  in  it.  There  are  strange  stories  told 
with  regard  to  tliis;  but  the  explanation  of  the  matter  is,  that  when  several  horses 
in  the  same  farm,  or  in  the  same  neighborhood,  have  had  strangles  at  the  same 
time,  they  have  been  exposed  to  the  same  powerful  but  unknown  exciting  cause. 

The  treatment  of  strangles  is  very  simple.  As  the  essence  of  the  disease  con- 
sists in  the  formation  and  suppuration  of  the  tumor  under  the  jaw,  the  principal, 
or  almost  the  sole  attention  of  tlie  practitioner  should  be  directed  to  the  hastening 
of  these  processes:  therefoi-e,  as  soon  as  the  tumor  of  strangles  evidently  appears, 
the  part  should  be  actively  blistered.  Old  practitioners  used  to  recommend  poul- 
tices; which,  from  the  thickness  of  the  hoi-se's  skin,  must  have  very  little  effect, 
even  if  they  could  be  confined  on  the  pai-t;  and  from  the  difficulty  and  almost 
impossibihty  of  this,  and  their  getting  cold  and  hard,  they  must  weaken  the  ener- 
gies of  nature,  and  delay  the  ripening  of  the  tumor.  Fomentations  are  little  more 
effectual.  A  blister  will  not  only  secure  the  completion  of  the  process,  but  hasten 
it  by  many  days,  and  save  the  patient  much  pain  and  exhaustion;  and  it  will  pro- 
duce another  good  effect — it  will,  previous  to  the  opening  of  the  tumor,  abate  the 
internal  inflammation  and  soreness  of  the  throat,  and  thus  lessen  the  cough  and 
wheezing. 

As  soon  as  the  swelling  is  soft  on  the  top,  and  evidently  contains  matter,  it 
should  be  deeply  and  freely  lanced.  It  is  a  bad,  although  frequent  practice,  to 
suffer  the  tumor  to  burst  naturally,  by  which  a  ragged  ulcer  is  formed,  very  slow 
to  heal,  and  difficult  of  treatment.  If  the  incision  is  deep  and  large  enough,  no 
second  collection  of  matter  will  be  formed  :  and  that  which  is  already  formed  may 
be  suffered  to  run  out  slowly,  all  pressure  with  the  fingers  being  avoided.  Tlie 
part  should  be  kept  clean,  and  a  little  friar's  balsam  daily  injected  into  the  wound. 

The  remainder  of  the  treatment  will  depend  on  the  symptoms.  If  there  is  much 
fever,  and  evident  affection  of  tlie  chest,  and  which  should  carefully  be  distin- 
guished from  the  oppression  and  choaking  occasioned  by  the  pressure  of  the  tu- 
mor, it  will  be  proper  to  bleed.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  bleeding  will 
not  only  be  unnecessary,  but  injurious.  It  will  delay  the  suppuration  of  the  tumor, 
and  increase  the  subsequent  debility.  A  few  cooling  medicines,  as  nitre,  emetic 
tartar,  and  perhaps  digitalis,  may  be  given  as  the  case  requires.  The  appetite,  or 
i-ather  the  ability  to  eat,  will  return  with  the  opening  of  the  abscess.  Bran-mashes, 
or  fresh  cut  grass  or  tares,  should  be  liberally  supplied,  which  will  not  only  afford 
sufficient  nourishment  to  recruit  the  strength  of  the  animal,  but  keep  the  bowels 
gently  open.  If  the  weakness  be  not  gi-eat,  no  further  medicine  will  be  wanted, 
except  a  dose  of  mild  physic,  to  prevent  the  swellings  or  eruptions  which  sometimes 
succeed  to  strangles.  In  cases  of  debility,  a  small  quantity  of  tonic  medicine,  as 
camomile  and  gentian,  with  ginger,  in  doses  of  a  couple  of  drachms,  may  be  ad- 
ministered. 

As  strangles  seem  to  be  a  disease  from  which  few  horses  escape,  and  which,  al- 
though attended  with  little  danger,  is  sometimes  tedious  in  its  progress,  and  accom- 
panied by  much  debility,  some  foreign  veterinary  surgeons  have  endeavored  to  pro- 
duce a  milder  disorder  by  inoculating,  either  with  the  matter  from  the  tumor,  or 
the  discharge  from  the  nose;  and  it  is  said  that  a  disease,  with  all  the  characters  of 
strangles,  but  shorter  and  milder  in  its  course,  has  supervened.  English  practi- 
tionei's  have  not,  we  beheve,  tried  the  experiment. 

CANKER    AND    "WOUNDS    IN    THE    MOUTH. 

The  mouth  is  injured  much  oftener  than  the  careless  owner  suspects,  by  the 
pressure  of  a  sharp  bit.  Not  only  are  the  bars  wounded  and  deeply  ulcerated,  but 
the  lower  jaw  between  the  tush  and  tlie  gi-inders  is  sometimes  torn  even  to  the  bone, 
and  the  bone  itself  affected,  and  portions  of  it  come  away.  It  may  be  necessary 
to  have  a  sharp  bit  for  the  headstrong  and  obstinate  beast,  yet  if  that  be  severely 
and  unjustifiably  called  into  exercise,  the  animal  may  rear,  and  endanger  himself 


120  THE  H08SE. 

and  his  rider;  but  there  can  be  no  occasion  for  a  thousandth  part  of  the  toiinent 
which  the  trappings  of  the  mouth  often  inflict  on  a  willing  and  docile  servant,  and 
which  either  render  the  mouth  hard,  and  destroy  all  the  pleasure  of  riding,  or  cause 
the  horse  to  become  fretful  or  vicious. 

Small  ulcers  are  sometimes  found  in  various  parts  of  the  mouth,  said  to  be  pro- 
duced by  rusty  bits,  but  oftener  arising  from  contusions  inflicted  by  the  bit,  or  from 
inflammation  of  the  mouth.  If  the  curb-bit  is  in  fault,  a  snaflle  or  Pelham  bit  should 
be  used;  if  there  be  inflammation  of  the  mouth,  a  little  cooling  medicine  may  be 
administered;  and  to  the  ulcers  themselves,  tincture  of  myrrh,  diluted  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  watei',  or  an  ounce  of  alum  dissolved  in  twenty  times  the  weight  of 
water,  may  be  applied  with  advantage. 

THE    PHARYNX. 

Proceeding  to  the  back  of  the  mouth,  we  find  the  Pharynx,  {carrying  or  convey' 
ing  the  food  towards  the  stomach.)  It  begins  at  the  root  of  the  tongue,  (see  7,  8, 
and  9,  p.  53;)  is  separated  from  the  mouth  by  the  soft  palate  (7)  which  hangs 
down  from  the  palatine  bone  at  8,  and  extends  to  the  epiglottis  or  covering  to  the 
windpipe.  When  the  food  has  been  sufficiently  ground  by  the  teeth,  and  mixed 
with  the  saliva,  it  is  gathered  together  by  the  tongue,  and  then  by  the  action  of  the 
cheeks  and  tongue  and  back  part  of  the  mouth,  forced  against  the  soft  palate, 
which,  giving  way,  and  being  raised  upwards  towards  the  entrance  into  the  nose, 
prevents  the  food  from  going  that  way.  It  passes  to  the  pharynx,  and  the  soft 
palate  falling  down  again,  prevents  its  I'eturn  to  the  mouth,  and  prevents,  likewise, 
except  in  extreme  cases,  the  act  of  vomiting  in  the  horse.  Whatever  is  returned 
from  the  stomach  of  the  horse,  passes  through  the  nose,  as  the  cut  will  make  evi- 
dent. 

The  sides  of  the  pharynx  are  lined  with  muscles  which  now  begin  powerfully  to 
contract,  and  by  that  contraction  the  bolus  is  forced  in  imtil  it  reaches  the  gullet, 
(10)  which  is  the  termination  of  the  pharynx.  Before,  however,  the  food  reaches 
the  gullet,  it  has  to  pass  over  the  entrance  into  the  windpipe,  (3)  and  should  any 
portion  of  it  enter  into  that  tube,  much  inconvenience  and  danger  might  result: 
therefore,  this  opening  is  not  only  lined  by  muscles  by  which  it  may  be  closed  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  animal,  but  it  is  likewise  covered  by  a  heart-like  elastic  carti- 
lage, the  epiglottis,  (2)  with  its  back  towards  the  pharynx,  and  its  hollow  towards 
the  apei'ture.  The  epiglottis  yields  to  the  pressure  of  the  bolus  passing  over  it, 
and  lies  flat  on  the  entrance  into  the  windpipe,  and  prevents  the  possibility  of  any 
thing  entering  into  it;  and  no  sooner  has  the  food  passed  over  it,  than  it  rises  again 
by  its  own  elasticity,  and  leaves  the  upper  part  of  the  windpipe  once  more  open 
for  the  purpose  of  breathing.  The  voice  of  animals  is  produced  by  the  passage  of 
air  tlu'ough  this  aperture,  communicating  certain  vibrations  to  folds  of  the  mem- 
brane covering  the  part,  and  these  vibrations  are  afterwards  modified  in  their  pas- 
sage through  the  cavities  of  the  nose.  To  understand  the  diseases  of  these  parts, 
we  must  consider  the  anatomy  of  the  neck  generally. 


CHAPTER    IX 


THE     ANATOMY    AND     DISEASES     OF     THE 
NECK    AND     NEIGHBORING     PARTS. 

The  neck  of  the  horse  and  of  every  animal  belonging  to  the  class  mammalia, 
except  one  species,  is  composed  of  seven  bones,  called  vertebra;  moveable  or  turn- 
ing upon  each  other,  (see  cut,  p.  49.)  They  are  connected  together  by  strong 
ligaments,  and  form  so  many  distinct  joints,  in  order  to  give  sufficiently  extensive 
motion  to  this  important  part  of  the  body.  The  bone  nearest  to  the  scull  is  called 
the  atlas,  (see  cut,  p.  49,  and  g,  p.  53,)  because,  in  the  human  being,  it  supports 
the  head.  In  the  horse,  the  head  is  suspended  from  it.  It  is  a  mere  ring-shaped 
bone,  wit^h  broad  projections  sideway;  but  without  tjie  sharp  and  irregular  pro- 
cesses which  are  found  on  all  the  others.    The  pack-ivua;  or  ligament,  by  which  the 


POLL-EVIL.  121 

head  is  principally  supported,  (/,  p.  53,)  and  which  is  strongly  connected  with  all 
the  other  bones,  passes  over  this  without  touching  it,  by  wliich  means  the  head  is 
much  more  easily  and  extensively  mo\  ed.  Tlie  junction  of  the  atlas  with  the  head 
is  the  seat  of  a  very  serious  and  ti-oublesome  ulcer,  termed 

POLL-ETII.. 

From  the  horse  rubbing  and  sometimes  striking  his  poll  against  the  lower  edge 
of  the  manger,  or  hanging  back  in  the  stall,  and  bruising  the  part  with  the  halter; 
or  from  the  frequent  and  painful  stretching  of  the  ligaments  and  muscles,  by  unne- 
cessary tight  reining,  and  occasional!)',  we  fear,  from  a  violent  blow  on  the  poll, 
carelessly  or  wantonly  inflicted,  inflammation  comes  on,  and  a  swelling  appears,  hot, 
tender,  and  painful.  We  have  just  slated,  that  the  ligament  of  the  neck  passes 
over  the  atlas,  or  first  bone,  without  being  attached  to  it,  and  the  seat  of  inflamma- 
tion is  between  the  ligament,  and  the  bone  beneath;  and  being  thus  deeply  situa- 
ted, it  is  serious  in  its  nature  and  difficult  of  treatment. 

The  first  thing  to  be  attempted  is  to  abate  the  inflammation  by  bleeding,  physic, 
and  the  application  of  cold  lotions  to  the  part.  By  these  means  the  tumor  will 
sometimes  be  dispersed.  This  system,  however,  must  not  be  pursued  too  far.  If 
the  swelling  increases,  and  the  heat  and  tenderness  likewise  increase,  matter  will 
form  in  tlie  tumor;  and  then  our  object  will  be  to  hasten  its  formation  by  warm 
fomentations,  poultices,  or  stimulating  embrocations.  As  soon  as  matter  is  formed, 
which  may  be  known  by  the  softness  of  the  tumor,  and  before  it  has  time  to  spread 
around  and  eat  into  the  neighboring  parts,  it  should  be  evacuated;  and  now  comes 
the  whole  art  of  treating  poll-evil;  the  opening  info  the  tumor  must  be  so  contrived 
that  all  the  matter  shall  run  out,  and  continue  afterwards  to  run  out  as  it  is  formed, 
and  not  collect  at  the  bottom  of  the  ulcer,  irritating  and  corroding  it.  This  can 
be  eftected  by  a  seton  alone.  The  needle  should  enter  at  the  top  of  the  tumor, 
penetrate  through  its  bottom,  and  be  brought  out  at  the  side  of  the  neck,  a  little 
below  the  abscess.  Without  any  thing  more  than  this,  except  frequent  fomenta- 
tion with  warm  water  to  keep  the  part  clean,  and  to  obviate  inflammation,  poll- 
evil,  in  its  early  stage,  will  frequently  be  cured.  If  the  ulcer  has  deepened  and 
spread,  and  threatens  to  eat  into  the  ligaments  of  the  joints  of  the  neck,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  stimulate  its  surface,  and  perhaps  painfully  so,  in  order  to  bring 
it  to  a  healthy  state,  and  dispose  it  to  fill  up;  and,  in  extreme  cases,  even  the  scald- 
ing mixture  of  the  farrier  may  be  called  into  requisition.  This,  however,  will  be 
ineffectual,  except  the  pus  or  matter  is  enabled,  by  the  use  of  setons,  perfectly  to 
run  out  of  the  wound;  and  the  application  of  these  setons  will  require  the  skill  and 
anatomical  knowledge  of  the  veterinary  surgeon.  In  very  desperate  caijes  the 
wound  may  not  be  fan-ly  exposed  to  the  action  of  our  caustic  applications,  without 
the  division  of  the  ligament  of  the  neck,  by  whicli  we  have  described  the  head  as 
being  almost  entirely  supported.  Tliis,  however,  may  be  done  with  perfect  safe- 
ty, for,  although  the  ligament  is  carried  on  to  the  occipital  bone,  and  some  strengtli 
is  gained  by  this  prolongation  of  it,  the  main  stress  is  on  the  second  bone;  and  the 
head  will  contniue  to  be  supported  although  the  ligament  should  be  divided  be- 
tween the  second  bone  and  the  head.  The  divided  ligament  will  soon  unite  again, 
and  its  former  usefulness  will  be  restored  when  the  wound  is  healed. 

The  second  bone  of  the  neck  is  tlie  dentata,  having  a  process  like  a  tooth,  by 
which  it  forms  a  joint  with  the  first  bone.  In  the  formation  of  that  joint,  a  por- 
tion of  the  spinal  marrow,  which  runs  through  a  canal  in  the  centre  of  all  these 
bones,  is  exposed,  or  covered  only  by  ligament;  and  by  the  division  of  the  mar- 
row at  this  spot,  an  animal  is  instantly  and  humanely  destroyed.  The  operation  is 
called  pithing,  from  the  name  {the  pith)  given  by  butchers  to  the  spinal  morrow. 

The  other  neck,  or  rack  bones,  as  they  are  denominated  by  tlie  farrier,  B,  p. 
49,  are  of  a  strangely  irregular  shape,  yet  bearing  considerable  resemblance  to 
each  other.  They  consist  of  a  central  bone,  perforated  for  the  passage  of  the 
spinal  marrow,  with  a  ridge  on  the  top,  for  the  attachment  of  the  ligament  of  the 
neck,  and  four  iiTegular  plates  or  processes  from  the  sides  for  the  attachment  of 
muscles;  at  the  base  of  one  of  which,  on  either  side,  are  holes  for  the  passage  of 
large  arteries  and  veins.  At  the  upper  end  of  each  is  a  round  head  or  ball,  and 
at  the  lower  end  a  cavity  or  cup,  and  the  head  of  the  one  being  received  into  the 
cup  of  the  other,  they  are  united  together,  forming  so  many  joints.  They  are 
likewise  joined  together  by  ligaments  from  these  processes  as  well  as  the  proper 
ligaments  of  the  joints,  and  so  securely  that  no  dislucation  can  take  place  between 
16 


m 


THE  HORSE. 


any  of  them,  except  the  first  and  second,  the  consequence  of  which  would  be  the 
immediate  death  of  the  animal. 

The  last,  or  seventh  bone,  has  the  elevation  on  the  back  or  top  of  it  continued 
into  a  long  and  sharp  prolongation,  fa  spinous  process,- J  and  is  the  beginning  of 
tliat  ridge  of  bones  denominated  the  withers;  (see  cut,  p.  49;)  and  as  it  is  the  base 
of  the  column  of  neck-bones,  and  there  must  be  great  pressure  on  it  from  the 
weight  of  the  head  and  neck,  it  is  curiously  contrived  to  rest  upon  and  unite  with 
the  two  first  ribs,  which  also  we  shall  presently  describe  as  being  very  peculiarly 
and  strongly  constructed. 

THE    MUSCLES    AND    PHOPER    FOKM    OF    THE    NECK. 

The  bones  which  we  have  just  mentioned  serve  as  the  frame-work  to  which  are 
attached  numerous  muscles  concerned  in  all  the  motions  of  the  head  and  neck. 
The  power  of  the  ligament  of  the  neck  is  precisely  adapted  to  the  weight  of  the 
head  and  neck.  They  are  supported  by  it  without  muscular  aid  and  without  fa- 
tigue to  the  animal;  but  to  raise  the  head  higher,  or  to  lower  it,  or  to  turn  it  in 
every  direction,  a  complicated  system  of  muscles  was  necessary.  Those  whose 
oflfice  it  is  to  raise  the  head,  are  most  numerous  and  powerful,  and  are  placed  on  the 
upper  and  side  part  of  the  neck.     Our  cut,  p.  94,  gives  a  few  of  them. 

c  marks  a  tendon  common  to  two  of  the  most  important  of  them,  the  splenius, 
or  splint-like  muscle,  and  the  complexus  major,  or  larger  compHcated  muscle.  The 
splenius  constitutes  the  principal  bulk  of  the  neck  above,  arising  from  the  ligament 

of  the  neck  all  the  way  down  it,  and 
going  to  the  processes  of  all  the 
bones  of  the  neck  but  the  first,  and 
flat  tendons  running  from  the  upper 
part  of  it  to  the  first  bone  of  the 
neck,  and  to  a  process  of  the  tem- 
poral bone  of  the  head.  Its  action 
is  sufficiently  evident,  namely,  very 
powerfully  to  elevate  the  head  and 
neck.  The  principal  beauty  of  the 
neck  depends  on  this  muscle.  It 
was  admirably  developed  in  the  horse 
of  whose  neck  the  annexed  cut  gives 
an  accurate  delineation. 

If  the  curve  were  quite  regular 
from  the  poll  to  tlie  withers,  we 
should  call  it  a  perfect  neck.  It  is 
rather  a  long  neck,  and  we  do  not 
like  it  the  less  for  that  In  the  car- 
riage horse,  a  neck  that  is  not  half 
concealed  by  the  collar  is  indispen- 
sable so  far  as  appearance  goes;  and 
it  is  only  the  horse  with  a  neck  of  tolerable  length,  that  will  bear  to  be  reined  up 
so  as  to  give  this  part  that  arched  and  beautiful  appearance  which  fasliion  demands. 
It  is  no  detriment  to  the  riding  horse,  and  there  are  few  horses  of  extraordinary 
speed  which  have  not  the  neck  rather  long.  The  race  horse  at  the  top  of  his 
speed  not  only  extends  it  as  far  as  he  can,  that  the  air-passages  may  be  as  straight 
as  he  can  make  them,  and  that  he  may  therefore  be  able  to  breathe  more  freely, 
but  the  weight  of  the  head  and  neck,  and  the  effect  increasing  with  their  distance 
from  the  trunk,  add  materially  to  the  rapidity  of  the  animal's  motion  by  throwing 
his  weight  considerably  forward.  It  has  been  said  that  a  horse  with  a  long  neck 
will  bear  heavy  on  the  hand.  We  do  not  bcheve  that  either  the  length  of  the 
neck,  or  even  the  bulk  of  tlie  head,  has  any  influence  in  causing  this  They  are 
both  counterbalanced  by  the  power  of  the  hgament  of  the  neck.  The  seiiing  on 
of  the  head  is  most  of  all  connected  with  heavy  bearing  on  the  hand,  and  a  short- 
necked  horse  will  bear  heavily,  because,  from  the  thickness  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  neck,  consequent  on  its  shortness,  the  head  cannot  be  rightly  placed.  The 
head  and  neck,  liowever,  should  be  i)roportioned  to  each  other.  A  short  head  on 
a  long  neck,  or  a  long  head  on  a  short  neck,  would  equally  offend  the  eye. 

Connected  with  this  splenius  muscle,  and  partly  produced  by  it,  we  would  di- 
rect the  attention  of  the  reader  to  the  thickness  and  muscularity  of  the  neck  m 


THE  FORM  OF  THE  NECK.  123 

this  cut  as  it  spring's  from  the  shoulders?  the  height  at  which  it  comes  out  from 
them,  forming'  nearly  a  line  with  the  withers;  and  the  manner  in  which  it  tapers 
as  it  approaclies  tlie  head,  and  this  muscle  diminishing'  in  size.  The  neck  of  a 
well  formed  horse,  however  fine  at  the  top,  should  be  muscular  at  the  bottom,  or 
the  horse  to  which  it  belongs  will  generally  be  weak  and  worthless.  Necks  de- 
void of  this  muscularity  are  called  loose  necks  by  horsemen,  and  are  always  consi- 
dered a  very  serious  objection  to  the  animal.  If  the  neck  be  thin  and  lean  at  the 
upper  part,  and  be  otherwise  well-shaped,  the  horse  will  usually  carry  himself 
well,  and  the  head  will  be  properly  curved  for  beauty  of  appearance,  and  ease  of 
riding'.  When  an  instance  to  the  contrary  occurs,  it  is  to  be  traced  to  very  im- 
proper management,  or  to  the  space  between  the  jaws  being'  unnaturally  small. 

The  splenius  muscle,  although  a  main  agent  in  raising  the  head  and  neck,  may 
be  too  large,  or  covered  with  too  much  cellular  substance  or  fat,  and  give  an  ap- 
pearance of  heaviness  or  even  clumsiness  to  the  neck.  This  peculiarity  of  form 
constitutes  the  distinction  between  the  perfect  horse  and  the  mare,  and  also  the 
g'elding',  unless  castrated  at  a  very  late  period.  Horses  with  thick  heavy  crests  are 
usually  slow  and  sluggish. 

This  tendon,  c,  belongs  also  to  another  muscle,  which  makes  up  the  principal 
bulk  of  the  lower  part  of  the  neck,  and  is  called  the  complexus  major,  or  larger 
complicated  muscle.  It  arises  partly  as  low  as  the  transverse  processes  of  the  four 
or  five  first  bones  of  the  back,  and  from  the  five  lower  bones  of  the  neck:  and  the 
fibres  from  these  various  sources,  uniting  together,  form  a  very  large  and  pow- 
erful muscle,  the  largest  and  strongest  in  the  neck.  As  it  approaches  the  head, 
it  lessens  in  bulk,  and  terminates  partly  with  the  splenius  in  this  tendon,  but  is 
principally  inserted  into  the  back  part  of  the  occipital  bone,  by  the  side  of  the  li- 
gament of  tlie  neck.  In  our  cut,  p.  122,  almost  its  whole  course  can  be  distinctly 
traced.  Its  office  is  to  raise  the  neck  and  elevate  the  head;  and,  being  inserted 
into  such  a  part  of  the  occiput,  it  will  more  particularly  protrude  the  nose  while 
it  raises  the  head.  Its  action,  however,  may  be  too  powerful;  it  may  be  habitu- 
ally so,  and  then  it  may  produce  deformity.  The  back  of  the  head  being  thus 
pulled  back,  and  the  muzzle  protruded,  the  horse  cannot  by  possibility  carry  his 
head  well;  he  will  become  what  is  technically  called  a  star  gazer;  heavy  in  hand, 
boring  upon  the  bit,  and  unsafe.  To  remedy  tiiis,  recourse  is  had,  and  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  without  avail,  to  the  martingale,  against  which  the  horse  is  contin- 
uall}'  fighting,  and  which  is  often  a  complete  annoyance  to  the  rider.  Such  a  horse 
is  almost  useless  for  harness. 

Inseparable  from  tiiis  is  another  sad  defect,  so  far  as  the  beauty  of  the  horse  is 
concerned;  he  becomes  ewe-necked;  he  has  a  neck  like  a  ewe — not  arched  above, 
and  straight  below,  uniil  near  to  the  head,  but  hollowed  above  and  projecting  be- 
low; and  the  neck  rising  low  out  of  the  chest,  even  lower  sometimes  than  the 
points  of  the  shoulders.  There  can  scarcely  be  anything  more  unsightly  in  a 
horse.  The  head  of  such  a  horse  can  never  be  got  down;  and  the  bearing  rein  of 
harness  must  be  to  him  a  source  of  constant  torture. 

Among  the  muscles  employed  in  raising  the  head,  are  the  complexus  minores, 
smaller  complicated,  and  the  recti,  straight,  and  the  oblique  muscles  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  neck,  and  belonging  principally  to  the  two  first  bones  of  the  neck, 
and  portions  of  whicii  may  be  seen  under  the  tendon  of  the  splenius,  c,  and  be- 
tween it  and  the  ligament  a. 

Among  the  muscles  employed  in  lowering  the  head,  some  of  which  are  given  in 
the  same  cut,  is  the  sterno-maxilloris,  d,  belonging  to  the  breast-bone  and  tlie  up- 
per jaw.  It  can  likewise  be  traced,  although  not  quite  distinctly,  in  the  cut,  p. 
122.  It  lies  immediately  under  the  skin.  It  arises  from  the  cartdage  projecting 
from,  or  constituting  the  front  of  the  breast-bone,  (H,  p.  49,)  and  proceeds  up  the 
neck,  of  no  great  bulk  or  strength;  for  when  the  weight  of  the  head  is  so  nicely 
balanced  by  the  power  of  the  ligament,  a  little  addition  to  that  weight  will  pull  it 
down;  whereas,  the  muscles  that  raise  the  head  must  necessarily  have  very  great 
streng  h,  for  they  will  have  all  its  weight  to  support-  About  three-fourths  of  its 
length  upward,  it  changes  to  a  flat  tendon,  which  is  seen  {d,  p.  94,)  to  insinuate 
itself  between  the  parotid  and  submaxillary  glands,  in  order  to  be  inserted  into  the 
angle  of  the  lower  jaw.     It  is  used  in  bending  the  head  towards  the  chest. 

Another  muscle,  the  termination  of  which  is  seen,  is  tlie  levator  humeri,  raiser  of 
the  shoulder,  b.  This  is  a  much  larger  muscle  than  the  last,  because  it  has  more 
duty  to  perform.  It  rises  from  the  back  of  the  head  and  four  first  bones  of  the 
neck  and  the  ligament  of  the  neck,  and  is  carried  down  to  the  shoulder,  mixing' 


124  THE  HORSE. 

itself  partly  with  some  of  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder,  and  finally  continued  down 
to,  and  terminating  on  tlie  humerus,  (J,  p.  49.)  Its  office  is  double:  if  we  suppose 
the  horse  in  action,  and  the  head  and  neck  fixed  points,  the  contraction  of  this 
muscle  will  draw  forward  the  shoulder  and  arm:  if  the  horse  be  standing,  and  the 
shoulder  and  arm  be  fixed  points,  this  muscle  will  depress  the  head  and  neck. 

Little  more  of  a  practical  nature  could  be  said  of  the  muscles  of  the  neck,  al- 
though they  would  be  proper  and  interesting  studies  for  the  anatomist;  and  there- 
fore we  will  only  observe  that  they  are  all  in  pairs.  One  of  them  is  found  on  each 
side  of  the  neck,  and  the  office  which  we  have  attributed  to  them  can  only  be  ac- 
complished when  both  act  together;  but,  supposing  that  one  alone  of  the  elevating 
muscles  should  act,  the  head  would  be  i-aised,  but  it  would  at  the  same  time  be 
turned  towards  that  side.  If  one  only  of  the  depressor  muscles  were  to  act,  the 
head  would  be  bent  down,  but  it  would  likewise  be  turned  towards  that  side. 
Then  it  will  be  easily  seen  that,  by  this  simple  method  of  having  the  muscles  in 
pairs,  provision  is  made  for  eveiy  kind  of  motion,  upwards,  downwards,  or  on 
either  side,  for  which  the  animal  can  possibly  have  occasion. 

This  is  the  proper  place  to  speak  of  the  mane,  that  long  hair  which  covers  the 
crest  of  the  neck,  and  adds  so  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  animal.  It  sometimes 
grows  to  a  considerable  length.  Thei-e  is  a  horse  in  the  king's  stables,  the  hair  of 
whose  mane  is  more  than  a  yard  in  length;  and  it  is  said  that  a  horse  was  once  ex- 
hibited with  a  mane  three  or  four  yards  long.  The  mane  is  apt  to  become  entan- 
gled, if  it  be  not  regularly  combed.  The  teeth  of  the  comb  should  be  lai-ge,  and 
sufficiently  far  apart.  There  never  can  be  occasion  to  pull  the  mane,  as  grooms 
are  too  much  accustomed  to  do,  tugging  it  out  in  Httle  parcels.  It  will  then  never 
lie  smooth.  A  strong  comb,  with  only  two  or  three  teeth  in  it,  will  keep  it  suffi- 
ciently thin  and  smooth. 

THE    BLOOD-VESSELS    OF    THE    NECK. 

Running  down  the  inner  part  of  the  neck  are  the  principal  blood-vessels  going 
to  and  returning  from  the  head,  with  the  windpipe  and  gullet.  Our  cut  could  not 
give  a  view  of  the  arteries  which  carry  the  blood  from  the  heart  to  the  head,  be- 
cause they  are  too  deeply  seated.  The  external  arteries  are  the  carotid,  of  which 
there  are  two.  They  ascend  the  neck  on  either  side,  close  to  the  windpipe,  until 
they  have  reached  the  middle  of  the  neck,  where  they  somewhat  diverge,  and  lie 
more  deeply;  they  are  covered  by  the  sterno-maxillaris  muscle,  which  we  have 
just  described,  and  are  separated  from  the  jugulars  by  a  small  portion  of  muscular 
substance.  Having  reached  tlie  larynx,  they  divide  into  two  branches,  the  exter- 
nal and  internal;  and  the  first  goes  to  every  part  of  the  face,  and  the  second  to  the 
brain. 

The  vertebral  arteries  run  through  canals  in  the  bones  of  the  neck,  supplying 
the  neighboring  parts  as  they  climb,  and  at  length  enter  the  scull  at  the  large  hole 
in  the  occipital  bone,  and  ramify  on  and  supply  the  brain. 

We  can  conceive  few  cases  in  which  it  would  be  either  necessary  or  justifiable 
to  bleed  from  an  artery.  Even  in  mad-staggers  the  bleeding  is  more  practicable, 
safer,  and  more  effectual,  from  the  jugular  vein  than  from  the  temporal  or  any 
other  artery.  If  an  artery  be  opened  in  the  direction  in  which  it  runs,  there  is 
sometimes  very  great  difficulty  in  stopping  the  bleeding;  it  has  even  been  neces- 
sary to  tie  the  vessel  in  order  to  accomphsh  this  purpose.  If  the  artery  be  cut 
across,  its  coats  are  so  elastic  that  the  two  ends  are  immediately  drawn  apart  un- 
der the  flesh  on  each  side,  and  are  thereby  closed;  and  after  the  first  gush  of 
blood  no  more  can  be  obtained. 

THE    T£IKS    OF    THE    NECK. 

The  external  veins  which  return  the  blood  from  the  head  to  the  heart  are  the 
jugulars.  The  horse  has  but  one  on  either  side.  The  human  being  and  the  ox 
have  two.  It  is  the  principal  vessel  by  which  the  blood  is  conveyed  from  the 
head.  The  jugular  is  said  to  take  its  rise  from  the  base  of  the  scull;  it  then  de- 
scends, receiving  other  branches  in  its  way  towards  the  angle  of  the  jaw,  and  be- 
hind the  parotid  gland;  and  emerging  from  that,  as  seen  at  t,  page  95,  and  being 
united  to  a  large  branch  from  the  face,  it  takes  its  course  down  the  neck.  Vete- 
rinaiy  surgeons  and  horsemen  have  agreed  to  adopt  the  jugular,  a  little  way  be- 
low the  union  of  these  two  branches,  as  the  place  for  bleeding;  and  a  very  conve- 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  VEIN.— THE  AVINDPIPE.  125 

nient  one  it  is,  for  it  is  easily  got  at,  and  the  vessel  is  lai-ge.  Of  the  manner  of 
bleeding',  and  the  states  of  constitution  and  disease  in  which  it  is  proper,  we  shall 
speak  hereaftei',  confining'  ourselves  at  present  to  an  occasional  consequence  of 
bleeding-,  namely, 

IlfFLAMMATIOIf    OF    THE    VEIW. 

It  is  usual  and  proper,  after  bleeding",  to  bring  the  edges  of  the  cut  carefully 
together,  and  to  hold  them  in  contact  by  inserting  a  pin  through  the  skin,  with  a 
little  tow  twisted  round  it.  In  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred  the  wound 
quickly  heals,  and  gives  no  trouble;  but  in  a  few  instances,  from  using  a  blunt  in- 
strument, or  a  dirty  or  rusty  one;  or  striking  too  hard,  and  bruising  the  vein  with 
the  thick  part  of  the  fleam;  or  pulling  the  skin  too  far  from  the  neck,  and  suffer- 
ing some  blood  to  insinuate  itself  into  the  cellular  texture;  or  neglecting  to  tie  the 
horse  up  for  a  little  while,  and  thereby  enabling  him  to  rub  the  bleeding  place 
against  the  manger,  and  tear  out  the  pin;  or  from  the  animal  being  worked  imme- 
diately afterward,  and  the  collar  pressing  the  blood  against  the  orifice;  or  the 
reins  or  the  bridle  rubbing  against  it;  or  having  several  blows  clumsily  given,  and 
a  large  and  ragged  wound  made;  or  from  some  disposition  to  inflammation  about 
the  horse,  for  the  bleeder  is  not  always  in  fault,  the  wound  does  not  heal.  The 
edges  of  it  separate,  and  are  swelled  and  red;  a  discharge  of  thin  bloody  fluid 
proceeds  from  the  cut,  followed  perhaps  in  a  few  days  by  matter;  the  neck  swells 
and  is  hot  and  tender;  the  vein,  particularly  above  the  wound,  is  hard  and  cordy; 
the  cordiness  of  the  vein  increases  more  and  more  upward;  and  little  abscesses 
begin  to  form  about  the  original  wound.  This  is  sometimes  a  very  serious  case, 
for  the  inflammation  continues  to  spread  upwards,  and  destroys  the  horse.  It  is 
easy  to  imagine  why  it  spreads  upward,  because  the  blood  has  run  off"  below  the 
wound,  and  nothing  remains  there  to  irritate;  but  the  vein  becoming  thickened  in 
its  coats,  and  diminished  in  its  capacity,  and  at  length  quite  closed  by  the  inflam- 
mation, the  blood  descending  from  the  head,  and  pressing  upon  the  closed  part, 
will  coagulate;  and  that  clot  of  blood  will  gradually  increase,  and  the  obstruction, 
and  the  inflammation  produced  by  that  obstruction,  will  increase,  and  that  neces- 
sarily upward. 

Human  surgeons  say  that  inflammation  of  a  vein  spreads  towards  the  heart.  In 
the  horse,  and  we  will  venture  to  say  in  every  animal,  it  spreads  in  the  direction  in 
which  the  coagulation  is  formed,  and  that  in  the  jugular  must  be  upward,  although 
from  tlie  heart.  In  the  veins  of  the  arm  and  leg  it  will  likewise  spread  upward, 
and  then  towards  the  heart,  because  the  coagulation  takes  place  in  that  direction. 

The  application  of  the  hot  iron  to  the  orifice  of  the  wound  will  sometimes  sti- 
mulate it,  and  cause  its  edges  to  unite.  When  this  fails,  and  the  swelhng  is  large, 
and  abscesses  have  formed,  it  is  for  the  veterinary  surgeon  to  decide  how  far  he 
will  introduce  setons  into  tliem,  or  inject  a  caustic  liquid,  or  dissect  out  the  dis- 
eased portion  of  the  vein. 

Should  the  vein  be  desti'oyed,  the  horse  will  not  be  irreparably  injured;  and  per- 
haps, at  no  great  distance  of  time,  scarcely  injured  at  all;  for  nature  is  ingenious 
in  making  provision  to  cai-ry  on  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  All  the  vessels  con- 
veying the  blood  from  the  heart  to  the  different  parts  of  the  frame,  or  bringing  it 
back  again  to  the  heart,  communicate  with  each  other  by  so  many  channels,  and 
in  such  various  ways,  that  it  is  impossible  by  the  closure  or  loss  of  any  one  of  them 
materially  to  impede  the  flow  of  the  vital  current.  If  the  jugular  be  desti-oyed,  the 
blood  will  circulate  through  other  vessels  almost  as  freely  as  before. 

THE    WINDPIPE. 

In  the  fore  part  of  the  throat  (5.  p.  53)  is  placed  a  curiously  constructed  tube, 
extending  from  the  back  part  of  the  moutli  to  the  lungs,  and  designed  for  the 
conveyance  of  air  to  and  from  these  organs.  The  windpipe  of  the  horse  is  com- 
posed of  nearly  sixty  rings  of  cartilage,  connected  together  by  strong  and  elastic 
ligaments.  The  rings  are  broad  in  front,  narrowing  behind,  and  there  overlap- 
ping each  other,  so  as  to  be  capable  of  considerable  extension  and  contraction; 
and  across  the  posterior  part  run  strong  musctdar  fibres,  which  give  to  that  por- 
tion of  the  tube  a  power  of  action,  depending  not  indeed  on  the  will,  but  on  sym- 
pathy with  other  parts  concerned  in  breathing. 


126  THE  HORSE. 

This  singular  and  beautiful  mechanism  deserves  serious  attention.  It  is  neces- 
sary for  the  comfort,  and  even  the  existence  of  the  animal,  that  this  air-tube 
should  be  free  from  compression,  and  always  open;  and  it  is  attached  to  the  neck, 
lon.e^,  and  capable  of  the  most  varied  motion.  Would  any  tube  composed  of  an 
uniform  substance,  however  elastic,  maintain  its  form  and  size  amidst  all  these 
complicated  motions?  When  the  horse  is  browsing  the  windpipe  is  an  inch  or 
more  longer  than  when  the  neck  is  arched,  there  is,  therefore,  the  ligamentous 
substance  between  the  circular  rings,  which  will  lengthen  the  tube  when  required, 
and  immediately  contract  to  its  former  dimensions,  when  the  force  that  caused  the 
elongation  is  removed.  When  the  head  is  bent ,  and  the  neck  is  arched,  and  ,in 
various  positions  of  the  neck,  a  portion  of  the  windpipe  is  violently  pressed  up- 
on; therefore,  there  are  the  cartilaginous  rings — cartilaginous  that  they  may  yield 
to  pressure,  and  immediately  recover  their  form  when  the  pressure  is  removed; 
and  lapping  over  each  other,  that  the  difference  of  calibre  or  size  in  the  tube 
may  be  as  gi-eat  as  the  necessities  of  the  animal  may  occasionally  require,  and 
muscular  at  the  back  that  all  these  powers  of  elasticity  may  be  exerted  to  the  full- 
est extent.  The  cartilaginous  rings,  again,  are  broad  and  strong  in  front  where 
danger  may  threaten,  and  softer  and  more  yielding  behind,  where  the  bones  of 
the  neck  afford  secure  protection. 

The  windpipe  is  lined  by  a  membrane,  likewise  curiously  contrived.  It  is 
smooth  and  plain  in  fi'ont  under  the  broad  cartilaginous  rings,  and  where  little 
change  of  dimension  can  take  place;  but  behind,  it  is  puckered  into  several  folds, 
ruiming  down  the  windpipe,  and  not  across  it,  and  adapting  itself  easily  to  any 
change  in  the  size  of  the  tube. 

Then  it  is  easy  to  imagine  that  the  windpipe  of  a  good  horse  should  be  large  to 
admit  the  passage  of  a  gi-eater  quantity  of  air,  and  in  horses  from  which  speed 
is  required,  as  in  the  blood-horse,  the  windpipe  is  comparatively  larger  than  in 
other  breeds  devoted  to  slower  work. 

The  windpipe  should  project  from  the  neck.  It  should  be  as  it  were  detached 
from  the  neck,  for  two  important  reasons;  first,  that  it  may  easily  enter  between 
the  channels  of  the  jaw,  so  that  the  horse  may  be  reined  up  without  suffering  in- 
convenience; and  next,  that  being  more  loosely  attached  to  the  neck,  it  may  more 
readily  adapt  itself  to  the  changes  required  than  if  it  were  enveloped  by  fat  or 
muscle,  to  a  certain  degree  unyielding;  therefore,  in  every  well  formed  neck,  and 
it  will  be  seen  in  the  cut,  (p.  122,)  it  is  indispensable  that  the  windpipe  should  be 
prominent  and  loose  on  the  neck.  We  do  not  require  this  in  the  heavy  cart-horse, 
and  we  do  not  often  find  it,  because  he  is  not  so  much  exposed  to  those  circum- 
stances which  will  hurry  respiiation,  and  require  an  enlargement  in  the  size  of  the 
principal  air-tube. 

THE    LAHTIirX. 

At  the  top  of  the  windpipe  is  placed  the  larynx,  which  has  been  partially  de- 
scribed. It  is  situated  where,  from  the  sudden  bending  or  motion  of  the  head,  it 
is  hable  to  more  frequent  and  to  greater  injury  than  the  windpipe;  and,  therefore, 
it  is  composed  of  stronger  cartilages  than  that  tube.  First,  is  the  thyroid,  or  hel- 
met-shaped cartilage,  forming  the  front  and  side  parts  of  the  larynx,  and  protect- 
ing the  other  parts  of  the  larj'nx  (see  1,  p.  5o.)  Its  bulk  and  strength  are  appa- 
rent on  the  slightest  handling. 

Immediately  below  the  thyroid,  and  with  its  broad  part  behind,  is  the  cricoid, 
ring-like  cartilage  (11,  p.  Si.)  This  is  likewise  for  the  purpose  of  strength  in  a 
part  so  exposed  to  injury,  but  not  so  strong  as  the  thyroid,  because  so  much  dan- 
ger cannot  threaten  from  behind.  Of  the  epiglottis,  or  covering  of  the  entrance 
into  the  windpipe  (2,  p.  53,)  and  of  the  arytenoid,  or  funnel-shaped  cartilages 
forming  that  opening  (3,  p.  53,)  we  have  ah-eady  spoken. 

KOAHING. 

The  larynx  and  upper  part  of  the  windpipe  are  subject  to  various  diseases.  The 
first  we  shall  mention  is  ROARiifG;  so  called  from  a  peculiar  sound  uttered  by  the 
horse  when  briskly  trotted  or  galloped,  particularly  up  hill.  In  moderate  exer- 
cise it  is  scarcely,  or  not  at  all  perceived,  but  when  the  animal  is  in  brisk  exercise 
it  may  be  heard  at  the  distance  of  several  }  ards.  It  may  be  easily  detected  by 
striking  the  horse  suddenly,  or  even  threatening  him  with  a  stick,  when  he  will 
utter  a  singular  grunt  or  groan. 


ROARING.  137 

It  usually  is  explained  as  the  consequence  of  inflammation  of  the  part.  A  fluid 
rapidly  changing-  into  a  toug^h  viscid  substance,  is  thrown  out,  and  adheres  to  the 
sides  of  the  larnyx  and  upper  part  of  the  windpipe,  materially  obstructing-  the 
passag-e,  and  sometimes  running-  across  it  in  bands.  When  the  horse  is  blown,  or 
his  breathing-  much  hurried,  the  air  whistles  throug-h  these  obstructions.  We  be- 
lieve this  to  be  the  most  g-eneral  cause  of  the  disease,  and  a  roarer  is  evidently 
unsound,  for  he  is  incapable  of  the  exertion  which  may  not  only  be  occasionally, 
but  ordinarily  required  of  him. 

Much  light,  however,  has  lately  been  thrown  on  other  causes  of  this  complaint. 
Many  roarers  have  been  examined  after  death,  and  no  vestage  of  these  bands  has 
been  found;  but  some  have  had  the  shape  of  the  larynx  and  upper  part  of  the 
•windpipe  materially  deformed,  crooked,  and  compressed;  and  others  have  present- 
ed no  appearance  of  disease.  Then  we  have  been  compelled  to  look  out  for 
other  causes  of  roaring,  and  some  very  probable  ones  have  been  readily  found. 
The  parts  may  have  been  subject  to  inflammation,  and  some  parts  of  the  air-tube 
may  have  become  thickened  and  inelastic.  In  this  way  the  inflammation  of  stran- 
gles may  have  been  communicated  to  tlie  larynx  or  windpipe,  followed  by  some 
alteration  of  structure.      Roaring  is  no  unusual  consequence  of  strangles. 

A  more  frequent  cause,  and  previously  unsuspected,  is  tight  reining.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  many  more  carriage-horses  become  roarers  than  those  that  are 
used  for  the  saddle  alone;  and  the  explanation  of  this  at  once  presents  itself  in  the 
continued  and  painful  pressure  on  these  parts,  caused  by  reining  in  the  carriage- 
horse,  and  teaching  him  to  bear  himself  well.  We  have  seen  the  larynx,  and  that 
portion  of  the  windpipe  immediately  beneath  it,  flattened,  and  bent,  and  twisted 
in  the  strangest  way,  which  could  not  have  been  produced  by  disease,  but  by  me- 
chanical injury  alone.  The  mischief  is  usually  done  with  young  horses.  The 
arched  neck  and  elevated  head  of  the  carriage-horse  is  an  unnatural  position,  from 
which  the  animal  most  habituated  to  it  is  eager  to  be  relieved.  Horse-breakers, 
and  coachmen,  and  carters,  should  be  made  to  understand  that  when  the  horse's 
head  is  first  ccnfined  by  the  bearing  rein,  great  gentleness,  and  care,  and  caution, 
are  necessary.  Injury  must  be  done  if  the  throat  be  violently  pressed  upon,  and 
especially  when  it  is  exposed  to  additional  danger,  from  the  impatience  of  the  ani- 
mal, unused  to  control,  and  suffering  pain.  The  head  of  the  riding-horse  is  gra- 
dually brought  to  its  proper  place  by  the  hands  of  the  teacher,  who  skilfully  in- 
creases, or  relaxes  the  pressure,  and  humors  and  plays  with  the  mouth;  but  the 
poor  carriage-horse  is  confined  by  a  rein  that  never  slackens,  and  his  nose  is  bent 
in  at  the  expense  of  the  larynx  and  windpipe,  and  the  injury  is  materially  increas- 
ed if  the  head  be  not  naturally  well  set  on,  or  if  the  neck  be  thick,  or  the  jaws 
narrow. 

The  shape  of  the  larynx  and  wind-pipe  will  occasionally  be  altered,  if  they  be 
thus  squeezed  between  the  jaws,  and  the  bones  of  the  neck;  or  the  muscles  which 
expand  the  opening  into  the  windpipe  for  the  purpose  of  natural  breathing,  and 
especially  of  quick  and  hurried  breathing,  will  be  so  compressed,  that  they  will 
be  incapable  of  full  action,  and  by  degrees  will  lose  the  power  of  action  even  when 
not  pressed  upon,  and,  in  fact,  become  palsied;  and  therefore,  tlie  opening  not 
being  sufficiently  enlarged  during  the  rapid  breathing  of  the  animal,  moving  with 
speed,  the  air  will  rush  violently  through  the  diminished  aperture,  and  the  sound 
termed  roaring  will  be  produced. 

It  is  a  common  opinion  that  crib-biting  frequently  terminates  in  roaring.  Tliere 
is  nothing  in  crib-biting  that  can  possibly  lead  to  roaring;  but  there  is  a  method 
adopted  to  cure  crib-biting,  than  which  nothing  can  be  more  likely  to  produce  it: 
we  mean  the  straps  which  ai-e  so  tightly  buckled  round  the  upper  part  of  the  neck, 
and  which  must  compress,  and  sometimes  distort  or  paralyze  the  larynx. 

The  habit  of  coughing  a  horse,  to  ascertain  the  state  of  his  wind,  is  an  occasional 
cause  of  roaring.  The  larynx  or  tracliea  is  violently  and  painfully  squeezed  in 
this  operation;  and  the  violence  being  often  repeated,  inflammation  and  injury  may 
ensue. 

The  treatment  of  roaring  is  very  unsatisfactory.  If  we  have  been  con-ect  in  our 
account  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  disease,  a  cure  seems  to  be  perfectly  out 
of  the  question.  If  it  arise  from  a  distorted  larynx,  there  is  no  mechanical  contri- 
vance that  can  restore  the  natural  and  perfect  structure;  if  from  a  band  or  ring  of 
lymph  diminishing  the  size  of  the  passage,  we  know  not  by  what  means  that  can 
be  removed;  or  if  the  muscles  of  the  larynx  be  palsied,  we  know  not  the  stimulus 
that  can  rouse  them  again  to  action,  or  the  manner  in  which  that  stimulus  is  to  be 
apphed. 


128  THE  HOUSE. 

In  the  early  stage  of  the  disease,  whether  it  proceed  from  violent  pressure  on 
the  part  by  improper  curbing-,  or  be  connected  with,  or  consequent  on  catarrh  or 
strangles,  or  the  enlargement  of  some  neighboring  pai-t,  inflammation  will  be  pre- 
sent, and  we  shall  be  justified  in  having  recourse  to  those  measures  which  will 
abate  inflammation.  Bleeding  will  not  be  improper  if  roaring  is  the  consequence 
of  previous  disease;  it  will  be  indispensable,  if  it  be  connected  with  present  disease 
of  the  chest.  The  degree  to  which  the  bleeding  should  be  carried,  will  depend 
on  the  degree  of  general  or  local  inflammation.  To  bleeding  should  succeed  purg- 
ing, and  to  this,  medicines  that  will  lessen  ihe  force  of  the  circulation — as  nitre, 
emetic-tartar,  and  digitalis.  These  should  be  followed  by  blisters,  to  remove  the 
inflammation,  if  possible,  from  an  internal  and  important  part  to  the  skin.  The 
blisters  may  at  first  be  confined  to  the  upper  part  of  the  throat,  but,  if  unsuccess- 
ful there,  they  shoidd  extend  over  the  whole  length  of  the  wind-pipe.  In  extreme 
cases,  and  where  the  obstruction  seems  to  threaten  suflbcation,  we  may  be  justified 
in  cutting  into  the  wind-pipe,  and  either  introducing  a  tube  into  the  opening,  or 
cutting  out  a  portion  of  one  of  the  rings.  This  operation,  however,  the  agricultur- 
ist will  scarcely  dare  to  perform,  although  it  is  simple  enough  to  him  who  under- 
stands the  anatomy  of  the  neck.  It  is  called  bronchotomy.  By  means  of  it,  the 
animal  will  be  enabled  to  breathe  through  an  aperture  below  the  seat  of  inflamma- 
tion, or  the  distorted  and  obstructed  part;  and  time  will  be  given  for  the  adoption 
of  other  modes  of  relief  or  cure.  Some  practitioners  have  talked  of  cutting  into 
the  wind-pipe,  to  extract  the  band  or  ring  of  coagulated  matter  that  obstructs  the 
passage:  we  can  only  say,  that  if  they  happen  to  hit  upon  the  precise  situation  of 
this  I'ing  or  band,  they  will  be  more  fortunate  than  their  folly  deserves. 

Another  circumstance  should  be  mentioned,  and  the  breeder  should  not  forget 
it,  that  the  roarer,  whether  horse  or  mare,  will  often  entail  this  disease  on  its  pro- 
geny. This  entailment  of  disease  by  the  parent  on  the  oflTspring  is  a  subject  which 
has  not  sufficiently  engaged  the  attention,  or  entered  into  the  calculation,  of  tlie 
agriculturist. 

THE    (ESOPHAeUS,    OR    GULLET. 

The  gullet  extends  from  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  to  the  stomach,  and  conveys 
the  food  from  the  one  to  the  other.  At  the  top  of  the  neck,  it  is  immediately  be- 
hind the  wind-pipe,  but  it  soon  inclines  to  the  left,  and  runs  down  the  neck  close 
to  the  wind-pipe,  and  on  its  left:  therefore,  when  we  give  a  ball  to  a  horse,  we 
watch  the  left  side  of  the  neck  to  see  whether  it  passes  down  the  gullet.  Having 
entered  the  chest  between  the  first  two  ribs,  the  gullet  passes  along  the  upper  part 
of  it,  and  then,  piercing  the  diaphragm  or  midriff",  enters  the  stomach.  It  is  com- 
posed of  three  coats — the  outer  one  of  slight  loose  cellular  substance:  the  middle 
one  muscular,  and  divided  into  two  distinct  layers,  the  outermost  layer  having  the 
fibres  lengthways,  by  which  the  gullet  may  be  shortened,  and  in  shortening,  wi- 
dened for  the  reception  of  the  food — the  fibres  of  the  inner  layer  running  circularly 
round  the  tube,  so  that  the  portion  immediately  above  a  pellet  of  food,  will  by 
its  contraction  force  the  food  downward,  and  by  successive  actions  drive  it  into  the 
stomach.  The  inner  coat,  which  is  a  continuation  of  the  membrane  of  the  pharynx, 
lies  in  folds  or  plaits  extending  lengthways.  The  muscular  coat  being  highly  elas- 
tic, readily  gives  way  to  the  pressure  of  the  food,  and  these  plaits  enable  the  inner 
or  cuticular  coat,  likewise,  sufficiently  to  dilate. 

The  gullet  has  in  a  few  cases  been  strictured,  or  contracted  in  some  pai't,  so  that 
the  food  could  only  be  swallowed  in  small  quantities,  and  with  great  difficulty.  If 
the  stricture  be  near  the  entrance  into  the  stomach,  there  is  no  remedy,  for  the 
part  cannot  be  got  at.  If  it  be  higher  up,  a  veterinary  surgeon  alone  can  deter- 
mine how  far  relief  is  practicable.  Substances  have  sometimes  stuck  in  the  gul- 
let. Bran  and  chaff  swallowed  greedily,  or  too  large  or  hard  a  ball,  have  remain- 
ed in  some  part  of  the  gullet,  and  caused  very  alarming  symptoms.  The  tube  used 
for  the  hove  in  cattle,  will  sometimes  dislodge  this  foreign  substance;  but  should 
this  be  impracticable,  the  gullet  must  be  opened,  which  a  scientific  practitioner 
alone  is  competent  to  perform. 


THE  CHEST. 
CHAPTER    X. 


129 


THE  CHEST  AND  ITS  CONTENTS— THE 
HEART  AND  THE  LUNGS. 

Cut  of  the  Chest. 


a  The  first  rib, 

b  The  cartilag'es  of  the  eleven  hindermost,  or  fake  ribs,  connected  together,  and 

uniting  with  that  of  the  seventh  or  last  true  rib. 
c   The  breast-bone. 
d  The  top  or  point  of  the  withers,  which  are  formed  by  the  lengthened  spinous, 

or  upright  processes  of  the  ten  or  eleven  first  bones  of  the  back.    The  bones 

of  the  back  are  eighteen  in  number. 
e   The  ribs,  usually  eighteen  on  each  side;  the  seven  first  united  to  the  breast-bone 

by  cartilage;  the  cartilages  of  the  remaining  eleven  united  to  each  other, 

as  at  b. 
f  That  portion  of  the  spine  where  the  loins  commence,  and  composed  of  five  bones. 
g   The  bones  forming  the  hip  or  haunch,  and  into  the  hole  at  the  botton  of  which 

the  head  of  tlie  thigh-bone  is  received. 
h  The  portion  of  the  spine  belonging  to  the  haunch,  and  consisting  of  five  pieces. 
i    The  bones  of  the  tail,  usually  tliirteen  in  number. 

The  form  of  the  chest  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  It  contains  the  heart  and 
the  lungs — the  one  employed  in  circulating  tlie  blood,  and  the  other  in  restoring 
to  it  Uie  power  of  supporting  life;  and  on  the  size  and  the  soundness  of  these  or- 
gans, the  healtli  and  the  strength  of  the  animal  principally  depend.  The  speed 
and  wind  of  the  horse  are  most  intimately  connected  with  tlie  size  of  the  lungs.  In 
proportion  to  the  quantity  of  au-  wiiich  they  contain,  and  the  less  frequent  neces- 
sity of  renewing  that  air  by  the  act  of  breathing,  will  the  animal  be  at  his  ease,  or 
distressed,  wlien  violent  exei-tion  is  demanded  of  him.  Therefore,  one  of  the  first 
things  which  tlie  judge  of  the  horse  examines,  is  the  capacity  of  the  chest;  and  if 
he  finds  considerable  depth  in  the  girth,  and  roundness  behind  the  point  of  the 
elbow — the  liorse  canying  what  is  called  a  good  barrel — he  is  satisfied  as  to  the 
capacity  of  the  cliest.  TXxaform  of  the  chest  has  as  much  to  do  with  the  value  of 
the  horse  as  its  capacity.  An  ox  may  have  a  chest  rounded  before  as  well  as  be- 
hind, and  then  there  will  be  room  enough  for  the  heart  to  circulate,  and  the  lungs 
to  purify  sufficient  blood  to  clcthe  him  with  all  the  muscle  and  fat  he  was  intended 
to  yield:  we  i-equire  from  liim  no  speed,  and,  therefore,  his  legs  will  not  fail  him 
should  too  much  weight  be  thrown  on  them,  nor  will  he  be  disposed  to  stumble 
and  fall.  One  principal  quality  of  tlie  horse,  however,  is  liis  speed;  and  if  undue 
weight  be  thrown  before,  his  legs  and  feet  will  be  battered,  and  injured,  and  worn 
out  by  the  unavoidable  concussion  to  which  they  will  be  exposed  in  the  ti-ot  or  the 
gallop;  and  likewise  the  centre  or  bulk  of  his  weight  will  be  too  easily  thrown 
beyond  the  natural  situation  of  his  feet,  and  he  will  be  exceedingly  unsafe.  There- 
fore, for  the  light  carriage  and  the  saddle,  although  we  want  capacity  of  chest,  we 
want  it  not  too  much  before.  A  moderate  breadth,  with  deptli  at  the  girth,  and 
17 


130  THE  HORSE. 

a  swelling  out,  or  baiTelling  behind  the  elbow,  will  be  tlie  most  tlesirable  form. 
Horses  witii  narrow  cliests  may  have  plenty  of  spirit,  and  willingness  for  work;  but 
they  have  not  the  appetite  or  the  endurance  of  those  whose  breast  is  moderately 
wide. 

The  heavy  cart  or  dray-horse,  whose  power  of  draught  is  equal  to  the  v/eight 
which  lie  can  throw  into  tlie  collar,  requires  the  broad  chest,  not  only  that  his 
weight  may  be  thrown  more  before,  but  that,  by  the  increased  capacity  of  his  chest, 
he  may  obtain  that  bulk  and  size  wliicli  will  enable  him  to  press  with  the  requisite 
force  upon  the  collar. 

Depth  of  chest  has  another  advantage;  it  not  only  gives  increased  capacity  to  the 
cavity  within  it,  but  increased  room  for  the  insertion  of  those  muscles  on  and  be- 
tween the  ribs,  by  the  action  of  which  tiie  cliest  is  alternately  expanded  and  con- 
tracted in  tlie  act  of  breathing;  and  tiie  action  of  wliich  is  so  necessary  when  the 
breathing  is  quickened  by  exercise. 

Again,  depth  of  chest  will  admit  of  a  great  deal  more  increased  expansion  than 
will  a  chest  approaching  to  a  circidur  form.  That  which  is  somewhat  straight  may 
be  easily  bent  into  a  circle;  but  that  which  is  already  rounded  can  scarcely  be  made 
more  so;  therefore  it  is  tliat  the  heavy  horse,  with  all  his  capaciousness  of  cliest, 
is  easily  blown,  and  incapable  of  speed,  because  all  this  expanse  was  employed  in 
the  accumulation  of  flesh  and  fat,  and  can  be  very  little  increased  M^hen  exertion 
causes  tlie  flow  and  the  change  of  blood  to  be  considerably  more  rapid.  The  flat- 
ter chest  may  be  readily  expanded  as  the  circumstances  of  the  animal  may  require. 
A  judge  of  the  horse  never  likes  to  see  a  chest  too  high  from  the  ground,  and  legs 
too  long.  The  animal  may  be  free  and  speedy,  but  there  is  not  sufficient  capacity 
of  chest  to  render  him  a  good  feeder,  or  to  give  him  much  endurance. 

The  next  point  of  consequence  regarding  the  capacity  of  tlie  chest,  is  the  length 
or  shortness  of  the  carcase;  or  the  extent  of  the  ribs  from  the  elbow  backward. 
Some  horses  are  what  is  called  ribbed  homt\  there  is  but  little  space  (see  cuts  pp. 
49  and  129,)  between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip-bone.  In  others  the  distance  is  con- 
siderably gi-eater,  which  is  evident  by  the  falhng  in  of  the  flank.  The  question 
here  is,  what  service  is  required  from  the  horse?  If  he  have  to  carry  a  heavy 
weight,  and  much  work  to  do,  let  him  be  ribbed  home — let  the  last  rib,  and  the 
hip-bone  be  almost  close  to  each  other.  There  is  more  capacity  of  chest  and  of 
belly;  there  is  less  distance  between  the  points  of  support;  there  is  more  strength 
and  endurance.  A  hackney  (and  we  would  almost  say  a  huntei',)  can  scarcely  be 
too  well  ribbed  home. 

If  speed,  however,  be  required,  there  must  be  room  for  the  full  action  of  the 
hinder  limbs;  and  this  can  only  exist  when  there  is  sufficient  space  between  the 
last  rib  and  the  hip-bone.  The  owner  of  the  horse  must  make  up  his  mind  as  to 
■what  he  wants  from  liim,  and  be  satisfied  if  he  obtains  that;  but  let  him  be  assured 
that  he  cannot  have  every  tiling:  this  would  require  those  diff'ei'ences  of  conforma- 
tion which  cannot  possibly  exist  in  the  same  animal. 

The  thorax,  or  chest,  is  fonned  by  the  spine,/,  above;  the  ribs,  e,  on  either  side; 
and  the  sternum,  or  breast-bone,  c,  beneath. 

THE    SPINE    AXD    BACK. 

The  spine  or  back-bone  consists  of  a  chain  of  bones  from  tlie  poll  to  the  extre- 
mity of  the  tail.  We  have  described  the  bones  of  the  neck,  and  we  will  now  pro- 
ceed to  that  portion  of  the  spine  wliich  forms  the  roof  of  the  chest  and  belly.  It 
consists  of  twenty -three  bones  from  the  neck  to  the  haunch;  eighteen,  called  dor- 
sal vertebrse,  composing  tlie  back;  and  five,  lumbar  vertebrae,  occupying  the  loins. 
On  this  part  of  the  animal  the  weight  or  burden  is  laid,  and  there  are  two  principal 
things  to  be  considered,  easiness  of  carriage  and  sti-ength.  If  the  back  were  com- 
posed of  unyielding  materials,  if  it  resembled  a  bar  of  wood  or  ii-on,  the  jar  or  jolt- 
ing, in  the  rapid  motion  of  the  animal,  could  not  possibly  be  endured.  To  avoid 
this,  as  well  as  to  assist  in  turning,  the  back  is  divided  into  numerous  bones;  and 
between  each  pair  of  bones,  there  is  interposed  a  cartilaginous  substance,  most 
highly  elastic,  which  will  yield  and  give  way  to  every  jar,  not  so  much  as  to  occa- 
sion insecurity  between  the  bones,  or  to  permit  considerable  motion  between  any 
one  pair;  yet  forming  altogether  an  aggregate  mass  of  elasticity  so  springy  that 
the  rider  sits  almost  undisturbed,  however  high  may  be  tlie  action,  or  however  rapid 
the  pace. 


THE  SPINE.  131 

Strength  is  as  important  as  ease;  therefore  these  bones  are  united  together  with 
peculiar  firmness.  The  round  liead  of  one  is  exactly  fitted  to  the  c\ip  or  cavity 
of  that  immediately  before  it;  and  between  them  is  placed  the  elastic  ligamentous 
substance  we  liave  just  described,  so  strong  that,  in  endeavoring  to  separate  the 
bones  of  the  back,  the  bones  will  break  sooner  than  this  substance  will  give  way. 
Beside  this  there  are  ligaments  running  along  the  broad  under  surface  of  these 
bones;  ligaments  between  each  of  the  transverse  processes,  or  side  projections  of 
tlie  bones;  and  ligaments  between  tlie  spinous  processes,  or  upwright  projections; 
and  a  continuation  of  the  strong  ligament  of  the  neck  running  along  the  whole 
course  of  the  back  and  loins  above  these,  lengthening  and  contracting,  as  in  the 
neck,  with  the  motions  of  the  animal,  and  forming  a  powerful  bond  of  union  be- 
tween the  bones. 

By  these  means  the  hunter  will  carry  a  heavy  man  without  fatigue  or  strain 
thi'ough  a  long  chase;  and  those  shocks  and  jars  are  avoided  which  would  be  an- 
noying to  the  rider,  and  injurious  and  speedily  fatal  to  the  horse. 

These  provisions,  however,  although  adequate  to  common  or  even  severe  exer- 
tion, will  not  protect  the  animal  from  the  consequences  of  brutal  usage,  and  there- 
fore, if  the  horse  be  much  overweighted,  or  violently  exercised,  or  too  suddenly 
pulled  upon  his  haunches,  these  ligaments  are  strained:  inflammation  follows;  and 
tlie  ligament  becomes  changed  to  bone,  and  the  joints  of  the  back  lose  their 
springiness  and  ease  of  motion;  or  rather,  in  point  of  fact,  cease  to  exist.  On  ac- 
count of  the  too  hard  service  required  from  them,  and  especially  before  they  have 
gained  their  full  strengtli,  there  are  few  old  horses  who  have  not  some  of  the  bones 
of  the  back  or  loins  anchylosed,  united  together  by  bony  matter,  and  not  by  liga- 
ment. When  this  exists  to  any  considerable  extent,  the  horse  is  not  pleasant  to 
ride;  he  turns  with  difficidty  in  liis  stall;  he  is  unwilling  to  lie  down,  or,  when  down, 
to  rise  again;  and  he  has  a  curious  straddling  action.  Such  horses  are  said  to  be 
broken  hacked,  or  chinked  in  the  chine. 

Fracture  of  the  bones  of  the  back  rarely  occurs,  on  account  of  their  being  so 
strongly  united  by  ligaments,  and  defended  by  muscular  substajice.  If  a  fracture 
of  these  bones  does  happen,  it  is  during  the  violent  stiaiggles  after  the  horse  has 
been  cast  for  an  operation. 

The  lengtli  of  the  back  is  an  important  consideration.  A  long-backed  horse 
will  be  easy  in  his  paces,  because  the  increased  distance  between  the  fore  and 
liind  legs,  which  are  the  supports  of  the  spine,  will  afford  greater  room  for  the 
play  of  the  joints  of  tlie  back.  A  long  spring  has  much  more  play  than  a  short 
one,  and  will  better  obviate  concussion.  A  long-backed  horse  is  likewise  formed 
for  speed,  for  there  is  room  for  him  to  bring  his  hinder  legs  more  under  him  in 
the  act  of  gallopping,  and  thus  more  powerfully  propel  or  drive  forward  the  body: 
but,  on  the  otlier  hand,  a  long-backed  horse  will  be  weak  in  the  back,  and  easily 
overweighted.  A  long  spring  may  be  easily  bent  and  broken.  The  weight  of  the 
rider,  likewise,  placed  further  from  the  extremities,  will  act  with  mechanical  dis- 
advantage upon  them,  and  be  more  likely  to  strain  them.  A  short-backed  horse 
may  be  a  good  hackney,  and  be  able  to  carry  the  heaviest  weight,  and  possess 
great  endurance;  but  his  paces  will  not  be  so  easy,  nor  his  speed  so  gi-cat,  and  he 
may  be  apt  to  overreach  himself. 

The  comparative  advantage  of  a  long  or  short  carcase  depends  entirely  on  the 
use  for  which  the  horse  is  intended.  For  general  purposes,  the  horse  with  a  short 
carcase  is  very  properly  preferred.  He  will  possess  health  and  strength;  for  horses 
of  this  make  are  proverbially  hardy.  He  will  have  sufficient  ease  not  to  fatigue 
the  rider,  and  speed  for  every  ordinary  purpose.  Length  of  back  will  always  be 
desirable  when  there  is  more  than  usual  substance  generally,  and  particidarly  when 
the  loins  are  wide,  and  the  muscles  of  the  loins  large  and  swelling.  The  two  re- 
quisites, strength  and  speed,  will  then  probably  be  united. 

The  back  should  be  depresi-ed  a  Uttle  immediately  behind  the  withers;  and  then 
continue  in  an  almost  straight  line  to  the  loins.  This  is  the  form  most  consistent 
with  beauty  and  strength.  Some  horses  have  a  very  considerable  hollow  behind 
the  withers.  They  are  said  to  be  saddle-backed.  It  seems  as  if  a  depression  were 
purposely  made  for  the  saddle.  Such  horses  are  evidently  easy  goers,  for  this 
curve  inward  must  necessarily  increase  the  play  of  the  joints  of  the  back;  but  in 
the  same  proportion  they  must  be  weak  and  liable  to  sprain.  To  the  general  ap- 
pearance of  the  horse,  this  defect  is  not  in  any  gi'eat  degree  injurous;  for  the 
hollow  of  the  back  is  uniformly  accompanied  by  a  beautifully  arched  crest. 

A  few  horses  have  the  curve  outward.  Tliey  are  said  to  be  roach-backed, 
from  the  supposed  resemblance  to  the  arched  back  of  a  roach.     This  is  a  very  se- 


132  THE  HORSE. 

rioiis  defect;  altogether  incompatible  with  beauty,  and  materially  diminishing  the 
usefulness  of  the  animal.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  prevent  the  saddle  from  being 
thrown  on  the  shoulders,  or  the  back  from  bein,^  e^'alled;  the  elasticity  of  the  spine 
is  destroyed;  the  rump  is  badly  set  on;  the  hinder  legs  are  too  much  under  the 
Animal;  he  is  continually  overreaching  himself,  and  his  head  is  carried  awkwardly 
low. 

THE    LOINS. 

The  loins  are  attentively  examined  by  every  good  horseman.  They  can  scarce- 
ly be  too  broad  and  muscular.  The  strength  of  the  back,  and  the  strength  of  the 
hinder  extremities,  will  depend  materially  on  this.  The  breadth  of  the  loins  is 
regulated  by  the  length  of  the  transverse,  or  side  processes  of  that  part.  The  bo- 
dies of  the  bones  of  the  loins  are  likewise  larger  than  those  of  the  back;  and  a 
more  dove-tailed  kind  of  union  subsists  between  these  bones  than  between  those 
of  the  back.  Evei-y  provision  is  made  for  strength  here.  The  union  of  the  back 
and  loins  should  be  carefully  remarked.  There  is  sometimes  a  depression  between 
them:  a  kind  of  line  is  drawn  across,  which  shows  imperfection  in  the  construction 
of  tlie  spine,  and  is  regarded  as  an  indication  of  weakness. 

THE    WITHERS. 

The  Spinous,  or  upright  processes  of  the  dorsal  vertebrse,  or  bones  of  the  back, 
above  the  upper  part  of  the  shoulder,  are  as  remarkable  for  their  length  as  are  the 
transverse  or  side  processes  of  the  bones  of  the  loins.  They  are  flattened,  and 
terminated  by  rough,  blunted  extremities.  The  elevated  ridge  which  they  form 
is  called  the  withers.  It  will  be  seen  in  the  cuts,  (pp.  49  and  129,)  that  the  spine 
of  the  first  bone  of  the  back  has  but  little  elevation,  and  is  sharp  and  upright. 
The  second  is  longer,  and  inclined  backward;  the  third  and  fourth  increase  in 
length,  and  the  fifth  is  the  longest:  they  then  gradually  shorten  until  tlie  twelfth 
or  thirteenth,  which  becomes  level  with  the  bones  of  the  loins. 

High  withers  have  been  always,  in  the  mind  of  the  judge  of  the  horse,  associat- 
ed with  good  action,  and  generally  with  speed.  The  reason  is  plain  enough:  they 
afford  larger  surface  for  the  attachment  of  the  muscles  of  the  back;  and  in  pro- 
portion to  the  elevation  of  the  withers,  these  muscles  act  with  greater  advantage. 
The  rising  of  the  fore  parts  of  the  horse,  even  in  the  trot,  and  more  especially  in 
tlie  gallop,  depends  not  merely  on  the  action  of  the  muscles  of  the  legs  and  shoul- 
ders, but  on  those  of  the  loins,  inserted  into  the  spinous  processes  of  these  bones 
of  the  back,  and  acting  with  greater  power  in  proportion  as  these  processes,  con- 
stituting the  withers,  are  lengthened.  The  arm  of  the  lever  to  which  the  power 
is  applied  will  be  longer;  and  we  well  know  that,  in  proportion  to  the  length  of 
this  arm,  will  be  the  ease  with  which  a  weight  is  raised.  Therefore,  good  and 
high  action  will  depend  much  on  elevated  withers. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how  speed  will  likewise  be  promoted  by  the  same 
conformation.  The  power  of  the  horse  is  in  his  hinder  quarters.  In  them  lies  the 
main  spring  of  the  frame,  and  the  fore  quarters  are  only  elevated  and  tlirown  for- 
ward to  receive  the  weight  forced  on  them  by  the  action  of  the  hinder  quarters. 
In  proportion,  however,  as  the  fore  quarters  are  elevated,  will  they  be  thrown 
farther  forward,  or,  in  other  words,  will  the  stride  of  the  horse  be  lengthened: 
they  are  elevated  and  thrown  forward  in  proportion  to  the  elevation  of  the  with- 
ers, and  therefore,  in  this  point  of  view,  the  form  of  the  withers  is  very  much  con- 
nected with  speed.  Yet  many  racers  have  the  forehand  low.  The  unrivalled 
Eclipse  (see  p.  37)  was  a  remarkable  instance  of  this;  but  the  ample  and  firmly 
proportioned  quarters,  and  the  muscidarity  of  the  thigh  and  fore-arm,  rendered 
the  aid  to  be  derived  from  the  withers  perfectly  unnecessary.  The  heavy  draught- 
horse  does  not  require  elevated  withers.  His  utility  depends  on  the  power  of  de- 
pressing his  fore  quarters,  and  throwing  their  weight  fully  into  the  collar;  but  for 
common  work  in  the  hackney,  in  the  farmer's  horse,  and  in  the  hunter,  well-form- 
ed withers  will  be  an  essential  advantage,  as  contributing  to  good  and  safe  action, 
and  likewise  to  speed. 

MUSCLES    OF  THE    BACK. 

The  most  important  muscles  wluch  belong  to  this  part  of  the  frame  can  be  very 
imperfectly  delineated  in  any  cut:  we  have  endeavoi-ed,  however,  to  give  as  com- 


FISTULOUS  WITHERS. 


133 


plete  a  view  of  them,  and  of  all  the  superficial  muscles  of  the  frame,  as  we  could. 
They  are  principally  those  which  extend  fi-om  the  continuation  of  the  ligament  of 
the  neck  along  the  whole  of  the  back  and  loins;  and  likewise  from  the  last  cer- 
vical  bone;  the  superjiciallf  and  tramversalis  cosfarum,  or  superficial  and  transverse 
muscles  of  the  ribs,  going  from  this  ligament  to  the  upper  part  of  the  ribs,  to  ele- 
vate them,  and  so  assist  in  the  expansion  of  the  chest;  also  the  large  mass  of  muscle, 
the  lon^issirmis  dorsi,  or  longest  muscle  of  the  back,  from  the  spinous  and  trans- 
verse processes  of  the  vertebrae  to  the  ribs,  and  by  which  all  the  motions  of  the 
spine,  and  back,  and  loins,  of  which  we  have  spoken,  are  principally  produced; 
by  which  the  foi-e  quarters  are  raised  upon  the  hind,  or  the  hind  upon  the  fore, 
according  as  either  of  them  is  made  a  fixed  point.  This  Is  tlie  principal  agent  in 
rearing  and  kicking. 

CUT  OF  THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  HORSE. 


The  last  we  shall  mention  is  the  spinalis  dorsi,  the  spinal  muscle  of  the  back, 
from  the  spinous  processes  of  some  of  the  last  bones  of  the  back,  to  those  of  the 
fore  part;  thick  and  strong  about  tlie  witliers,  and  broadly  attached  to  them;  and 
more  powerfully  attached,  and  more  strongly  acting  in  proportion  to  the  elevation 
of  the  withei's;  and  proceeding  on  to  the  three  lowest  bones  of  the  neck,  and 
therefore  mainly  concerned,  as  we  have  described,  in  elevating  the  fore  quarters, 
and  producing  high  and  safe  action,  and  contributing  to  speed. 

Before  we  quite  leave  the  roof  of  the  chest,  we  will  speak  of  some  accidents  or 
diseases  to  which  it  is  exposed.     The  first  is  of  a  very  serious  nature. 

FISTULOUS   avithehs. 

"When  the  saddle  has  been  suffered  to  press  long  upon  the  withers,  a  tumor 
will  be  formed,  hot  and  exceedingly  tender.  It  may  sometimes  be  dispersed  by 
the  cooling  applications  recommended  in  the  treatment  of  poll-evil,  (p.  121;)  but 
if,  in  despite  of  these,  the  swelling  shotdd  remain  stationary,  and  more  especially 
if  it  should  become  larger  and  more  tender,  warm  fomentations  and  poultices,  and 
stimulating  embrocations,  should  be  applied  diligently  to  it,  as  to  the  tumor  of 


134  TIIK  HORSE. 

poll-evil,  in  order  to  hasten  the  formation  of  matter.  As  soon  as  the  matter  can 
be  fairly  detected,  a  seton  should  be  passed  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  tu- 
mor,  so  that  the  whole  of  tlie  matter  may  run  ovit,  and  continue  to  nm  out  as  it  is 
afterwards  formed.  The  after  treatment  must  be  precisely  that  wliich  we  liave 
recommended  for  a  similar  disease  in  the  poll. 

In  neglected  fistulous  withers  the  ulcer  may  be  larger  and  deeper,  and  more  des- 
tructive than  in  poll-evil.  It  may  burrow  beneath  the  shoulder-blade,  and  the  mat- 
ter may  appear  at  the  point  of  the  shoidder  or  tlie  elbow;  or  the  bones  of  the  wiUi- 
ers  may  become  carious. 

WAWBLES,    SITFASTS,    AND    SADDLE    GALLS. 

On  other  parts  of  the  back,  tumors  and  veiy  troublesome  ulcers  may  be  pro- 
duced by  the  same  cause.  The  httle  tumors  resulting  from  the  pressure  of  the 
saddle  are  called  warhlen,  and  when  they  ulcerate  they  frequently  become  sitfas/s. 
The  ulcer  has  a  portion  of  callous  skin  in  the  centi-e  of  it,  resembhng  leather  in 
its  appearance,  and  so  closely  adhering  as  not  lo  be  separated  without  great  force 
or  absolute  dissection;  and  hence  Uie  name  given  to  this  peculiar  ulcer.  Warbles 
are  too  often  but  little  regarded.  They  will  frequently  disappear  without  medical 
treatment,  but  they  will,  at  other  times,  degenerate  into  sitfasts.  If  it  be  practica- 
ble, the  horse  should  have  rest,  or,  at  all  events,  the  stuffing  of  the  saddle  should 
be  so  contrived  that  eveiy  degree  of  pressure  be  removed  from  the  part:  then 
goulard  and  vinegar  or  brine  should  be  frequently  applied  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
pelling tlie  enlargement.  Should  this  prove  ineffective,  and  the  sitfast  appear,  let 
it  by  no  means  be  torn  out,  but  apply  a  mild  blister  which  will  cause  it  speedily  to 
separate;  and  tlaen  let  tlie  wound  be  dressed  with  Fi-iar's  balsam,  or  Turner's  ce- 
rate,  or  both. 

For  saddle  galls  tliere  is  no  better  application  than  strong  salt  and  water,  mixed 
with  a  fourth-part  of  tincture  of  mjTrh.  Common  sense  and  common  humanity 
would  suggest  the  necessity  of  chambering  tlie  saddle  and  the  collar,  and  not  suf- 
fering the  animal,  with  sore  places  as  broad  as  tlie  hand,  to  be  unnecessarily  tor- 
tui'cd  by  the  mbbing  of  the  rough  and  hardened  stuffing. 

THE    BIBS. 

The  ribs  constitute  the  sides  of  the  chest.  They  are  usually  eighteen  on  either 
side,  and,  in  a  few  instances,  nineteen  or  twenty.  They  are  crooked  or  twisted  in 
their  figure,  but  so  united  to  the  spine  by  a  true  joint,  the  head  of  each  rib  being 
received  between  the  bodies  of  two  of  the  bones  of  the  back,  tliat  they  form  so 
many  arches,  differing  in  roundness  in  different  horses.  The  first  rib  (a)  is  placed 
at  tlie  base  of  the  column  of  the  neck,  and  is  short  and  strong  in  order  to  support 
the  weight  and  pressure  of  the  head  and  neck,  and  to  be  a  fixed  point  for  the  other 
ribs  to  act  upon  in  expanding  and  contracting  the  chest.  The  second  is  longer 
and  straight,  to  assist  in  the  same  office,  and  to  sustain  the  stress  which  arises  from 
the  suspension  of  tlie  trunk  between  tlie  shoulders.  The  otlier  ribs  (e)  have  tlie 
arched  form  which  we  have  described.  The  lower  extremity  of  the  rib  is  attach- 
ed to  or  composed  of  cartUage,  a  yielding  elastic  substance,  to  enable  the  ribs  to 
be  more  easily  moved  by  the  muscles  of  respiration,  and  to  bring  them  back  again 
to  their  natural  situation  and  shape  when  the  muscles  cease  to  act.  These  cartila- 
ges are  received  into,  and  constitute  joints  with  tlie  sternum  or  breast-bone,  form- 
ed almost  in  the  shape  of  the  prow  of  a  ship,  (c)  and  witli  a  projection  of  cartilage 
at  each  end.  The  projection  before  is  evident  to  the  eye  in  the  living  horse,  and 
is  called  the  point  of  the  breast.  Tliis  is  occasionally  injured  by  blows,  or  by  the 
pressure  of  tlie  collar,  and  first  a  tumor,  and  then  an  ulcer  is  formed  which  is  veiy 
apt  to  become  fistulous,  and  must  be  treated  hke  poll-evU  or  fistulous  withers. 

The  breast-bone  is  in  the  colt  composed  of  six  bones,  which  in  the  full-grown 
horse  unite  into  one.  Seven  or  eight  of  the  ribs,  the  number  occasionally  varying, 
are  attached  to  the  sternum  by  very  strong  Ugaments.  These  are  called  the  true 
ribs,  and  tliey  increase  in  length  from  the  first  to  the  seventh.  The  remaining  ten 
or  eleven  are  called /a&e  ribs — they  become  gradually  shorter,  and  narrower,  and 
rounder;  and  their  direction  is  more  backwai-d,  in  order  to  increase  the  cavity  of 
the  thorax  and  belly,  and  to  strengthen  the  roof  of  the  belly.  Their  cartilages  aa'e 
not  attached  to  tlie  breast-bone,  but  to  each  other,  and  yet  connected  witli  the 
breast-bone,  and  sliai-ing  in  all  its  motions  by  means  of  the  cartilage  of  the  last  true 


JIUSCLES  OF  THE  BREAST— CHEST-FOUNDER,  &c.  135 

vib  with  which  they  all  unite.  In  consequence  of  these  shorter  ribs,  with  long 
elastic  cartilages,  the  bulk  of  the  chest  and  of  the  bell}'  is  materially  increased, 
and  the  ribs  are  much  more  easily  moved. 

Between  the  ribs,  and  mainly  contributing  to  their  motion,  are  two  layers  of 
muscles,  the  intercostals,  (between  the  ribs.)  Accoi-ding  as  tlie  ribs  are  brought 
nearer  to,  or  recede  from  each  other,  the  cavity  of  the  cliest  will  be  increased  or 
diminished.  These  two  layers  are  curiously  contrived.  If  the  fibres  ran  straight 
across  from  rib  to  rib,  they  would  be  exceedingly  short;  a  short  muscle  could  have 
but  little  contraction,  and  a  very  slight  change  of  form  or  dimension  could  be  pro- 
duced. They  run  diagonally  from  rib  to  rib,  and  thus  are  more  than  double  the 
length  that  they  could  otherwise  have  been;  and  so  the  degree  of  contraction  is 
doubled,  and  the  ribs  are  moved  through  a  greater  space.  More  perfectly  to  pro- 
duce tliis  effect,  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  outer  layer  run  one  way,  and  those  of 
the  inner  layer  a  contrary,  crossing  each  other  in  the  foi-m  of  an  X.  When  these 
muscles  contract,  as  they  act  from  the  fore  ribs  upon  the  hinder  ones,  although  the 
ribs  are  brought  nearer  to  each  other,  they  are  thrown  outward,  and  the  real  effect 
is  to  expand,  and  not  to  contract  the  cavity  of  the  chest.  This  is,  perhaps,  some- 
what difficult  to  imagine,  but  it  is  the  actual  explanation  of  the  matter.  The  ribs 
are  drawn  powerfully  forward,  and,  when  drawn  forward,  tliey  must  be  thrown 
outward,  and  the  chest  is  necessarily  expanded. 

MtrSClES    OF    THE    BREAST. 

Of  the  proper  form  of  the  trunk  we  have  already  spoken.  There  are  some  im- 
portant muscles  attached  to  the  breast,  and  therefore,  every  horse  should  have  a 
breast  tolerably  expanded.  In  the  cut,  page  122,  and  in  that  at  page  133,  are  seen 
a  very  important  pair  of  muscles,  the  pedorales  transversi,  or  pectoral  muscles, 
forming  two  prominences  in  the  front  of  the  chest,  and  extending  backward  be- 
tween the  legs.  They  come  from  the  fore  and  upper  part  of  the  breast-bone;  go 
across  the  inward  part  of  the  arm,  and  reach  from  the  elbow  almost  down  to  the 
knee.  They  confine  the  arm  to  the  side  in  the  rapid  motion  of  the  horse,  and 
prevent  him  from  being,  what  horseman  would  call,  and  what  is  seen  in  a  horse 
pushed  beyond  his  natural  power,  "  all  abroad."  Other  muscles,  pedorales  magni 
et  parvi,  the  great  and  httle  pectorals,  rather  above  but  behind  these,  go  from  the 
breast-bone  to  the  arm,  to  draw  back  the  point  of  the  shoulder,  and  bring  the 
shoulder  upright.  Another  and  smaller  muscle  goes  from  the  breast-bone  to  the 
shoulder,  to  assist  in  the  same  office.  A  horse,  therefore,  tliin  and  narrow  in  the 
breast,  must  be  deficient  in  important  muscular  power. 

Between  the  legs  and  along  the  breast  bone  is  the  proper  place  in  which  to  in- 
sert rowels  in  cases  of  inflamed  lungs. 

CHEST  FOUNDER. 

These  muscles  are  occasionally  the  seat  of  a  singular  and  somewhat  mysterious 
disease.  The  old  farriers  used  to  call  it  ariticor  and  chest- founder.  The  horse  has 
considerable  stiffness  in  moving,  evidently  not  referable  to  the  feet.  There  is  ten- 
derness about  the  muscles  of  the  breast,  and  occasionally  swelling,  and,  after  a  while, 
the  muscles  of  the  chest  waste  considerably.  We  believe  it  to  oe  nothing  more 
than  rheumatism,  produced  by  suffering  the  horse  to  remain  too  long  tied  up,  and 
exposed  to  the  cold,  or  riding  him  against  a  very  bleak  wind.  Sometimes  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  fever  accompanies  this;  but  bleeding,  physic,  a  rowel  in  the 
chest,  warm  embrocations  over  the  parts  affected,  warm  stabling,  and  warm  cloth- 
ing, with  doses  of  a  drachm  or  two  of  antimonial  powder,  will  soon  subdue  the 
complaint. 

DROPSr    OF    THE    SKIN    OF    THE    CHEST. 

Dropsical  swellings  often  appear  between  the  fore  legs,  and  on  the  chest.  They 
are  effusions  of  fluid  underneath  the  skin.  They  accompanj  various  diseases,  par- 
ticularly when  the  animal  is  weakened  by  them,  and  sometimes  appear  when  there 
is  no  other  disease  than  the  debility  which,  in  the  spring  and  fall  of  the  year,  ac- 
companies the  changing  of  the  coat.  The  treatment  will  vary  with  the  cause  of 
the  affection,  or  the  accompanying  disease.  Small  punctures  with  the  lancet  will 
seldom  do  harm— friction  of  the  part,  if  it  can  be  borne,  will  be  serviceable— mild 


136  THE  HORSE. 

exercise  should  be  used — diuretics  given,  mixed  with  some  cordial,  with  liberal 
food,  as  carrots,  malt  mashes,  and  occasionally  a  very  mild  dose  of  physic,  and  that 
followed  by  tonics  and  cordials,  with  diuretics.  The  vegetable  tonics,  as  gentian 
and  columbo,  with  ginger,  will  be  most  effectual. 

The  cavity  of  the  trunk  consists  of  two  compartments,  divided  from  each  other 
by  the  diaphragm  or  nddriff.  The  first,  into  which  we  have  traced  the  gullet  and 
the  wind-pipe,  contains  the  heart  and  the  lungs.  It  is  hned  by  a  delicate  mem- 
brane called  the  pleura,  (the  side,  or  membrane  of  the  side,)  which  hkewise  ex- 
tends over  and  affords  a  covering  to  the  lungs.  A  portion  of  it,  dipping  down  from 
its  attachment  to  the  spine,  separates  the  chest  into  two  parts,  each  of  which  con- 
tains one  of  the  lobes  or  divisions  of  the  lungs;  and  this  portion,  the  mediastinum 
(standing  in  the  middle,)  forms  a  kind  of  bag  enveloping  the  heart.  The  use  of 
this  membrane  is  to  throw  out  a  fluid  to  moisten  the  different  surfaces,  and  prevent 
all  dangerous  friction  or  rubbing  between  these  important  parts;  and  also,  to  sup- 
port these  organs  in  their  natural  situation. 

THE    HEART. 

The  heart  is  placed  between  a  doubling  of  the  pleura,  and  Is  likewise  surround- 
ed by  a  membrane  or  bag  of  its  own,  called  the  pericardium,  (about  the  heart.) 
This  likewise  throws  out  a  fluid  for  the  purposes  above  mentioned.  When  the 
pericardium  or  the  heart  itself  becomes  inflamed,  this  secretion  is  much  increased; 
and  so  much  fluid  accumulates  as  to  obstruct  the  beating  of  the  heart.  This  dis- 
ease is  called  dropsy  of  the  heart.  It  is  not  easily  distinguished  from  inflammation 
of  the  lungs;  but  this  is  a  matter  of  little  consequence,  for  the  treatment  would  be 
nearly  the  same  in  both. 

The  heart  is  the  engine  by  which  the  blood  is  circulated  through  the  frame.  It 
is  composed  of  four  cavities,  two  above  called  auricles,  from  their  supposed  resem- 
blance to  a  dog's  ear,  and  two  ventricles  or  little  bellies,  occupying  the  substance 
of  the  heart.  The  blood  which  has  circulated  through  the  frame,  and  nourished 
it,  returns  to  the  heart  through  the  veins.  It  enters  the  auricle  on  the  right  side, 
where  it  accumulates  as  in  a  reservoir,  until  there  is  enough  to  fill  the  ventricle 
below.  The  auricle  then  contracts,  and  throws  the  blood  into  the  ventricle.  That 
contracts  in  its  turn,  and  drives  the  blood,  not  back  again  into  the  auricle,  for  there 
is  as  complete  a  valve  as  that  in  the  sucker  of  a  pump  to  prevent  this,  but  through 
an  aperture  that  leads  to  the  lungs.  The  blood  traverses,  as  we  shall  presently  see, 
all  the  little  vessels  and  cells  of  the  lungs,  and  undergoes  an  important  change 
there,  and  is  carried  to  the  left  auricle;  thence  it  descends  to  the  left  ventricle,  and, 
by  the  powerful  closing  of  the  ventricle,  is  propelled  into  the  arteries.  The  first 
artery,  the  aorta,  rises  from  the  left  ventricle,  and  the  blood,  by  the  force  commu- 
nicated to  it,  by  the  sudden  contraction  of  the  venti'icle  and  assisted  by  the  elastic 
power  of  the  arteries  which  keeps  them  open  and  free  from  obstruction,  and  also 
by  the  pressure  of  the  muscular  and  elastic  coats,  endeavoring  to  return  to  their 
former  dimensions,  pui-sues  its  course  through  every  part  of  the  frame. 

The  heart  is  subject  to  disease.  It  powerfully  sympathises  with  the  maladies  of 
every  part.  An  injury  of  the  foot  will  speedily  double  the  quickness  of  the  beat- 
ings or  pulsations  of  the  heart.  It  sometimes  is  inflamed,  without  previous  affec- 
tion of  any  other  part.  This  is  not  a  frequent,  but  a  most  dangerous  disease,  and 
is  characterized  by  a  pulse  quick  and  strong,  and  a  bounding  action  of  the  heart 
that  may  occasionally  be  seen  at  the  side,  and  even  heard  at  the  distance  of  several 
yards.  There  is  also  a  peculiar  alertness  and  quickness  in  every  motion  of  the  ani- 
mal; and  an  energy  of  expression  in  the  countenance  exceedingly  remarkable. 
Speedy  and  copious  blood-letting  will  alone  avail  to  save  the  horse;  for  the  heart, 
over-excited  and  called  on  to  perform  this  double  work,  must  soon  be  exhausted. 

THE    ARTERIES. 

The  vessels  which  carry  the  blood  from  the  heart  are  called  arteries,  (keeping  air, 
the  ancients  thought  that  they  contained  air.)  They  are  composed  of  three  coats; 
the  outer  or  elastic  is  that  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  yield  to  the  gush  of  blood, 
and  enlarge  their  dimensions  as  it  is  forced  along  them,  and  by  which  also  they 
contract  again  as  soon  as  the  gush  of  blood  has  passed;  the  middle  coat  is  the  mus- 
cular, by  which  this  conti-action  is  more  powerfully  performed,  and  the  blood  urged 
on  in  its  course;  the  inner  or  membranous  coat  is  the  mere  lining  of  the  tube. 


THE  PULSE.  137 

This  yielding  of  the  artery  to  the  gush  of  blood  forced  into  it  by  the  contraction 
of  the  heart,  constitutes 

THE    PULSE. 

The  pulse  is  a  very  useful  assistant  to  the  practitioner  of  human  medicine,  and 
much  more  so  to  tlie  veterinary  surgeon,  wliose  patients  cannot  describe  eitlier  the 
seat  or  degree  of  ailment  or  pain.  The  number  of  pulsations  in  any  arterv  will 
give  the  number  of  the  beatings  of  the  heart,  and  so  express  the  irritation  of  that 
organ,  and  of  the  frame  generally.  In  a  state  of  health,  the  heart  beats  in  the  far- 
mer's horse  about  thirty-six  times  in  a  minute.  In  the  smaller,  and  in  the  thorough- 
bred horse,  the  pulsations  are  40  or  42.  This  is  said  to  be  the  sta7idard  pulse — 
the  pulse  of  healtb.  It  varies  singularly  little  in  horses  of  the  same  size  and  breed, 
and  where  it  is  found  there  can  be  little  materially  wrong.  The  most  convenient 
place  to  feel  the  pulse,  is  at  the  lower  jaw,  (p.  94)  a  httle  behind  the  spot  where 
the  submaxillary  artery  and  vein,  and  the  parotid  duct,  come  from  under  the  jaw. 
There  the  number  of  pulsations  will  be  easily  counted,  and  the  character  of  the 
pulse,  a  matter  of  fidly  equal  importance,  will  be  clearly  ascertained.  Many  horse- 
men put  the  hand  to  the  side.  They  can  certainly  count  the  pulse  there,  but  they 
can  do  nothing  more.  AVe  must  be  able  to  press  the  artery  against  some  hard 
body,  as  the  jaw-bone,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  manner  in  which  the  blood  flows 
through  it,  and  the  quantity  that  flows. 

When  the  pulse  reaches  fifty  or  fifty-five,  some  degree  of  fever  may  be  ap- 
prehended, and  proper  precaution  should  be  taken.  Seventy  or  seventy-five  will 
indicate  a  somewhat  dangerous  state,  and  put  the  owner  and  the  surgeon  not  a 
little  on  the  alert.  Few  horses  long  survive  a  pulse  of  one  hundred,  for  by  this 
excessive  action  the  energies  of  nature  are  speedily  worn  out. 

Some  things,  however,  should  be  taken  into  account  in  foraiing  our  conclusion 
from  the  frequency  of  the  pulse.  Exercise,  a  warm  stable,  fear,  will  wonderfully 
increase  the  number  of  pulsations. 

When  a  careless  brutal  fellow  goes  up  to  a  horse,  and  speaks  hastily  to  him, 
and  handles  liim  roughly,  he  adds  ten  beats  per  minute  to  the  pulse;  and  will  often 
be  misled  in  the  opinion  he  may  form  of  the  state  of  the  animal.  A  judicious  per- 
son will  approach  the  patient  gently,  and  pat  and  sooth  him,  and  even  then  the 
circulation,  probably,  will  be  little  disturbed;  and  he  should  take  the  additional 
precaution  of  noting  the  number  and  quahty  of  the  pulse  a  second  time  before  he 
leaves  the  animal. 

If  a  quick  pulse  indicate  irritation  and  fever,  a  slow  pulse  will  likewise  charac- 
terize diseases  of  an  opposite  character.  It  accompanies  the  sleepy  stage  of  stag- 
gers, and  every  malady  connected  with  deficiency  of  nei'vous  energy. 

The  heart  may  not  only  be  excited  to  more  frequent,  but  also  to  more  violent 
action.  It  may  contract  more  powerfully  upon  the  blood,  which  will  be  driven 
with  greater  force  through  the  arteries,  and  the  expansion  of  the  vessels  will  be 
greater  and  more  sudden.  Then  we  have  the  hard  pulse — the  sure  indicator  of 
considerable  fever,  and  calling  for  the  immediate  and  free  use  of  the  lancet. 

Sometimes  tlie  pulse  may  be  hard  and  jerking,  and  yet  small.  The  stream, 
though  forcible,  is  not  great.  The  heart  is  so  irritable  that  it  contracts  before  the 
ventricle  is  properly  filled.  The  practitioner  knows  that  this  shows  a  dangerous 
state  of  disease.  It  is  an  almost  invariable  accompaniment  of  inflammation  of  the 
bowels, 

A  weak  pulse,  when  the  arterial  stream  flows  slowly,  is  caused  by  the  feeble 
action  of  the  heart.     It  is  the  reverse  of  fever,  and  expressive  of  debility. 

The  oppressed  pulse  is  when  the  arteries  seem  to  be  fully  distended  with  blood; 
there  is  obstruction  somewhere,  and  the  action  of  the  heart  can  hardly  force  the 
stream  along,  or  communicate  pulsation  to  the  cuiTcnt.  This  is  the  case  in  sud- 
den inflammation  of  the  lungs.  They  are  overloaded  and  gorged  with  blood, 
which,  cannot  find  its  way  through  their  minute  vessels.  This  accounts  for  the 
well-known  fact  of  a  copious  bleeding  increasing  a  pulse  pi-eviously  oppressed. 
A  portion  being  removed  from  the  distended  and  choked  vessels,  the  remainder 
is  able  to  flow  on. 

There  are  many  other  varieties  of  the  pulse,  which  it  would  be  tedious  here  to 
particularize,  and  we  will  conclude  oui-  remarks  on  it  by  observing  that,  during  the 
act  of  bleeding,  its  state  should  be  carefully  observed.  Many  veterinary  surgeons, 
and  gentlemen  too,  are  apt  to  order  a  certain  quantity  of  blood  to  be  taken  away, 
but  do  not  condescend  to  superintend  the  operation.  This  is  unpardonable  in  the 
18 


138  THE  HORSE. 

surgeon,  and  censurable  in  the  owner  of  the  horse.  The  horse  is  bled  for  some 
particular  purpose.  There  is  some  state  of  disease,  indicated  by  a  peculiar  quali> 
ty  of  tlie  pulse,  which  we  are  endeavoring  to  alter.  The  most  experienced  prac- 
titioner cannot  tell  what  quantity  of  blood  must  be  abstracted  to  produce  the 
desired  effect.  The  change  of  the  pulse  can  alone  indicate  when  the  object  is 
accomplished:  therefore,  the  operator  should  have  his  finger  on  the  artery  during 
the  act  of  bleeding,  and,  comparatively  regardless  of  the  quantity,  continue  to 
take  blood  until,  in  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  the  oppressed  pulse  becomes  fuller 
and  more  distinct,  or  the  strong  pidse  of  considerable  fever  is  evidently  softer,  or 
the  animal  exliibits  symptoms  of  faintness. 

The  arteries  divide  as  tliey  proceed  through  the  frame,  and  bi-anch  out  into  in- 
numerable minute  tubes,  termed  capillaries  (hau"-llke  tubes,)  and  they  even  be- 
come so  small  as  to  elude  the  sight.  The  slightest  puncture  cannot  be  inflicted 
without  wounding  some  of  them. 

In  these  little  tubes  the  nourishment  of  the  body,  and  the  sepai-ation  of  all  the 
various  secretions,  is  performed,  and,  in  consequence  of  this,  the  blood  is  changed; 
and  when  these  capillaries  unite  together,  and  begin  to  enlai-ge,  it  is  found  to  be 
no  longer  arterial,  or  of  a  florid  red  color,  but  venous,  or  of  a  blacker  hue.  There- 
fore, the  principal  termination  of  the  arteries  is  in  veins.  The  point  where  the 
one  ends,  and  the  other  commences,  cannot  be  ascertained;  it  is  when  the  red  ai*- 
terial  blood,  having  discharged  its  function,  is  changed  to  venous  or  black  blood; 
but  tliis  is  a  process  gradually  performed,  and  therefore  tlie  vessel  is  gradually 
changing  its  character. 

Branches  fi'om  the  ganglial  or  sympathetic  nerves  wind  round  tliese  vessels,  and 
endue  them  with  energy  to  discharge  theii*  functions.  When  the  nerves  commu- 
nicate too  much  energy,  and  these  vessels  consequently  act  with  too  much  power, 
iiiflammaiioH  is  produced.  If  this  disturbed  action  be  confined  to  a  small  space, 
or  a  single  organ,  it  is  said  to  be  local,  as  inflammation  of  the  eye,  or  of  tlie  lungs; 
when  this  inordinate  action  spreads  from  its  original  seat,  and  embraces  the  whole 
of  the  arterial  system,  fever  is  said  to  be  present,  and  which  usually  increases  in 
proportion  as  tlie  local  distui'bance  increases,  and  subsides  with  it. 

INFLAMMATIOS". 

Local  inflammation  is  characterized  by  redness,  swelling,  heat,  and  pain.  The 
redness  proceeds  from  the  increased  quantity  of  blood  flowing  through  the  part, 
occasioned  by  the  increased  action  of  the  vessels.  The  swelling  arises  from  the 
same  cause,  and  from  the  deposite  of  fluid  in  the  neighboring  substance.  The 
natural  heat  of  the  bod}'  is  produced  by  the  gradual  change  which  takes  place  in 
the  blood  in  passing  from  an  arterial  to  a  venous  state.  If  more  blood  be  driven 
through  the  capillaries  of  an  inflamed  part,  and  in  which  this  change  is  effected, 
more  heat  will  necessarily  be  produced  there;  and  the  pain  is  easily  accounted 
for  by  the  distension  and  pressure  which  must  be  produced,  and  the  participation 
of  the  nerves  in  the  disturbance  of  the  surrounding  parts. 

We  have  spoken  of  some  of  these  local  inflammations,  and  shall  speak  of  others 
when  describing  the  structure  of  the  pai-ts  that  are  occasionally  attacked  by  them. 
The  treatment  will,  in  some  degi-ee,  vary  with  tlie  part  attacked,  and  the  deg^'ee 
of  the  inflammation;  but  it  will  necessarily  include  the  following  particulars. 

If  Inflammation  consist  of  increased  flow  of  blood  to  and  through  the  part,  the 
ready  way  to  abate  tlie  inflammation,  is  to  lessen  the  quantity  of  blood.  If  we 
take  away  the  fuel,  the  fire  will  go  out.  All  other  means  are  comparatively  unim- 
portant, compared  with  bleeding.  Blood  may  be  talten  from  the  jugulai-,  and  so 
the  general  quantity  may  be  lessened;  but  if  it  can  be  taken  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  part,  it  will  be  productive  of  tenfold  benefit.  One  quart  of  blood 
taken  from  the  foot  in  acute  founder,  by  unloading  the  vessels  of  the  inflamed 
part,  and  enabling  them  to  contract,  and,  in  that  contraction,  to  acquire  tone  and 
power  to  i-esist  future  distension,  will  do  more  good  tlian  five  qviarts  taken  from 
the  general  cu-culation.  An  ounce  of  blood  obtained  by  scarifying  the  swelled 
vessels  of  the  inflamed  eye,  will  give  as  much  relief  as  a  copious  bleeding  from  the 
jugular.  It  is  a  principle  in  tlie  animal  frame  wliich  should  never  be  lost  sight  of  by 
the  veterinary  surg'eon,  or  the  hoi-seman,  that  if,  by  bleeding,  the  process  of  inflam- 
mation can  once  be  checked — if  it  can  be  suspended  but  for  a  little  while — although 
it  may  return,  it  never  returns  witli  the  same  degree  of  violence,  and  in  many  cases 
it  is  got  rid  of  at  once.    Hence  the  necessity  of  bleeding  early,  and  bleeding  large- 


INFLAMMATION.  139 

ly,  in  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  or  of  the  bowels,  or  of  the  brain,  or  of  any  im- 
portant organ.  Many  horses  are  lost  for  want  of  bleeding,  or  from  insufficient 
bleeding,  but  we  never  knew  one  materially  injured  by  the  most  copious  abstrac- 
tion of  blood  in  tlie  early  stage  of  acute  inflammation.'  The  horse  will  bear,  and 
with  advantage,  tlie  loss  of  an  almost  incredible  quairtity  of  blood.  Four  quarts 
taken  from  him  will  be  comparatively  little  more  than  one  pound  taken  from  the 
human  being.  We  can  scarcely  conceive  a  considerable  inflammation  of  any  part 
of  the  horse,  either  proceeding  from  sprains,  contusions,  or  any  other  cause,  in 
which  bleeding,  local  (if  possible)  or  general,  or  both,  will  not  be  of  essential 
service. 

Next  in  importance  to  bleeding  is  purging.  Something  may  be  removed  from 
the  bowels,  the  retention  of  which  would  increase  the  general  imtation  and  fever; 
the  blood  will  be  materially  lessened,  for  the  quantity  of  serous  or  wateiy  fluid 
wliicli  is  separated  from  it  by  a  bi-isk  purge,  the  action  of  which,  in  the  horse,  con- 
tinues pi-obably  for  more  than  twenty-four  hours,  is  enonnous;  and  while  tlie  blood 
is  thus  determined  to  the  bowels,  less  even  of  tliat  which  remains  will  flow  through 
the  inflamed  part.  When  the  circulation  is  directed  to  one  set  of  vessels,  it  is 
proportionably  diminished  in  other  parts.  It  was  first  directed  to  the  inflamed 
parts,  and  they  were  overloaded  and  injured:  it  is  now  directed  to  the  bowels, 
and  the  inflamed  parts  are  relieved.  While  the  purging  continues,  there  is  also 
some  degree  of  languor  and  sickness  felt,  and  the  force  of  the  circulation  is  there- 
by diminished,  and  the  general  excitement  lessened.  The  farmer  will,  therefore, 
see  the  importance  of  physic  in  every  case  of  considerable  external  inflammation. 
If  the  horse  is  laid  by  for  a  few  days  from  injury  of  the  foot,  or  sprain,  or  poll- 
evil,  or  wound,  or  almost  any  cause  of  inflammation,  a  physic  ball  shoidd  be  given. 

In  cases  of  internal  inflammation,  much  judgment  is  required  to  determine  when 
a  purgative  may  be  beneficial  or  injurious.  In  inflammation  of  the  lungs  or  bow- 
els it  should  never  be  given.  There  is  so  strong  a  sympathy  between  the  various 
contents  of  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  that  no  one  of  them  can  be  inflamed  to  any 
great  extent,  without  all  the  others  being  disposed  to  become  inflamed;  and,  tliere- 
fore,  a  dose  of  pliysic  in  inflamed  lungs  would  be  frequently  as  fatal  as  a  dose  of 
poison.  The  excitement  produced  on  tlie  bowels  by  the  purgative  will  soon  run 
on  to  inflammation,  which  no  medical  skill  can  stop. 

The  means  of  abating  external  inflammation  are  various,  and  seemingly  contra- 
dictory. The  heat  of  the  part  very  naturally  and  properly  led  to  the  application 
of  cold  embrocations  and  lotions.  Heat  has  a  strong  tendency  to  equalize  itself, 
or  to  leave  that  substance  which  has  a  too  great  quantity  of  it,  or  little  capacity  to 
retain  it,  for  another  which  has  less  of  it,  or  more  capacity  to  retain  it.  Hence 
the  advantage  of  cold  applications,  by  which  a  great  deal  of  the  unnatm-al  heat  is 
speedily  taken  away  from  the  inflamed  part.  The  foot  laboring  under  inflamma- 
tion is  put  into  cold  water;  or  the  horse  is  made  to  stand  in  water  or  wet  cla}',  and 
various  cold  applications  are  used  to  sprains.  The  part  is  wetted  with  diluted 
vinegar  or  goulai'd,  or  salt  and  water.  We  believe  that  when  benefit  is  derived 
from  these  applications,  it  is  to  be  attributed  to  their  coldness  alone,  and  that  wa- 
ter, and  when  especially  cooled  below  the  natural  temperature,  is  quite  as  good 
as  any  thing  else.  An  ounce  of  nitre,  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water,  will  lower  tlie 
temperature  of  the  fluid  many  degi-ees;  but  the  lotion  must  be  apphed  immedi- 
ately after  the  salt  has  been  dissolved;  and  it  should  be  applied  in  such  a  way  that 
the  inflamed  part  may  be  fully  exposed  to  the  process. of  evaporation.  While  tlie 
fluid  is  converted  into  vapor  by  tlie  heat  of  the  skin,  a  considerable  degree  of 
cold  is  produced.  Let  the  hmb  or  the  part  have  tlie  full  benefit  of  this,  by  being 
uncovered.  A  bandage  may  be  afterwards  applied  to  strengthen  the  limb,  but 
during  the  continuance  of  active  inflammation  it  will  only  confine  the  heat  of  the 
part,  or  prevent  the  part  from  benefitting  by  the  salutary  influence  of  the  cold 
produced  by  the  evaporation  of  the  water. 

Sometimes,  however,  we  resoil  to  warm  fomentations,  and  if  benefit  be  derived 
from  their  use,  it  is  to  be  traced  to  the  warmth  of  the  fluid,  and  not  to  any  medi- 
cinal property  in  it;  and  warm  water  will  do  as  much  good  to  the  horse,  who  has 
so  thick  a  skin,  as  a  decoction  of  camomile  or  marsh-mallow,  or  even  of  poppy 
heads,  or  any  nostrum  that  the  farrier  may  recommend.  Fomentations  increase 
the  warmtli  of  the  skin,  and  open  the  pores  of  it,  and  promote  perspiration,  and  so 
lessen  the  tension  and  swelUng  of  the  part,  assuage  pain,  and  relieve  inflamma- 
tion. Fomentations,  to  be  useful,  should  be  long  and  frequently  employed,  and 
at  as  great  a  degree  of  heat  as  can  be   used    without  giving  the  animal  paui. 


140  THE  HORSE. 

Poultices  are  nothing  but  more  permanent,  or  longer-continued  fomentations. 
The  part  is  exposed  to  the  influence  of  warmtli  and  moisture  for  many  hours  or 
days  without  intermission,  and  perspiration  being  so  long  kept  up,  the  distended 
vessels  will  be  very  materially  relieved.  The  advantage  derived  from  a  poultice 
is  attributed  to  the  heat  and  moisture  which,  by  means  of  it,  can  be  long  applied 
to  the  skin,  and  it  should  be  composed  of  materials  wliich  will  best  afford  this 
heat  and  moisture.  The  bran  poultice  of  the  farrier  will  therefore  be  objectiona- 
ble. It  is  never  perfectly  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  tlie  skin,  and  it  becomes 
nearly  dry  in  a  few  hours,  and  then  is  injurious.  Linseed-meal  is  a  much  bet- 
ter material  for  a  poultice;  it  will  remain  moist  for  twenty-four  hours.  The  poul- 
tice is  easily  made,  by  pouring  hot  water  on  the  meal,  a  little  at  a  time,  and 
moulding  it  well  with  the  hand  until  the  cataplasm  attains  its  proper  consistence. 

It  is  often  very  difficult  to  decide  when  a  cold  or  a  hot  application  is  to  be  used, 
and  no  general  rule  can  be  laid  down,  except  that,  in  cases  of  superficial  inflam- 
mation, and  in  the  early  stage,  cold  lotions  will  be  prefei-able;  but  when  the 
inflammation  is  deeper  seated,  or  fully  established,  warm  fomentations  may  be 
most  serviceable. 

Stimulating  applications  are  frequently  used  in  local  inflammation.  We  have 
shown  the  action  of  a  blister  in  hastening  the  suppuration  of  tlie  tumor  of  stran- 
gles. When  the  inflammation  is  deeply  seated,  a  stimulating  application  to  the 
skin  will  cause  some  irritation  and  inflammation  there,  and  lessen  or  sometimes 
remove  the  original  one;  hence  the  use  of  rowels  and  blisters  in  inflammation  of 
the  chest.  Inflammation  to  a  high  degree  cannot  exist  in  parts  so  near  to  each 
other.  If  we  excite  it  in  one,  we  shall  abate  it  in  the  other,  and  also  by  the  dis- 
charge which  we  establish  from  the  one,  we  shall  lessen  the  determination  of 
blood  to  tiie  other. 

With  one  caution  we  will  dismiss  this  part  of  our  subject:  stimulating  and  blis- 
tering applications  should  never  be  applied  to  a  part  already  inflamed.  We  shall 
not  put  out  a  fire  by  heaping  more  fuel  upon  it.  Hence  the  mischief  which  the 
farrier  often  does  by  rubbing  his  abominable  oils  on  a  recent  sprain,  hot  and  ten- 
der. Many  a  horse  has  been  ruined  by  this  absurd  treatment.  When  the  heat 
and  tenderness  have  disappeared  by  the  use  of  cold  lotions  or  fomentations,  and  the 
leg  or  sprained  part  remains  enlarged,  or  even  bony  matter  threatens  to  be  depo- 
sited, we  may  be  justified  in  exciting  inflammation  of  the  skin  by  a  blister,  in  order 
to  rouse  the  deeper  seated  absorbents  to  action,  and  enable  them  to  take  up  this 
deposite;  but  we  would  again  state  it  as  a  principle  that,  except  to  hasten  the  na- 
tural process  and  effects  of  inflammation,  a  blister,  or  stimidating  application, 
should,  in  the  treatment  of  the  horse,  never  be  applied  to  a  part  already  inflamed. 


Fever  is  general  increased  arterial  action,  either  without  any  local  affection,  or 
in  consequence  of  the  sympathy  of  the  system  with  inflammation  in  some  particu- 
lar part. 

The  first  is  pure  fever.  Some  have  denied  that  it  exists  in  the  horse,  but  they 
must  have  been  strangely  careless  observers  of  the  diseases  of  that  animal.  The 
truth  of  the  matter  is,  that  the  usual  stable  management  and  general  treatment  of 
the  horse  are  so  absurd,  that  various  parts  of  him  are  rendered  so  liable  to  take  on 
inflammation,  that  pure  fever  will  exist  but  a  very  little  time  without  degenerating 
into  inflammation  of  these  parts.  The  lungs  are  so  weakened  by  the  heated  and 
foul  air  of  the  ill-ventilated  stable,  and  by  sudden  changes  from  almost  insuf- 
ferable heat  to  intense  cold;  and  the  feet  are  so  injured  by  hard  usage  and 
injudicious  shoeing,  that,  sharing  from  the  beginning  in  the  general  vascular  ex- 
citement which  characterizes  fever,  they  soon  become  excited  far  beyond  other  por- 
tions of  the  frame;  and  that  wliich  commenced  as  fever  becomes  inflammation  of 
the  lungs  or  feet.  Pure  fever,  however,  is  sometimes  seen,  and  runs  its  course 
as  fever. 

It  begins  frequently  with  a  cold  or  shivering  fit,  altliough  this  is  not  essential  to 
fever.  The  horse  is  dull,  unwilling  to  move,  with  a  staring  coat,  and  cold  legs 
and  feet.  This  is  succeeded  by  warmth  of  body;  unequal  distribution  of  warmth 
to  the  legs;  one  hot,  and  tlie  otlier  three  cold,  or  some  unnaturally  warm,  and 
others  unusually  cold,  although  not  the  deathy  coldness  of  inflammation  of  the 
lungs;  the  pulse  quick,  soft,  and  often  indistinct;  breatliing  somewhat  laborious; 
but  no  cough,  or  pawing,  or  looking  at  the  flanks.     The  animal  will  scarcely 


THE  VEINS— BOG  AND  BLOOD  SPAVIN.  141 

eat,  iitjd  is  very  costive.  While  the  state  of  pure  fever  lasts,  the  shivering  fit  re- 
turns at  nearly  the  same  hour  every  day,  and  is  succeeded  by  the  warm  one,  and 
that  often  by  a  very  slight  sweating-  one;  and  tliis  goes  on  for  several  days,  untQ 
local  inflammation  appears,  or  the  fever  gradually  subsides.  No  horse  ever  died 
of  pure  fever;  if  he  is  not  destroyed  by  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  or  feet,  or 
bowels,  succeeding  to  the  fever,  he  gradually  recovers. 

What  we  have  said  of  the  treatment  of  local  inflammation  will  sufficiently  indicate 
that  which  we  sliould  reeommend  in  fever.  Fever  is  general  increased  action  of 
tlie  heart  and  ai-teries,  and  therefore  evidently  appears  the  necessity  for  bleeding, 
regulating  the  quantity  of  blood  taken  by  the  degree  of  fever,  and  usually  con- 
tinuing to  take  it  (the  finger  being  kept  on  the  artery)  until  some  impression  is 
made  upon  the  system.  The  bowels  should  be  gently  opeued;  but  the  danger  of 
inflan>mation  of  the  lungs,  and  the  uniformly  injurious  consequence  of  pui-gation 
m  that  disease,  will  prevent  tlie  administration  of  an  active  purgative.  One  drachm 
and  a  half  of  aloes  may  be  given  morning  and  night  with  the  proper  fever  medi- 
cine, until  the  bowels  are  slightly  relaxed,  after  which  nothing  more  of  an  aperient 
quality  shoidd  be  administered.  Digitalis,  emetic  tartar,  and  nitre,  should  be  given 
morning  and  night,  in  proportions  regulated  by  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  and 
these  should  give  way  to  white  hellebore,  in  doses  of  half  a  drachm,  twice  in  the 
day,  if  symptoms  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs  should  appear.  The  horse  should 
be  warmly  clothed,  but  be  placed  in  a  cool  and  well  ventilated  stable. 

Symptomatic  fever  is  generally  increased  arterial  action,  proceeding  from  some 
local  cause.  No  organ  of  consequence  can  be  long  disordered  or  inflamed  with- 
out the  neighboring  parts  being  disturbed,  and  the  whole  system  gradually  partici- 
patmg  in  the  disturbance.  Inflammation  of  the  feet  or  of  the  lungs  never  existed 
long  as  to  any  material  extent,  without  being  accompanied  by  some  degree  of 
fever. 

The  treatment  of  symptomatic  fever  should  resemble  that  of  simple  fever,  except 
that  particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  state  of  the  part  originally  diseased. 
If  the  inflammation  which  existed  there  can  be  subdued,  the  general  disturbance 
will  usually  cease. 

The  arteries  terminate  occasionally  in  openings  on  different  surfaces  of  the  body. 
On  the  skin  they  pour  out  the  perspiration,  and  on  the  different  cavities  of  the 
frame  they  yield  the  moisture  which  prevents  friction.  In  other  parts  they  termi- 
nate in  glands,  in  wliich  a  fluid  essentially  different  from  the  blood  is  secreted  or 
separated  from  it:  such  are  the  parotid  and  salivar}^  glands,  the  kidneys,  the  spleen, 
and  the  various  organs  or  laboratories  which  provide  so  many  and  such  different 
secretions  for  the  multifarious  purposes  of  life;  but  the  usual  termination  of  arte- 
ries is  in  tlie  veins. 

THE    VEINS. 

These  vessels  carry  back  to  the  heart  the  blood  which  has  been  conveyed  to  the 
different  parts  of  the  arteries.  They  have  but  two  coats,  a  muscular  and  a  mem- 
branous; both  of  them  are  thin  and  comparatively  weak.  They  are  more  numer- 
ous and  much  larger  than  the  arteries,  and  consequently  the  blood,  lessened  in 
quantity  by  the  various  secretions  separated  from  it,  flows  more  slowly  through 
them.  It  is  forced  on  partly  by  the  first  impulse  communicated  to  it  by  the  heart; 
partly,  in  the  extremities  and  external  portions  of  the  frame,  by  the  pressure  of 
the  muscles;  and  in  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  its  motion  is  assisted  or  principally 
caused  by  the  sudden  opening  of  the  ventricles  of  the  heart,  after  they  have  closed 
upon  and  driven  out  their  contents,  and  thereby  causing  a  vacuum  which  the  blood 
rushes  on  to  fill.  There  are  curious  valves  in  the  veins  which  prevent  the  blood 
from  flowing  backward. 

BOG    AND    BLOOD    SPAVIN. 

The  veins  of  the  horse,  though  their  coats  are  thin  compared  with  those  of  the 
arteries,  are  not  subject  to  the  enlargements  (varicose  veins)  which  are  so  frequent, 
and  often  so  painful,  in  the  legs  of  the  human  being.  The  legs  of  the  horse  may 
exhibit  many  of  the  injurious  consequences  of  hard  work,  but  the  veins  will, 
with  one  exception,  be  unaltered  in  structure.  Attached  to  the  extremities  of  most 
of  the  tendons,  and  between  the  tendons  and  other  parts,  are  little  bags  containing 
a  mucous  substance  to  enable  the  tendons  to  slide  over  each  other  without  friction. 


142  THE  HORSE. 

and  to  move  easily  on  the  neighboring  parts.  From  violent  exercise  these  little  bags 
are  liable  to  enlarge.  Windgalls  and  thorouglipins  are  instances  of  this.  There 
is  one  of  them  on  the  inside  of  the  hock  at  its  bending:  this  sometimes  becomes 
considerably  increased  in  size,  and  the  enlargement  is  called  a  bog-spavin.  A  vein 
passes  over  this  bag,  which  is  pressed  between  the  enlargement  and  the  skin,  and 
the  passage  of  the  blood  througli  it  is  impeded;  the  vein  is  consequently  distended 
by  the  accumulated  blood,  and  the  distension  reaches  from  this  bag  as  low  down 
as  the  next  valve.  This  is  called  a  blood-spavin.  Blood-spavin  then  is  the  conse- 
quence of  bog-spavin.  It  very  rarely  occurs,  and  is,  in  the  majority  of  instances, 
confounded  with  bog-spavin. 

Blood-spavin  does  not  always  cause  lameness  except  the  horse  Is  very  hard 
worked,  and  then  .it  is  doubtful  whether  the  lameness  should  not  be  attributed  to 
the  enlarged  mucous  bag  ratlier  than  to  tlie  distended  vein.  Both  of  these  diseases, 
however,  render  a  horse  unsound,  and  materially  lessen  his  value. 

Old  farriers  used  to  tie  the  vein,  and  so  cut  off  altogether  the  flow  of  the  blood. 
Some  of  them,  a  little  more  rational,  used  to  dissect  out  the  bag  which  caused  the 
distension  of  the  vein:  but  the  modern  and  more  prudent  way  is  to  endeavor  to 
promote  the  absorption  of  tlie  contents  of  the  bag.  This  may  be  attempted  by 
pressure  long  applied.  A  bandage  may  be  contrived  to  take  in  the  whole  of  the 
hock  except  its  point;  and  a  compress  made  of  folded  linen,  being  placed  on  the 
bog-spavin,  may  confine  the  principal  pressure  to  that  part.  It  is,  however,  very 
difficult  to  adapt  a  bandage  to  a  joint  which  admits  of  such  extensive  motion; 
therefore,  most  practitioners  apply  two  or  three  successive  blisters  over  the  en- 
largement, when  it  usually  disappears;  but,  unfortiuiately,  it  returns  again  if  any 
extraordinary  exertion  is  required  from  the  horse. 

Of  the  wounds  of  veins,  and  their  consequent  inflammation,  we  have  spoken 
when  describing  the  veins  of  the  neck.  The  veins  are  selected  in  preference  to 
the  arteries  for  the  purpose  of  bleeding,  because  they  are  more  superficial  and 
larger,  and  blood  can  be  more  easily  and  certainly  procured  from  them,  and  the 
flow  of  the  blood  can  be  more  easily  stopped. 

BLEEDING. 

This  operation  is  performed  with  a  fleam  or  a  lancet.  The  first  is  the  common 
instrument,  and  the  safest,  except  in  skilful  hands.  The  lancet,  however,  has  a 
more  surgical  appearance,  and  will  be  adopted  by  the  veterinary  practitioner.  A 
bloodstlck,  a  piece  of  hard  wood  loaded  at  one  end  with  lead,  is  used  to  strike  the 
fleam  into  the  vein.  This  is  sometimes  done  with  too  great  violence,  and  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  coat  of  the  vein  is  wounded.  Bad  cases  of  inflammation  have 
resulted  from  this.  If  the  fist  be  doubled,  and  the  fleam  is  sharp,  and  is  struck 
with  sufficient  force  with  the  lower  part  of  the  hand,  the  bloodstick  may  be  dis- 
pensed with. 

For  general  bleeding  the  jugidar  vein  is  selected.  The  horse  is  blindfolded  on 
tlie  side  on  which  he  is  to  be  bled,  or  his  head  turned  well  away;  the  hair  is 
smoothed  along  the  course  of  the  vein  with  the  moistened  finger;  then,  with  the 
third  and  little  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  which  holds  the  fleam,  pressure  is  made 
on  the  vein  sufficient  to  bring  it  fairly  into  view,  but  not  to  swell  it  too  much,  for 
then,  presenting  a  rounded  surface,  it  would  be  apt  to  roll  or  slip  under  the  blow. 
The  point  to  be  selected  is  about  two  inches  below  the  union  of  the  two  portions 
of  the  jugular  at  the  angle  of  the  jaw,  (see  cut,  p.  94.)  The  fleam  is  to  be  placed 
in  a  direct  line  with  the  course  of  the  vein,  and  over  the  precise  centre  of  the  vein, 
as  close  to  it  as  possible,  but  its  point  not  absolutely  touching  the  vein.  A  sharp 
i*ap  with  the  bloodstick  or  the  hand  on  that  part  of  the  back  of  the  fleam  immedi- 
ately over  the  blade,  will  cut  through  the  vein,  and  the  blood  will  flow.  A  fleam 
with  a  large  blade  sliould  always  be  preferred,  for  the  operation  will  be  materially 
shortened,  which  will  be  a  matter  of  some  consequence  with  a  fidgety  or  restive 
horse;  and  a  quantity  of  blood  drawn  speedily  will  have  far  more  effect  on  the  sys- 
tem than  double  the  weight  slowly  taken;  while  the  woimd  will  heal  just  as  readily 
as  if  made  by  a  smaller  instrument.  There  is  no  occasion  to  press  so  hard  against 
the  neck  with  the  pail,  or  can,  as  some  do;  a  slight  pressure,  if  the  incision  has 
been  large  enough,  and  straight,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  vein,  will  cause  the  blood 
to  flow  sufficiently  fast;  or,  the  finger  being  introduced  into  the  mouth  between 
the  tushes  and  the  grinders,  and  gently  moved  about,  will  keep  the  mouth  in  mo- 
tion, and  hasten  the  rapidity  of  the  stream  by  the  action  and  pressure  of  tlie  neigh- 
boring muscles. 


THE  LUNGS.  143 

When  sufficient  blood  has  been  taken,  the  edg-es  of  the  wound  should  be  brought 
closely  and  exactly  tog-ether,  and  kept  tog-ether  by  a  small  sharp  pin  being  passed 
through  them.  Round  this  a  little  tow,  or  a  few  hairs  from  the  main  of  the  horse, 
should  be  wrapped,  so  as  to  cover  the  wliole  of  the  incision;  and  the  head  of  the 
horse  should  be  tied  up  for  several  hours  to  prevent  his  rubbing  the  part  against 
the  manger.  In  bringing  the  edges  of  the  wound  together,  and  inti-oducing  the 
pin,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  draw  the  skin  too  much  from  the  neck;  other- 
wise blood  will  insinuate  itself  between  the  skin  and  the  muscles  beneath,  and 
cause  an  unsightly  and,  sometimes,  troublesome  swelling. 

The  blood  should  be  received  into  a  vessel,  the  dimensions  of  which  are  exactly 
known,  so  that  tlie  operator  may  be  able  to  calculate  at  every  period  of  the  bleed- 
ing the  quantity  that  is  substracted.  Care  likewise  should  be  taken  that  the  blood 
flow  in  a  regular  stream  into  the  centre  of  the  vessel,  for,  if  it  be  suffered  to 
trickle  down  the  sides,  it  will  not  afterwards  undergo  those  changes  by  which  we 
partially  judge  of  the  extent  of  inflammation.  Tiie  pulse,  however,  and  the  symp- 
toms of  the  case  collectively,  will  form  a  better  criterion  than  any  change  in  the 
blood.  Twenty-four  hours  after  the  operation,  the  edges  of  the  wound  will  have 
united,  and  the  pin  sliould  be  withdrawn.  When  the  bleeding  is  to  be  re- 
peated, if  more  than  three  or  four  hours  have  elapsed,  it  will  be  more  prudent  to 
make  a  fresh  incision  rather  than  to  open  the  old  wound. 

Few  directions  are  necessary  for  the  use  of  the  lancet.  They  who  are  compe- 
tent to  operate  with  it  will  scarcely  require  any.  If  the  point  be  sufficiently  sharp 
the  lancet  can  scarcely  be  too  broad  shouldered;  and  an  abscess  lancet  will  gene- 
rally make  a  freer  incision  than  that  in  common  use.  A  spring  lancet  has  lately 
been  invented  by  Mi-.  Weiss,  in  the  Strand,  by  which  any  one  may  bleed  from  the 
jugular,  or  fi'om  a  smaller  vein,  safely  and  certainly.  Whatever  instrument  be 
adopted,  too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  to  have  it  perfectly  clean,  and  very  sharp. 
It  should  always  be  most  carefully  wiped  and  dried  immediately  after  the  opera- 
tion; otherwise  in  a  very  short  time  the  edges  Vv'ill  begin  to  be  corroded. 

For  general  bleeding  the  jugular  vein  is  selected  as  the  largest  superficial  vein, 
and  most  easily  got  at.  In  every  affection  of  tlie  head,  and  in  cases  of  fever  or 
extended  inflammatory  action,  it  is  decidedly  tlie  best  place  for  bleeding.  In  local 
inflammation  blood  may  be  taken  from  any  of  the  superficial  veins.  In  supposed 
affections  of  the  shoulder,  or  of  the  fore-leg  or  foot,  the  p/a/e  vein,  which  comes 
from  the  inside  of  the  arm,  and  runs  upwards,  directly  in  front  of  it,  towards  the 
jugular,  may  be  opened.  In  aff'ections  of  tlie  hinder  extremity,  blood  is  sometimes 
abstracted  from  the  saphcena,  or  thigh  vein,  which  runs  across  the  inside  of  the 
thigh.  In  foot  cases  it  may  be  taken  from  the  coronet,  or,  mucli  more  safely,  from 
the  toe;  not  by  cutting  out,  as  the  farrier  does,  a  piece  of  the  sole  at  the  toe  of 
the  fi-og,  which  sometimes  causes  a  wound  dlflicult  to  heal,  and  followed  by  fes- 
tering, and  even  by  canker;  but  cutting  down  with  a  fine  drawing-knife  called  a 
searcher,  at  the  union  between  the  crust  and  the  sole  at  the  very  toe  until  the 
blood  flows,  and,  if  necessary,  encouraging  its  discliarge  by  dipping  the  foot  in 
warm  water.  The  mesh-work  of  both  arteries  and  veins  will  be  here  divided,  and 
blood  is  generally  obtained  in  any  quantity  th.at  may  be  needed.  The  bleeding 
may  be  stopped  with  the  gi-eatest  ease  by  placing  a  bit  of  tow  in  the  little  groove 
that  has  been  cut,  and  tacking  the  shoe  over  it. 

THE    LUNGS. 

The  chest,  likewise,  contains  the  lungs,  most  important  from  the  office  which 
they  discharge,  and  the  diseases  to  which  they  are  liable.  There  are  two  lungs, 
the  right  and  the  left,  separated  from  each  other  by  the  mediastinum.  The  right 
lung  is  larger  that  the  left,  because  the  heart,  inclining  to  the  left,  leaves  less  room 
on  that  side  of  the  chest.  Each  of  the  lungs  is  likewise  partially  divided  into  lobes; 
the  right  lung  contains  three,  and  the  left  two.  When  the  windpipe  enters  the 
chest,  it  divides  into  two  parts,  one  going  to  each  lung;  and  wlien  these  reach  the 
substance  of  the  lungs,  they  separate  into  innumerable  branches,  each  terminating 
in  a  little  bag  or  cell.  These  branches,  with  the  cells  attached  to  them,  bear  no 
slight  resemblance  to  bunches  of  minute  grapes.  Around  these  cells  spread  count- 
less blood-vessels,  being  the  extreme  ramifications  of  those  which  conveyed  the 
blood  from  the  right  side  of  the  heart  to  the  lungs,  and  the  commencement  of 
those  which  carry  it  back  from  the  lungs  to  the  left  side  of  the  heart;  and  the  cells 
and  the  blood-vessels  are  connected  together  by  an  intervening  substance  of  a 
fibrous  and  cellular  texture. 


144  THE  HORSE. 

The  office  of  the  lungs  may  be  very  shortly  stated.  The  blood  passhig  through 
the  capillaries  of  the  body,  and  contributing  to  the  nourishment  of  the  frame,  and 
furnishing  all  the  secretions,  becomes,  as  we  have  described,  changed.  It  is  no 
longer  able  to  support  life:  it  is  possessed  of  a  poisonous  principle,  and  that  prin- 
ciple is  a  superabundance  of  a  substance  called  carbon,  whicli  must  be  got  rid  of 
before  the  blood  can  again  be  usefully  employed.  There  is  an  ingredient  in  the 
atmospheric  air  called  oxygen,  whicli  has  a  strong  attraction  for  this  carbon,  and 
which  will  unite  with  it  wherever  it  finds  it.  The  chest  enlarges  by  the  action  of 
the  diaphragm,  and  the  intercostal  and  other  muscles,  as  we  have  narrated;  and 
the  lungs  expanding  with  the  chest,  in  order  to  fill  up  the  vacuum  which  would 
otherwise  exist  between  them  and  the  sides  of  the  chest,  these  cells  enlarge,  and  a 
kind  of  vacuum  is  formed  in  each  of  them,  and  the  air  rushes  down  and  fills  them, 
and,  being  divided  from  the  venous  and  poisoned  blood  by  these  membranes  alone, 
it  is  enabled  to  act  upon  the  blood,  and  attracts  from  it  this  carbon,  and  thus  puri- 
fies it,  and  renders  it  arterial  blood,  and  fit  for  the  purposes  of  fife.  This  being 
accomplished,  the  chest  contracts,  and  the  lungs  are  pressed  into  smaller  compass, 
and  a  portion  of  the  air,  impregnated  with  the  carbon,  and  rendered  poisonous  in 
its  turn,  is  squeezed  out.  Presently  the  chest  expands  again,  and  the  lungs  expand 
with  it,  and  fresh  pure  air  is  admitted,  which  is  shortly  pressed  out  again,  empoi- 
soned by  the  carbon  of  the  blood;  and  these  alternate  expansions  and  conti-actions 
constitute  the  act  of  breathing. 

When  the  animal  powerfully  exerts  himself,  a  more  ample  supply  of  pure  blood 
is  required  to  sustain  the  energies  of  life,  and  the  action  of  the  muscles  forces  the 
blood  more  rapidly  through  the  veins;  hence  the  quick  and  deep  breathing  of  a 
horse  at  speed;  hence  the  necessity  of  a  capacious  chest,  in  order  to  yield  an  ade- 
quate supply,  and  the  connexion  of  this  capacity  of  the  chest  with  the  speed  and 
the  endurance  of  the  horse;  hence  the  wonderful  relief  which  the  mere  loosening 
of  the  girths  affords  to  a  horse  blown  and  distressed,  enabling  the  chest  to  expand 
and  to  contract  to  a  greater  extent,  in  order  to  yield  more  purified  blood;  and  hence 
the  relief  afforded  by  even  a  short  period  of  rest,  during  which  this  expenditure  is 
not  required,  and  the  almost  exhausted  energies  of  these  organs  have  time  to  re- 
cover. Hence,  likewise,  appears  the  necessity  of  an  ample  chest  for  the  accumu- 
lation of  much  flesh  and  fat;  for,  if  a  considerable  portion  of  the  blood  be  em- 
ployed in  the  growth  of  the  animal,  and  it  be  thus  rapidly  changed,  there  must  be 
provision  for  its  rapid  purification,  and  that  can  only  be  effected  by  the  increased 
bulk  of  the  lungs,  and  the  corresponding  largeness  of  the  chest  to  contain  them. 

The  diseases  of  these  organs  are  among  the  most  serious  to  which  the  horse  is 
exposed,  and  interfere  most  with  his  usefulness.  A  glandered  horse  may  be,  and 
often  is  too  long  employed  in  our  service;  a  blind  horse,  under  the  guidance  of  the 
driver,  may  employ  both  his  strength  and  his  speed  for  our  benefit;  but  a  horse 
with  diseased  lungs  is  worth  nothing  at  all,  and  hence  some  of  the  difficulties  with 
which  the  veterinary  practitioner  has  to  struggle.  A  surgeon  who  practises  on  the 
human  body  will  obtain  the  gratitude  of  his  patient,  if  he  so  far  removes  a  severe 
aff"ection  as  to  enable  him  to  live  on  with  a  certain  degree  of  comfort,  although  his 
activity  and  his  power  of  exertion  may  be  considerably  impaired;  but  the  veteri- 
nary surgeon  is  thought  to  have  done  nothing,  unless  he  renders  the  animal  per- 
fectly sound — unless,  in  fact,  he  does  that  which  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  ac- 
comphsh. 

INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    LUNGS. 

There  is  no  animal  among  all  those  whom  we  have  subdued  that,  previous  to  his 
breaking  in,  is  so  free  from  disease  as  the  horse;  there  is  no  animal  which,  after  he 
has  been  enhsted  in  our  service,  is  so  liable  to  disease,  and  especially  of  the  lungs. 
How  do  we  account  for  this?  Few  things  can  be  more  injurious  to  the  delicate 
membrane  that  lines  the  cells  of  the  lungs,  than  the  sudden  change  from  heat  to 
cold,  to  which,  under  the  usual  stable  management,  the  horse  is  subject.  In  the 
spring  and  autumn,  the  temperature  or  heat  of  most  stables  is  several  degrees  higher 
than  that  of  the  open  air;  in  winter  it  is  frequently  more  than  thirty  degrees.  The 
necessary  effect  of  this  must  be  to  weaken  and  exhaust  the  energies  of  the  parts 
most  exposed  to  the  influence  of  these  changes,  and  they  are  the  lungs.  It  is,  liovv- 
ever,  not  only  heated  but  empoisoned  air  that  the  horse  respires—composed  of  his 
own  contaminated  breath,  and  of  vapors  from  his  dung,  and  particularly  from  his 
urine,  strongly  impregnated  with  hartshorn,  painful  to  the  eyes  and  irritating  to  the 
chest. 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LUNGS.  145 

There  is  likewise  an  intimate  connexion  between  the  king's  and  tlie  functions  of 
the  skin.  "When  the  insensible  perspiration  is  suddenly  stopped,  cold  and  cough 
are  the  first  consequences.  Wliat  must  inevitably  happen  to  the  horse  that  stands, 
twenty  hours  out  of  the  four  and  twenty,  in  a  heated  atmosphere,  and  stands  there 
warmly  clothed,  and  every  pore  of  his  skin  opened,  and  tlie  insensible  perspiration, 
and  the  sensible  too,  profusely  pouring  out,  and  then,  with  his  coat  stripped  from 
his  back,  is  turned  shivering  into  a  nipping  winter's  air?  The  discharge  from  the 
skin  is  at  once  arrested,  and  the  revulsion,  or  pernicious  effect  of  the  sudden  stop- 
page of  a  natural  evacuation,  falls  on  the  lungs,  too  much  weakened  and  disposed 
to  inflammation  by  heated  air  and  poisonous  fumes. 

These  simple  observations  arc  pregnant  with  interest  and  instruction  to  all  con- 
nected with  horses.  He  who  v/ould  liave  his  stud  free  from  disease,  and  especially 
disease  of  the  lungs,  must  pursue  two  objects,  coolness  and  cleanliness.  In  the 
gentleman's  stable  tlie  first  of  tliese  is  studiously  avoided  from  the  prejudice  or  the 
idleness  of  the  groom,  and  from  these  stables  proceed  most  of  the  cases  of  inflamed 
lungs;  especially  when  this  heat  is  combined  with  that  temporary  but  mischievous 
nuisance,  the  repeated  breathing  of  the  same  air  during  the  nig'lit,  and  that  air 
more  vitiated  by  the  fumes  of  the  dung  and  urine.  In  the  stables  of  the  post-mas- 
ter, where  not  only  closeness  and  heat,  but  the  filth  that  would  not  be  endured  in 
a  gentleman's  establishment,  are  found,  both  inflammation  of  the  lungs  and  glan- 
ders prevail;  and  in  the  stables  of  many  agriculturists,  cool  enough  from  the 
poverty  or  the  carelessness  of  the  owner,  but  choked  with  filth,  inflammation  of 
the  lungs  is  seldom  seen,  but  mange,  glanders,  and  fare}",  abound. 

Inflammation  of  the  substance  of  the  lungs  is  sometimes  sudden  in  its  attack, 
but  generally  preceded  by  symptoms  of  fever.  The  pulse  is  occasionally  not 
much  increased  in  frequenc)',  but  oppressed  and  indistinct;  the  artery  is  plainly  to 
be  felt  under  the  finger,  and  of  its  usual  size,  but  the  pulse  no  longer  indicates  the 
expansion  of  the  vessel,  as  it  yields  to  the  gush  of  blood,  and  its  contraction  when 
the  blood  has  passed;  it  is  rather  a  vibration  or  thrill,  communicated  to  a  fluid  al- 
ready over-distending  the  artery;  in  a  few  cases  even  this  almost  eludes  the  most 
delicate  touch,  and  scarcely  any  pulsation  is  to  be  detected.  The  extremities  are 
cold;  the  nostril  is  expanded;  the  head  thrust  out,  and  the  flanks  begin  to  heave. 
There  is  a  peculiarity  in  the  working  of  the  flank.  It  is  not  the  deep  laborious 
breatliing  of  fever,  nor  the  irregular  beating  of  broken  wind,  in  which  the  air 
appears  to  be  drawn  in  by  one  effort,  while  tvv'o  seem  to  be  necessary  to  expel  it; 
but  it  is  a  quick  hurried  motion,  evidently  expressive  of  pain,  and  of  inability  to 
complete  the  action  on  account  of  the  pain,  or  of  some  mechanical  obstruction.  The 
membrane  of  the  nose  is  of  an  intensely  florid  red — more  vivid  in  the  inside  corners 
of  the  nostrils,  and  remaining  concentrated  there  if  at  times  it  should  seem  to  fade 
away  higher  up.  The  countenance  is  singularly  anxious,  and  indicative  of  suffer- 
ing, and  many  a  mournful  look  is  directed  at  the  flanks.  The  horse  stands  in  a 
singular  manner,  stiff,  with  his  fore  legs  abroad,  that  the  chest  may  be  expanded 
as  much  as  possible,  and  he  is  unwilling  to  move  lest,  for  a  moment,  he  should 
lose  the  assistance  of  the  muscles  of  the  arms  and  shoulders  in  producing  that  ex- 
pansion; and,  for  the  same  reason,  he  obstinately  stands  up  day  after  day,  and  night 
after  night;  or  if  he  lies  down  from  absolute  fatigue  it  is  but  for  a  moment. 

In  many  instances,  however,  the  approach  of  the  disease  is  very  treacherous,  and 
the  most  careful  practitioner  may  be  deceived.  The  groom  may  perceive  that  the 
horse  is  somewhat  off  his  feed,  and  dull,  but  he  pays  little  attention  to  it;  or,  if  it 
arrests  his  notice,  he  only  finds  that  the  coat  stares  a  little,  that  the  legs  are  colder 
than  usual,  and  the  breathing  in  a  slight  degree  quickened  and  shortened.  In  other 
cases  the  symptoms  are  those  of  common  fever,  catarrii,  or  distemper;  and  the 
characteristics  of  true  inflammation  of  the  lungs  appear  late  and  unexpectedly. 
The  cold  leg  and  ear,  the  quickened,  not  deepened  inspiration,  the  disinclination  to 
lie  down,  and  the  anxious  countenance,  will  always  alarm  the  experienced  observer. 

Whatever  may  be  the  state  of  the  pulse  at  first,  it  soon  becomes  oppressed,  ir- 
regular, indistinct,  and  at  length  almost  imperceptible.  The  heart  is  laboring  in 
vain  to  push  on  the  column  of  blood  with  which  tiie  vessels  are  distended,  and  the 
flow  of  which  is  obstructed  by  the  clogged-up  passages  of  the  lungs.  The  legs 
and  ears,  which  were  cold  before,  become  more  intensely  so — it  is  a  clayey,  deathy 
coldness.  The  mouth  soon  participates  in  it,  and  the  breath  too.  The  bright  red 
of  the  nostr'd  fades  away,  or  darkens  to  a  livid  purple.  The  animal  grinds  his 
teeth.  He  still  persists  'in  standing,  although  he  often  staggers  and  almost  falls; 
at  length  he  drops,  and  after  a  few  struggles  dies, 
19 


146  THE  HORSE. 

The  duration  of  the  disease  is  sin^larly  uncertain.  It  will  occasionally  destroy 
in  less  than  twenty-four  hours,  and  then  the  lungs  present  one  confused  and  disor- 
ganized mass  of  blackness,  and  would  lead  the  inexperienced  person  to  imagine 
that  Ipng  inflammation  had  gradually  so  completely  broken  down  the  substance 
of  the  lungs.  Such  a  horse  is  said  to  die  rotten,  and  many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  prove  that  he  must  have  been  unsound  for  a  great  while,  and  probably 
before  he  came  into  his  last  owner's  possession,  and  some  expensive  law  suits  have 
been  instituted  on  this  ground.  Let  our  readers,  however,  be  assured  that  this 
black  decomposed  appearance  of  the  lungs  proves  no  disease  of  long  standing,  but 
inflammation  intense  in  its  nature,  and  that  has  very  speedily  run  its  course.  The 
horse  has  died  from  suffocation,  everj'  portion  of  the  lungs  being  choked  up  with 
this  black  blood  which  has  even  broken  into  and  filled  all  the  air-cells  by  means 
of  which  it  should  have  been  purified. 

More  frequently  the  disease  lasts  a  little  longer.  The  lungs  are  sufficiently 
pervious  for  some  blood  to  be  transmitted;  but  the  inflammation  is  too  great  to  be 
subdued,  or  proper  means  have  not  been  taken  to  subdue  it;  and  it  runs  its  usual 
course,  and  proceeds  to  actual  mortification,  and  the  lungs  are  found  not  only 
black  but  putrid.  This,  too,  would  prove  recent  and  violent  inflammation,  and 
not  any  old  and  unsuspected  disease.  This  termination  would  be  indicated,  a  day 
or  two  before  the  death  of  the  animal,  by  the  stinking  breath,  and  the  offensive 
discharge  from  the  nose. 

A  frequent,  and,  to  the  practioner  and  the  owner,  a  most  annoying  termination 
of  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  is  dropsy  in  the  chest.  The  disease  seems  to  be  sub- 
dued; the  horse  is  more  hvely;  his  appetite  returns;  his  legs  and  ears  become 
warm;  and  those  about  him  are  deceived  into  the  belief  that  he  is  doing  well:  nay, 
the  most  skilful  surgeon  is  sometimes  deceived.  Tlie  anxiety  to  save  his  patient 
makes  him  hope  the  best,  although  the  coat  continues  unhealthy,  there  is  a  yellow 
discharge  from  the  nostril,  the  pulse  is  irregular,  and  the  horse  is  frightened  if 
suddenly  moved,  and  especially  if  his  head  be  considerably  raised  in  the  act  of 
drenching,  and  he  rarely  or  never  lies  down.  Many  days  or  some  weeks  will  pass 
on  with  these  contradictory  and  unsatisfactory  appearances;  and  a  judgment  of  the 
result  can  only  be  formed  b)'  balancing  them  against  each  other.  At  length  the 
patient  shivers,  the  old  symptoms  return,  and  he  very  soon  dies.  On  opening 
him,  both  sides  of  the  chest  are  found  nearly  filled  with  fluid,  impeding  the  pulsa- 
tion of  the  heart,  and  the  expansion  of  the  lungs,  and  destroying  the  horse  by 
suffocation. 

Although  the  life  of  the  horse  may  be  saved,  the  consequences  of  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lungs  may  often  materially  lessen,  or  even  destroy  the  usefulness  of  the 
animal.  As  in  many  external  inflammations  considerable  thickening  of  the  part 
long  remains,  so  a  deposite  of  the  coagulable  portion  of  the  blood  may  be  left  in 
the  substance  of  the  lungs,  occupying  the  place  of  many  of  the  air-cells,  and  pre- 
venting the  contraction  and  closing  of  others.  This  produces  the  peculiarity  of 
breathing,  almost  incompatible  with  speed  or  continuance,  called  thick  wind;  and 
frequently  precedes  broken  wind,  when,  from  the  violent  action  of  the  lungs,  and 
that  action  thus  impeded  by  the  obstruction  we  have  described,  some  of  the  air- 
cells  become  ruptured.  Too  frequently,  considerable  irritability  remains  in  the 
membrane  lining  the  air-cells,  and  in  other  portions  of  the  air-passages,  and  a  cough 
is  established,  which,  from  its  continuance,  and  the  difficulty  of  its  removal,  is 
called  chronic  cough.  We  have  already  considered  inflammation  of  the  lungs  as 
one  of  the  causes  of  roaring. 

The  treatment  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs  must  evidently  be  of  the  most  deci- 
sive kind.  We  have  to  struggle  with  a  disease  intense  in  its  character,  and  we 
must  atterrpt  radically  to  cure,  and  not  merely  to  palliate  it.  We  must  look  to  the 
future  usefulness  of  the  horse,  and  not  to  the  possibility  of  his  being  enabled  to 
drag  on  an  existence  almost  uncomfortable  to  himself.  Supposing  the  attack  to  have 
just  commenced,  the  horse  should  be  bled,  not  only  until  the  pulse  begins  to  rise, 
but  until  it  afterwards  begins  to  flutter  or  to  stop,  or  the  animal  is  evidently  faint. 
The  effect  of  the  bleeding,  and  not  the  quantity  of  tlie  blood  taken,  should  be  re- 
garded; for,  the  inflammation  being  subdued,  the  lost  blood  will  soon  be  sup- 
plied again.  This  is  one  of  the  cases  in  which  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the 
surgeon  or  the  owner  should  stand  by  with  his  finger  on  the  pulse,  and  mark  the 
effect  that  is  produced.  If,  six  hours  afterwards,  the  horse  continues  to  stand  stiff, 
and  heaves  as  quickly  and  as  laboriously  as  before,  and  the  legs  are  as  intensely 
cold,  and  the  membrane  of  the  nose  as  red,  the  bleeding  should  be  repeated  until 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LUNGS.  147 

the  same  eftect  again  follows.  In  the  majority  of  cases  the  inflammation  will  be  now 
subdued.  A  third  bleeding  may,  however,  sometimes  be  necessary,  but  must  not  be 
carried  to  tlie  same  extent,  for  it  is  possible,  by  too  g-reat  evacuation  of  blood,  to 
subdue  not  merely  the  disease,  but  the  powers  of  nature.  If,  after  this,  the  legs 
become  cold,  and  the  heaving  returns,  and  the  membrane  of  the  nose  reddens, 
and  tlie  horse  persists  in  standing,  bleedings,  to  the  extent  of  two  or  three  quarts, 
will  be  advisable,  to  prevent  the  re-establishment  of  tlie  disease.  In  all  these 
bleedings,  let  not  the  necessity  of  a  broad  shouldered  fleam  or  lancet,  and  a  full 
stream  of  blood,  be  forgotten.  These  are  circumstances  of  far  more  importance 
than  is  generally  imagined.  The  appearance  of  the  blood  will  be  some  guide  in 
our  treatment  of  the  case.  The  thickness  of  the  adhesive,  buffy,  yellow  color- 
ed coat,  which  in  a  few  hours  will  appear  on  it,  will  mark  with  some  degree  of 
accuracy  the  extent  of  the  inflammation;  but  let  it  be  remembered,  that  only  which 
existed  at  the  time  of  bleeding.  Not  regardless  of  the  appearance  of  the  blood, 
but  not  putting  too  much  faith  in  it,  we  must  look  to  the  horse  to  determine  how 
far  that  inflammation  may  have  been  diminished,  or  a  repetition  of  the  bleeding  be 
necessary. 

When  the  bleeding  has  evidently  taken  effect,  we  must  consider  by  what  means 
we  may  furtlier  abate,  or  prevent  the  return  of  the  inflammation.  We  should  blis- 
ter the  whole  of  the  brisket,  and  the  sides,  as  high  up  as  the  elbows.  BlUters  are 
far  preferable  to  rowek.  They  act  on  a  more  extensive  surface;  they  produce  a 
great  deal  more  inflammation;  and  they  are  speedier  in  their  action. 

To  insure  the  full  operation  of  the  blister,  the  hair  must  be  closely  shaved,  and 
an  ointment  composed  of  one  part  of  powdered  Spanish  flies,  and  four  of  lard  and 
one  of  resin,  well  rubbed  in.  The  lard  and  the  resin  should  be  melted  together, 
and  the  powdered  flies  afterwards  added. 

To  form  a  rowel,  the  skin  is  raised  between  the  finger  and  thumb,  and,  with  a 
lancet,  or  with  scissors  contrived  for  the  purpose,  a  slit  is  cut  an  inch  in  length. 
The  finger,  or  the  handle  of  the  improved  rowelling  scissors,  which  are  to  be  pro- 
cured from  Mr.  Long,  in  Holborn,  or  from  any  veterinary  instrument-maker,  is 
introduced,  and  the  skin  is  forcibly  separated  from  the  muscular  or  cellular  sub- 
stance beneath,  until  there  is  a  circular  cavity  two  or  three  inches  wide.  Into  this 
a  piece  of  tow  is  inserted,  sufficient  to  fill  it,  and  previously  smeared  with  blister 
ointment.  This  causes  considerable  inflammation  and  discharge.  If  a  little  of  the 
tow  be  left  sticking  out  of  the  incision,  the  discharge  will  conveniently  dribble 
down  it.  The  tow  should  be  changed  every  day,  with  or  without  the  ointment, 
according  to  the  action  of  the  rowel,  or  tlie  urgency  of  the  case.  The  large  piece 
of  stiflTleather,  with  a  hole  in  the  centre,  used  by  the  farrier,  is  objectionable,  as 
not  being  easily  changed,  and  frequently,  in  the  extraction  of  it,  tearing  the  skin 
so  as  to  cause  a  lasting  blemish. 

The  bhster  sometimes  will  not  rise.  It  will  not  when  the  inflammation  of  the 
chest  is  at  its  greatest  intensity:  too  much  action  is  going  on  there,  for  any  to  be 
excited  elsewhere.  The  blister  occasionally  will  not  act  in  the  later  stages  of  the 
disease,  because  the  powers  of  nature  are  exhausted.  It  is  always  a  most  unfa- 
vorable symptom  when  the  blisters  or  the  rowels  do  not  take  effect.  The  best 
time  for  the  application  of  the  blister  is  when  the  inflammation  is  somewhat  sub- 
dued by  the  bleeding;  and  then,  by  the  irritation  which  it  excites,  and  in  a  part  so 
near  the  original  seat  of  disease,  the  inflammation  of  the  chest  is  either  abated  or 
transferred  to  the  skin;  for,  as  we  have  before  observed,  it  is  an  important  law  of 
nature,  that  no  two  violent  actions  of  different  kinds  can  take  place  in  the  frame 
at  the  same  time. 

Next  comes  the  aid  of  medicine.  If  the  patient  was  a  human  being  the  surgeon 
would  immediately  purge  him.  We  must  not  do  this:  for,  from  sympathy  between 
the  bowels  and  the  lungs  in  the  horse,  we  should  either  produce  a  fatal  extension 
of  inflammation,  or  a  transferring  of  it  in  a  more  violent  form,  and  the  horse  would 
assuredly  die.  We  must  back-rake,  administer  clysters,  or  perhaps  give  eight 
ounces  of  Epsom  salts,  dissolved  in  warm  gruel.  No  castor-oil  must  be  given.  It 
may  be  a  mild  and  a  safe  aperient  for  the  human  being:  it  is  a  very  dangerous  one 
for  the  horse. 

Having  a  little  relaxed  the  bowels,  we  eagerly  turn  to  cooUng  or  sedative  medi- 
cines. The  farrier  gives  his  cordial  to  support  tlie  animal,  and  prevent  rottenness. 
He  adds  fuel  to  the  fire,  and  no  wonder  that  the  edifice  is  frequently  desU'oyed. 
Nitre,  digitalis,  and  emetic  tartar,  should  be  g-iven  in  the  doses  already  recommended, 
and  persisted  in  until  an  intermittent  state  of  the  pulse  is  produced.      Many  prac- 


148  THE  HORSE. 

titioners  give  hellebore  in  doses  of  half  a  drachm,  or  two  scruples,  every  six  or 
eight  hours,  and  they  say  witli  considerable  advantage.  It  is  continued  until  the 
horse  hangs  his  head,  and  saliva  drivels  from  his  mouth,  and  he  becomes  half  stu- 
pid and  half  delirious.  These  symptoms  pass  over  in  a  few  hours,  and  the  inflam- 
mation of  the  chest  is  found  to  be  abated.  If  it  he  so,  it  is  on  the  principle  of  the 
blister:  the  determination  of  blood  to  the  head,  and  tlie  temporaiy  excitement 
of  the  brain  or  its  membranes,  divert  the  inflammation,  or  a  portion  of  it,  from  its 
original  seat,  and  give  time  for  the  parts  somewhat  to  recover  their  tone.  We 
confess  that  we  prefer  the  digitalis,  emetic  tartar,  aud  nitre:  they  considerably 
lower  the  pulse,  and  they  are  safe. 

It  is  of  importance  tliat  we  determine  the  blood,  or  a  portion  of  it,  from  the  in- 
flamed and  over-distended  part  to  some  other  region.  On  this  principle  we  warmly 
clothe  the  horse  laboring  under  this  disease,  that  we  may  cause  the  blood  to  circu- 
late freely  through  the  vessels  of  the  skin,  and  that  we  may  keep  up  the  insensible 
perspiration,  and  perhaps  produce  some  sweating.  But  do  we  put  the  horse  in  a 
warm  place  i"  No;  for  then  we  should  bring  the  heated  and  poisoned  air  in  contact 
with  the  inflamed  lungs,  and  increase  the  excitement,  already  too  great.  It  is  an 
absurd  practice  to  shut  up  every  door  and  window,  and  exclude,  if  possible,  every 
breath  of  air — rather  let  every  door  and  window  be  thrown  open,  and  let  pure  and 
cold  air  find  access  to  these  heated  parts.  It  is  interesting  to  see  how  eagerly  tlie 
horse  avails  himself  of  the  relief  which  this  affords  him.  If  no  direct  draft  blows 
upon  him,  he  can  scarcely  be  placed  in  too  cool  a  box. 

Now  and  then  the  whole  skin  of  the  horse  may  be  rubbed  with  the  brush,  if  it 
does  not  teaze  and  hurry  him;  but  it  is  indispensable  that  the  legs  should  be  fre- 
quently and  well  hand-rubbed  to  restore  the  circulation  in  them,  and  they  should 
be  covered  with  thick  flannel  bandages.  As  to  food,  we  do  not  want  him  to  take 
any  at  first,  and  most  certainly  the  horse  should  not  be  coaxed  to  eat.  A  very 
small  quantity  of  hay  may  be  given  to  amuse  him,  or  a  cold  mash,  or  green  meat, 
but  not  a  particle  of  coi*n. 

In  eight-and-forty  hours  the  fate  of  the  patient  will  generally  be  decided.  If 
there  be  no  remission  of  symptoms,  the  inflammation  will  run  on  to  congestion  of 
the  lungs,  and  consequent  suffocation,  or  to  gangrene.  We  must,  in  this  case,  give 
the  medicines  more  frequently;  repeat  the  blister;  bleed,  if  the  state  of  the  animal 
will  bear  it;  and  rub  the  legs,  or  even  scald  them.  If  the  strength  now  rapidly  de- 
clines, the  horse  may  be  drenched  with  gruel,  and  tonic  medicine  may  be  tried,  as 
chamomile,  at  first,  and  this  not  recalling  or  increasing  the  fever,  a  httle  ginger  and 
gentian  may  be  added. 

Should  the  heaving  gradually  subside,  and  the  legs  get  warm,  and  the  horse  lie 
down,  and  the  inflammation  be  apparently  subsiding,  let  not  the  owner  or  the  prac- 
titioner be  in  too  great  haste  to  get  the  animal  well.  Nature  will  slowly,  but  surely 
and  safely,  restore  the  appetite  and  strength;  and  it  is  very  easy  to  bring  back  the 
malady  in  all  its  violence  by  attempting  to  hurry  her.  The  food  should  be  the 
same,  cold  mashes,  green  meat,  or  a  little  hay,  if  green  meat  cannot  be  procured, 
and  thin  gruel  drunk  from  the  pail — not  given  as  a  drench.  Should  the  horse  be 
very  weak,  or  scarcely  eat,  tonics  may  be  tried.  The  way  should  be  felt  very  cau- 
tiously with  the  chamomile,  and  the  sedative  medicine  again  be  immediately  resort- 
ed to  if  there  be  the  slighest  return  of  fever.  To  the  chamomile,  the  gentian  and 
ginger  may  be  gradually  added,  but  no  mineral  tonic.  After  a  while,  hay  may  be 
off"ered,  and  a  httle  corn,  and  the  horse  be  suff'ered  very  gradually  to  return  to  his 
former  habits. 

The  causes  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs  are  changes  from  cold  to  heat,  or  heat 
to  cold;  exposure  to  cold  while  the  horse  is  hot;  washing  with  cold  water  imme- 
diately after  exercise;  sudden  exposure  to  cold,  after  coming  from  a  very  hot  stable; 
frequent  checks  while  hunting;  travelling  in  the  face  of  a  cold  wind;  the  transfer- 
ence of  general  fever  to  the  lungs  previously  disposed  to  inflammation  from  the 
usual  stable  management;  and  neglected  catarrh,  or  catan-h  treated  with  stimulants 
instead  of  coolmg  medicines.  Any  change  from  heat  to  cold,  or  from  cold  to  heat, 
will  produce  it  with  almost  equal  certainty;  the  removal  from  a  warm  stable  to  a 
cold  one,  or  from  a  cold  one  to  a  warmer;  from  grass  to  the  stable,  and  from  the 
stable  to  grass,  wiU  equally  give  rise  to  diseases  of  the  lungs.  It  is  generally  the 
effect  of  our  erroneous  system  of  management. 

We  shall  presently  state  the  symptoms  by  which  inflammation  of  the  lungs  may 
be  distinguished  from  cataii-hal  fever.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  inflammation 
of  the  bowels  by  the  pulse,  which,  in  the  latter  disease,  is  small  and  wiry — by  the 


PLEURISY— CATARRH— BRONCHITIS,  &c.  149 

membrane  of  the  nose,  which  is  not  then  so  much  reddened — by  the  indications  of 
pain,  as  kicking-  at  the  belly,  stamping,  and  rolling';  by  his  eag^er  scraping-  of  tlie 
litter,  and  by  tlie  belly  being-  painful  to  the  touch,  and  also  hot,  when  the  bowels 
are  inflamed. 

PLEURISY. 

Hitherto  we  have  spoken  of  inflammation  of  the  substance  of  the  lung-s;  but  in- 
flammation may  attack  the  membrane  covering-  them  and  lining-  the  side  of  the 
chest,  (the  pleura,)  and  be  principally  or  entirely  confined  to  that  membrane.  This 
is  teiTned  pleurisy.  The  causes  are  the  same  as  in  inflammation  of  the  substance 
of  the  lung-s,  and  the  symptoms  are  not  very  dissimilar.  The  g-uiding-  distinction 
will  be  the  pulse.  As  the  blood  in  this  disease  still  traverses  the  lung-s  without  ob- 
struction, we  have  not  the  oppressed  pulse,  but  rather  the  hard,  full  pulse  cha- 
racteristic of  inflammation;  the  extremities  are  cold,  but  not  so  cold;  the  membrane 
of  the  nose  intensely  red  in  the  former  disease,  because  it  is  a  continuation  of  the 
inflamed  lining-  of  the  air  cells  of  the  lung-s,  is  here  but  little  reddened,  because 
there  is  no  connexion  between  them.  If  the  sides  are  pressed  upon  in  pleurisy  pain 
will  be  felt,  which  the  horse  will  express  by  a  kind  of  g-runt,  and  which  is  easily 
explained  by  the  pressure  being  applied  so  close  to  the  seat  of  disease.  Tlie  man- 
ner of  standing-,  however,  will  remain  the  same,  and  the  obstinacy  of  standing-  tlie 
same,  and  the  extension  of  the  neck,  and  the  protrusion  of  the  nostril.  After  death 
the  pleura  of  the  ribs  and  the  lungs  will  exhibit  stripes  or  patches  of  inflammation, 
and  the  chest  will  be  generally  filled  with  serous  fluid. 

Copious  bleeding  is  indicated  here,  as  in  inflammation  of  the  substance  of  the 
lungs.  Blisters  and  sedative  medicines  must  likewise  be  resorted  to.  The  only 
important  difference  is,  that  aperients  may  be  administered  with  more  safety  than 
in  the  former  disease.  Puncturing  of  the  chest  to  give  escape  to  tlie  fluid  that  is 
thrown  out  in  it  may  be  attempted.  It  cannot  do  harm,  but  it  has  very  seldom 
saved  or  much  prolonged  the  life  of  the  animal.  If  the  operation  be  attempted, 
it  should  be  as  soon  as  the  presence  of  the  fluid  is  suspected,  and  the  means  by 
which  this  may  be  ascertained  we  have  already  described.  The  opening  should  be 
effected  with  the  common  trochar  used  for  tapping  in  dropsy  in  the  human  being, 
and  should  be  made  between  tlie  eighth  and  ninth  ribs,  and  close  to  the  cartilages. 
Diuretic  medicines  combined  with  tonics  should  be  administered. 

CATARIIH,    OR    COMMOTf    COLD. 

This  is  a  complaint  of  frequent  occiu-rence,  generally  subdued  without  much  difll- 
culty,  but  often  becoming  of  serious  consequence  if  neglected.  It  is  accompa- 
nied b}^  a  little  increase  of  pulse;  a  slight  discharge  from  the  nose  and  eyes;  a  coat 
somewhat  roug-hened;  a  diminution  of  appetite,  and  cough  sometimes  painfid  and 
frequent.  A  little  warmth,  a  few  mashes,  and  some  doses  of  tlie  medicine  recom- 
mended under  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  will  speedily  effect  a  cure.  Should  the 
cough  be  very  painful  and  obstinate,  it  may  be  necessary  to  bleed;  but  then  the 
disease  is  degenerating  into  bronchitis  or  catarrhal  fever. 

The  divisions  of  the  windpipe  just  before  it  enters  the  lungs,  and  the  numerous 
vessels  into  which  it  immediately  afterwards  branches  out,  are  called  the  bronchial 
tubes,  and  inflammation  of  the  membrane  that  lines  them  is  termed 

BRONCHITIS. 

It  is  catarrh  extending  to  the  entrance  of  the  lungs.  It  is  characterized  by 
quicker  and  harder  breatliing  than  catarrh  usually  presents,  and  by  a  peculiar 
wheezing  which  is  relieved  by  the  coughing  up  of  mucus. 

It  is  to  be  treated  by  bleeding,  far  less  copious  than  in  inflammation  of  the  lungs, 
or  even  in  catarrh.  The  horse  will  bear  to  lose  only  a  very  small  quantity  of  blood 
when  laboring  under  inflammation  of  the  bronchial  passages.  The  chest  should 
be  blistered,  and  digitalis  given,  and  the  other  treatment  similar  to  that  for  in- 
flamed lungs,  with  the  exception  of  the  bleeding.  Thick  wind  is  a  frequent  con- 
sequence of  neglected  bronchitis. 

CATARRHAL    FEVER. 

This  malady  has  various  nam.es  among  horsemen,  as  epidemic  catarrh,  influenza, 
distemper.     By  the  latter  name  it  is  generally  distinguished  in  racing  stables.     It 


150  THE  HORSE. 

usually  commences,  like  inflammation  of  the  lungs  and  fever,  with  a  shivering  fit; 
to  which  rapidly  succeed  a  hot  mouth,  greater  heat  of  tlie  skin  than  is  natural, 
heaving  of  tlie  flanks,  and  cough.  Tlie  eyes  are  red  and  heavy,  and  the  mem- 
brane of  the  nose  red,  but  considerably  paler  than  that  of  inflammation  of  the 
lungs,  and  even  occasionally  bordering  on  a  livid  hue.  From  the  very  commence- 
ment of  tlie  disease  there  is  some  discharge  from  the  nose;  at  first  of  a  mere  watery 
nature,  but  soon  thickening,  and  containing  flakes,  some  of  which  stick  to  the 
membrane  of  the  nose,  and  have  been  mistaken  for  ulcers.  This  discharge,  at  no 
great  distance  of  time,  becomes  mattery  and  oflTensive.  The  glands  likewise  of 
the  throat  and  under-jaw  become  enlarged,  and  the  membranes  of  the  nostril  and 
the  throat  are  inflamed  and  tender,  and  therefore  the  food  is  "quidded,"  and 
there  is  difficulty  even  in  swallowing  water,  particularly  if  it  be  cold.  The  horae 
sips  and  slavers  in  the  pail,  and  repeatedly  coughs  as  he  drinks.  The  cough  is 
sometimes  frequent  and  painful;  so  much  so  that  the  horse  repeatedly  stamps  with 
his  feet,  and  shows  signs  of  impatience  and  suflTering  in  the  act  of  coughing.  To 
these  symptoms  rapidly  succeed  very  gi-eat  weakness.  The  horse  staggers,  and 
sometimes  almost  falls  as  he  moves  about  his  box;  or  he  supports  himself  by  lean- 
ing his  sides  or  his  quarters  against  the  box.  To  the  inexperienced  observer  this 
early  and  excessive  weakness  will  be  very  alarming,  and  he  will  .give  up  tlie  horse 
as  lost.  The  legs  generally  swell,  and  enlargements  appear  on  the  chest  and  bel- 
ly. Tliese,  however,  are  generally  favorable.  The  pulse  is  quickened.  It  rises 
to  sixty  or  seventy,  but  the  number  of  its  beatings,  and  the  character  of  the  pulse, 
which  is  seldom  very  hard,  depend  much  on  the  degree  of  fever  which  accompa- 
nies tlie  disease. 

After  a  few  days  the  cough  becomes  less  frequent  and  painful;  the  glands  of  the 
throat  diminished;  the  horse  begins  to  eat  a  little  green  meat,  and  is  more  cheer- 
ful. In  some  cases,  however,  the  membrane  of  the  nose  reddens,  or  streaks  of  red 
run  thi'ough  tlie  lividness;  and  the  legs  become  cold,  and  the  countenance  hag- 
gard, and  inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  at  hand.  At  other  times  the  breath  is  of- 
fensive; the  discharge  from  the  nose  bloody;  the  evacuations  loose,  and  slimy,  and 
bloody;  and  the  animal  is  speedily  destroyed.  The  cause  of  this  disease  is  ob- 
scure. It  may  be  the  consequence  of  common  cold;  or  it  will  more  frequently 
depend  on  some  unexplained  influence  of  the  atmosphere.  About  the  middle  of 
spring  and  the  commencement  of  autumn  it  is  most  frequent.  Many  horses  in 
the  same  district,  or  in  almost  eveiy  part  of  the  country,  will  be  attacked  by  it. 
If  the  spring  or  autumn  be  wet  and  variable,  almost  every  cold  will  degenerate 
into  it;  and  there  are  too  many  circumstances  which  lead  us  to  conclude  that  it  is 
infectious.  A  lot  of  horses  was  bought  at  one  of  the  fairs.  They  were  all  but 
one  sent  immediately  to  the  residence  of  the  purchaser,  at  a  considerable  distance. 
The  remaining  one  was  employed  for  some  purpose,  and  afterwards  sent  on  a 
journey.  He  was  seized  with  distemper,  and,  on  recovering  sufliciently  to  travel, 
he  was  taken  home.  Three  months  had  now  elapsed  since  the  purchase,  and  the 
other  horses  had  been  perfectly  liealthy;  but  in  less  than  a  fortnight  after  this 
horse  arrived  they  all  sickened  with  distemper. 

The  treatment  of  catarrhal  fever  requires  much  judgment.  It  is  clearly  febrile 
in  its  commencement;  but  it  speedily  assumes  the  character  of  weakness.  We 
will  suppose  that  the  disease  is  discovered  at  its  very  commencement.  Bleeding 
will  then  be  indispensable,  regulated  in  quantity  by  the  degree  of  fever;  rarely 
exceeding  four  quai-ts,  never  intentionally  pursued  until  the  animal  is  faint,  and 
immediately  stopped  when  there  is  the  slightest  appearance  of  faintness.  The 
bleeding  should  be  repeated  if  the  pulse  is  frequent  and  strong;  or  if  the  mem- 
brane of  the  nose  is  getting  red,  and  the  legs  cold,  and  even  although  weakness 
should  be  rapidly  coming  on;  but  it  should  be  in  small  quantity,  and  the  effect  of 
it  carefuUy  watched. 

If  the  disease  has  been  suffered  to  run  on  for  two  or  three  days,  and  the  horse 
begins  to  stagger,  the  practitioner  or  the  owner  will  consider  all  the  symptoms 
well  before  he  ventures  to  bleed.  Redness  of  the  nostril,  heat  of  the  mouth, 
quickness  and  force  of  pulse,  heaving  of  the  flanks,  or  coldness  of  the  legs,  will 
require  the  loss  of  blood,  notwithstanding  considerable  weakness;  but  if  the  animal 
is  quite  off  his  feed,  and  the  inside  of  the  nose  is  livid,  and  he  is  fast  losing  condi- 
tion as  well  as  strength,  bleeding  will  be  better  avoided. 

It  is  of  importance  that  the  bowels  should  be  evacuated;  and  there  is  not  so 
much  danger  in  the  use  of  a  little  purgative  medicine  as  in  inflammation  of  the 
lungs.     Two  drachms  of  Barbadoes  aloes  may  be  given  in  the  form  of  ball,  or  in 


MALIGNANT  EPIDEMIC.  151 

solution;  and  in  twelve  hours  another  drachm  may  be  given,  and  even  a  third  dose 
twelve  hours  after  that,  if  the  fseces  have  not  been  loosened;  taking  care  to  back- 
rake  the  animal,  and  to  administer  injections  of  thin  gruel. 

The  sedative  medicines  at  first  exhibited  should  be  the  same  as  in  inflammation 
of  the  lungs,  and  in  the  same  quantity;  but  as  soon  as  tlie  fever  begins  to  remit, 
two  drachms  of  the  spirit  of  nitrous  ether  should  be  added  to  each  dose;  and,  the 
weakness  increasing,  and  the  fever  still  more  subsiding,  the  chamomile  may  be 
ventured  on,  but  with  caution.  Warm  clothing  is  necessary,  and  particularly  about 
the  head;  and,  although  the  box  should  still  be  airy,  it  should  not  be  so  cool  as  in 
inflammation  of  tlie  lungs.  If  the  throat  be  so  sore  that  the  animal  will  not  eat, 
either  the  parotid  or  the  submaxillary  glands,  or  both,  should  be  blistered.  It  will 
be  far  better  to  blister  them  at  once  than  to  lose  time  by  the  use  of  weaker  and 
ineffective  applications.  Tlie  discharge  from  the  nose  should  be  promoted,  and 
the  natural  progress  of  the  inflammation  of  the  membrane  of  the  nose  and  throat 
hastened  by  hot  mashes  being  frequently  put  in  the  manger,  or,  if  the  horse  is  not 
too  much  distressed  by  it,  hung  under  his  nostril  in  a  common  nose-bag.  When 
this  is  resorted  to,  a  hood  about  the  head  will  be  particularly  necessary. 

A  great  deal  of  weakness  soon  follows  an  attack  of  catarrhal  fever,  and  it  will 
then  be  necessary,  even  while  we  are  subduing  the  fever,  to  support  the  strength 
of  the  animal.  He  should  be  offered  bran-mashes,  malt-mashes,  damped  hay,  green 
meat,  or  carrots.  If  he  refuses  to  take  them,  they  should  be  insinuated  between 
his  grinders;  when,  being  compelled  to  bx-ilise  them  a  little  in  endeavoring  to  get 
rid  of  them,  and  thus  experiencing  their  taste,  he  will  often  be  induced  to  eat  se- 
veral little  portions.  If  he  obstinately  refuses  to  feed,  he  must  be  drenched  with 
thick  gruel;  but  this  will  seldom  be  necessary  if  all  water  be  refused  him  from  the 
earliest  period  of  the  disease,  and  a  pail  with  thinner  gruel  be  suspended  in  some 
part  of  his  box.  When  he  finds  that  he  can  get  notliing  else  he  will  drink  suffi- 
cient of  this  to  afford  him  all  the  nutriment  we  require.  The  preservation  of  due 
warmth  in  the  extremities  is  as  necessary  here  as  in  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  and 
should  be  attempted  by  warm  bandages,  and  frequent  hand-rubbing. 

The  terminations  of  this  disease  most  to  be  dreaded  are  inflammation  of  the 
lungs,  and  putrid  fever.  We  know  how  best  to  g^iard  against  the  former,  and  we 
shall  presently  speak  of  the  latter.  When,  however,  the  disease  hangs  long  upon 
the  horse,  there  is  usually  much  mischief  done  in  the  chest,  although  the  animal 
may  recover.  Thick  wind,  broken  wind,  and  chronic  cough,  are  its  occasional 
consequences;  and  likewise,  as  the  disease  has  affected  so  great  a  portion  of  the 
air-passages,  a  peculiar  liability  to  cold  and  cough,  and,  not  unfrequently,  an  un- 
pleasant and  troublesome  discharge  from  the  nose  will  remain.  Of  the  latter  we 
have  spoken  under  the  title  of  nasal  gleet,  p.  96;  the  others  will  presently  come 
under  consideration.  The  farmer  will  not  forget  the  infectious  nature  of  this 
disease,  and  will  immediately  separate  the  sick  animal  from  his  companions. 

The  disease  with  which  catarrhal  fever  is  most  likely  to  be  confounded  is  in- 
flammation of  the  lungs;  and,  as  the  treatment  of  the  two  is  in  some  particulars  so 
different,  the  farmer  should  be  enabled  readily  to  distinguish  between  tliem.  If 
a  little  care  be  used  this  will  not  be  difficidt.  The  febrile  character  of  the  pulse; 
the  early  discharge  from  the  nose;  the  want  of  intense  redness  in  the  lining  of  the 
nose;  the  frequent  and  painful  cough;  the  enlargement  of  the  glands,  and  soreness 
of  the  throat;  the  rapid  loss  of  strength,  the  sometimes  constant,  and  at  others  va- 
riable warmth  of  the  legs;  the  fidgetiness  and  pawing  will  sufficiently  distinguish 
catarrhal  fever  from  the  oppressed  pulse,  red  nostril,  heaving  flank,  little  cough, 
fixedness  of  limbs,  and  coldness  of  the  extremities,  vv'hich  accompany  and  charac- 
terize inflammation  of  the  lungs. 

THE    MALIGNAITT    EPIDEMIC. 

This  commences  with  nearly  the  same  symptoms  as  catarrhal  fever;  it  probably 
at  the  beginning  is  catarrhal  fever,  but  more  than  usually  violent,  and  sooner  ex- 
hausting the  powers  of  the  frame. 

Its  symptoms  are,  rapid  loss  of  strength,  stinking  breath,  foetid  discharge  from 
the  nostrils,  all  the  evacuations  becoming  highly  offensive,  the  pulse  rapid,  small, 
and  weak,  and  the  animal  obstinately  refusing  to  eat.  It  soon  runs  its  course. 
Gangrene  soon  succeeds  to  inflammation,  and  rapidly  spreads  from  the  part  first 
inflamed  through  the  whole  of  the  cellular  substance,  and  over  every  portion  of 
the  frame.     When  veterinary  science  was  in  its  infancy,  this  pest  used  periodically 


152  THE  HORSE. 

to  appear,  and  carry  off  hundreds  of  horses;  and  that  breeder  is  fortunate  who  does 
not  now  sometimes  suffer  from  its  ravages.  The  treatment  of  it  is  very  unsatisfac- 
tory. The  prevention  may  be  a  httle  more  in  our  power  by  endeavoring'  to  get 
rid  of  the  previous  disease  by  one  bleeding,  when,  in  some  seasons,  catarrhal 
fever  appears  under  a  form  more  than  usually  violent;  and  by  bleeding  with  ex- 
treme caution,  or  not  bleeding  at  all,  when  debihty  begins  to  appear.  A  mild 
purgative  may  be  first  administered  to  caiTy  off  a  portion  of  the  offensive  matter 
contained  in  the  bowels;  after  which,  chalk,  and  ginger,  and  opium,  and  gentian, 
and  columbo,  with  port-wine,  may  be  plentifully  given,  with  green  meat,  or  thick 
gruel;  but,  except  the  horse  be  valuable,  the  chance  of  saving  him  is  so  slight, 
and  probably  the  danger  of  spreatling  the  pest  so  great,  that  prudence  will  prompt 
his  destruction. 

Most  frequent  in  occurrence  among  the  consequences  of  catan-hal  fever,  and 
inflammation  of  the  lungs,  is 

cnnoific  COUGH. 

It  would  occupy  more  space  than  we  can  devote  to  this  part  of  our  subject  to 
speak  of  all  the  causes  of  obstinate  cough.  The  irritability  of  so  great  a  portion  of 
tlie  air-passages,  occasioned  by  previous  and  violent  inflammation  of  them,  is  the 
most  frequent.  It  is  sometimes  connected  with  worms.  There  is  much  sympathy 
between  the  lungs  and  the  intestines,  and  the  one  very  readily  participates  in  the 
irritation  produced  in  the  other.  That  it  is  caused  by  glanders,  can  be  easily  im- 
agined, because  that  disease  is,  in  its  early  stage,  seated  in  or  near  the  principal 
air-passages,  and  little  time  passes  before  the  lungs  become  affected.  It  is  the  ne- 
cessary attendant  of  thick  wind  and  broken  wind,  for  these  proceed  from  altera- 
tions of  the  structure  of  the  lungs. 

Notwithstanding  the  clearness  of  the  cause,  the  cure  is  not  so  evident.  If  a 
harsh  hollow  cough  be  accompanied  by  a  staring  coat,  and  the  appearance  of 
worms — a  few  warm-balls  may  expel  these  parasites,  and  remove  the  irritation  of 
the  intestinal  canal.  If  it  proceed  from  irritability  of  the  air-passages,  which  will 
be  discovered  by  the  horse  coughing  after  drinking,  or  when  he  first  goes  out  of 
the  stable  in  the  morning,  or  by  his  occasional  throwing  out  thick  mucus  from  the 
nose,  medicines  may  be  given,  and  sometimes  with  advantage,  to  diminish  in-ita- 
tlon  generally.  Half-doses  of  the  digitalis,  emetic  tartar,  and  nitre,  given  every 
night,  have  had  a  very  beneficial  effect,  especially  when  made  up  with  tar,  which 
seems  to  have  a  powerful  influence  in  allaying  these  irritations.  These  balls  should 
be  regularly  given  for  a  considerable  time.  They  are  sufficiently  powerful  to 
quiet  slight  excitement  of  this  kind,  but  not  to  nauseate  the  horse,  or  interfere  in 
the  slightest  degree  with  his  food  or  his  work.  A.  blister,  extending  from  the  root 
of  one  ear  to  that  of  the  otlier,  taking  in  the  whole  of  the  channel,  and  reaching 
six  or  eight  inches  down  the  windpipe,  has  been  tried,  and  not  without  good  effect, 
on  the  supposition  that  the  irritation  may  exist  in  the  fauces  or  the  larynx;  and  the 
blister  has  sometimes  been  extended  through  the  whole  course  of  the  windpipe 
until  it  enters  the  chest. 

Feeding  has  much  influence  on  this  complaint.  Too  much  dry  meat,  and  espe- 
cially chaff,  increases  it.  It  is  aggravated  when  the  horse  is  suffered  to  eat  his  lit- 
ter; and  it  is  often  relieved  when  spring  tares  are  given.  Carrots  afford  decided 
relief. 

The  seat  of  the  disease,  however,  is  so  uncertain,  and  all  our  means  and  appli- 
ances so  inefficacious,  and  the  cough  itself  so  little  interfering,  and  sometimes  in- 
terfering not  at  all  with  the  health  of  the  animal,  that  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  to 
persevere  in  any  mode  of  treatment  that  is  not  evidently  attended  with  speedy 
benefit.  The  principal  consideration  to  induce  us  to  meddle  at  all  with  chronic 
cough  is  the  knowledge  that  horses  afflicted  witli  it  are  more  liable  than  others  to 
be  affected  by  changes  of  temperature,  and  that  inflammation  of  tlie  lungs,  or  of 
the  respiratory  passages,  often  assumes  in  them  a  very  alarming  character;  to 
which,  perhaps,  we  may  add  that  a  horse  witli  chronic  cough  cannot  legally  or 
properly  be  warranted  sound. 

When  chronic  cough  chiefly  occurs  after  eating,  the  seat  of  the  disease  is  evi- 
dently in  the  substance  of  the  lungs.  The  stomach  distended  with  food  presses 
upon  the  diaphragm,  and  the  diaphragm  upon  the  lungs;  and  the  lungs,  already 
laboring  under  some  congestion,  are  less  capable  of  transmitting  the  air.     In  the 


THICK-WIND.— BROKEN-WIND,  Ijj 

violent  effort  to  dischargfe  their  function,  irritation  is  produced;   and  the  act  of 
coughing  is  the  consequence  of  that  irritation.     This  is  allied  with,  or  soon  runs  into 

THICK-WIND. 

Thick-wind  consists  in  short,  frequent,  and  laborious  breathings,  and  especially 
when  the  animal  is  in  exercise;  the  inspirations  and  expirations  often  succeeding 
each  other  so  rapidly  as  evidently  to  express  distress,  and  occasionally  almost  to 
threaten  suffocation.  Some  degree  of  it  frequently  exists  in  round-chested  and  fat 
horses,  that  have  little  or  no  breeding.  The  reason  of  this  is  sufficiently  plain. 
The  circular  chest  affords  sufficient  room  for  the  expansion  of  the  lungs  when  the 
animal  is  at  rest,  and  sufficient  room  for  the  accumulation  of  a  great  deal  of  fat  and 
flesh;  but  when  the  horse  is  strongly  exercised,  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is  hur- 
ried, and  its  change  from  arterial  to  venous,  or  from  vital  to  empoisoned  blood,  is 
more  rapid.  The  circular  chest  cannot  then  enlarge  to  any  great  degree:  yet  the 
blood  must  be  purified  in  greater  quantity,  and  therefore  what  caimot  be  done  by 
increase  of  surface,  must  be  accomplished  by  frequencj'  of  action.  Heavy  draught 
horses  are  invariably  thick-winded,  and  so  are  almost  all  horses  violently  exercised 
on  a  full  stomach. 

A  horse  laboring  imder  any  inflammatory  affection  of  the  lungs  is  thick-winded, 
because  the  pain  which  he  feels  in  the  act  of  breathing  will  not  permit  him  to  re- 
spire deeply,  and  therefore  he  must  breathe  quickly.  A  horse  unused  to  exercise 
is  thick- winded,  because  the  lungs  will  not  soon  accommodate  themselves  to  a  new 
and  laborious  action. 

The  principal  cause,  however,  of  thick-wind  is  previous  inflammation,  and  parti- 
cularly inflammation  of  the  bronchial  passages.  The  throwing  out  of  some  fluid, 
which  is  capable  of  coagulation,  is  the  result,  or  the  natural  termination  of  inflam- 
mation. This  deposite  in  the  substance  of  the  lungs,  or  in  the  bronchial  tubes,  from 
inflammation  of  these  organs,  must  close  many  of  the  air-cells,  and  lessen  the  di- 
mensions of  others.  Then  if  the  cells,  fewer  in  number  and  contracted  in  size,  be 
left  for  the  purposes  of  breathing,  the  rapid  and  laborious  action  of  the  lungs  must 
supply  the  deficiency,  and  especially  when  the  animal  is  put  in  that  state  in  which 
he  requires  a  rapid  change  of  blood. 

The  examination  of  thick-winded  horses  has  thrown  considerable  light  on  the 
nature  of  the  disease.  In  the  majority  of  instances  some  of  the  small  air-cells  have 
been  found  filled  up  with  a  dense  substance  of  a  blue  or  darker  color.  In  others, 
the  minute  passages  leading  to  the  cells  have  been  diminished,  and  almost  oblite- 
rated, the  linings  of  these  passages  being  unnaturally  thickened,  or  covered  with 
hardened  mucus;  and  where  neither  of  these  appearances  cotdd  be  observed,  the 
lining  of  the  cells  has  exhibited  evident  marks  of  inflammation,  so  that  absolute 
pain  prevented  the  full  expansion  or  contraction  of  the  lungs. 

Thick-wind  is  often  the  forerunner  of  broken-wind.  It  is  easy  to  understand 
this:  for,  if  so  much  labor  is  necessary  to  contract  the  air-cells,  and  to  force  out 
the  wind,  and  the  lungs  work  so  rapidly  and  so  violently  in  efl'ecting  this,  some  of 
the  cells,  weakened  by  disease,  will  probably  be  ruptured. 

Of  the  treatment  of  thick-wind  we  have  little  to  say.  Attention  to  diet,  and  the 
prevention  of  the  overloading  of  the  stomach,  and  the  avoidance  of  exercise  soon 
after  a  meal,  may  in  some  degree  palliate  the  disease,  and  so  may  constant  exer- 
cise, carried  to  the  extent  of  tlie  horse's  power,  without  too  much  distressing  him. 
The  capability  of  exertion  will  thus  daily  improve,  and  the  breathing  of  tlie  horse 
will  become  freer  and  deei>er.  This  is  the  process  of  training  a  horse  either  for 
the  chase  or  the  course;  and  this  constitutes  all  the  difterence  between  a  horse  that 
has  been  well  and  one  that  has  been  badly  trained. 

BROKEX-WIND. 

This  is  easily  distinguished  from  thick-wind.  In  thick-wind  the  breathing  is  rapid 
and  laborious,  but  the  inspiration  and  expiration  are  equally  so,  and  occupy  pre- 
cisely the  same  time.  In  broken-wind  the  inspiration  is  performed  by  one  effort; 
the  expiration  by  two,  which  is  plainly  to  be  distinguished  by  observing  the  flanks, 
and  which  occupies  double  the  time.  The  reason  of  this  may  easily  be  stated. 
Broken-wind  is  the  rupture  or  running  together  of  some  of  the  air-cells.  When 
the  lungs  are  expanded,  the  air  will  rush  in  easily  enough,  and  one  effort  of  the 
muscles  of  respiration  is  sufficient  for  the  purpose;  but  when  these  cells  have  run 
20 


154  THE  HORSE. 

into  each  other,  the  cavity  is  so  irregular,  and  contains  so  many  comers  and  blind 
pouches  that  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  force  it  out  again,  and  two  efforts  are 
scarcely  competent  fully  to  effect  it. 

The  disease  is  also  accomj)anied  by  a  dry  and  husky  cough  of  a  peculiar  sound, 
which  cannot  easily  be  described,  but  is  recognized  by  every  one  accustomed  to 
horses.  It  is  the  consequence  of  thick-wind,  and  of  those  alterations  of  structure 
consequent  on  inflammation.  If  a  portion  of  the  lung  be  lost  to  the  animal,  and 
the  same  quantity  of  pure  blood  must  be  supplied,  while  there  is  not  the  same  sur- 
face to  supply  it,  it  is  easy  to  suppose  that,  in  the  violent  efforts  which  such  a  horse 
is  compelled  to  make,  some  of  the  cells  may  be  broken. 

Broken-wind  may,  however,  occur  williout  much  previous  disease.  Suppose  a 
horse  to  be  a  gross  feeder,  and  to  have  filled  his  stomach  with  straw  and  hay,  and 
provender  that  occupies  a  great  bulk,  and  contains  little  nourishment,  the  lungs 
ai"e  squeezed  into  a  less  than  the  natural  compass.  Let  the  horse  be  now  suddenly 
and  smartly  exercised;  more  blood  must  be  purified,  and  in  the  violent  effort  to 
accomplish  this,  some  of  the  cells  give  way.  Therefore,  we  do  not  find  broken- 
winded  horses  on  the  race-course,  for  although  every  exertion  of- speed  is  required 
from  them,  their  food  lies  in  small  compass,  and  the  stomach  is  not  distended,  and 
the  lungs  have  room  to  play,  and  care  is  taken  that  their  exertion  shall  be  required 
when  tlie  stomach  is  nearly  empty.  Carriage  and  coach  horses  are  seldom  broken- 
winded,  unless  they  bring  the  disease  to  their  work,  for  they,  too,  live  principally 
on  corn,  and  their  work  is  regular,  and  care  is  taken  that  they  shall  not  be  fed  im- 
mediately before  their  work.  The  majority  of  horses  thus  affected  come  from  the 
stables  of  those  for  whose  use  these  pages  are  principally  designed.  The  farmer's 
horse  is  the  broken-winded  horse,  because  that  on  which  he  is  fed  is  bulky,  and 
too  often  selected  on  account  of  its  cheapness;  because  there  is  little  regularity  ui 
the  management  of  most  of  tlie  farmers'  stables,  or  the  work  of  his  teams;  and  be- 
cause, after  many  an  hour's  fasting,  the  horses  are  often  suffered  to  gorge  themselves 
with  this  bulky  food;  and  then,  with  the  stomach  pressing  upon  the  lungs,  and  al- 
most impeding  ordinary  respiration,  they  are  put  again  to  work,  and  sometimes  to 
that  which  requires  considerable  exertion. 

A  profitable  lesson  may  be  learned  from  this  statement.  Tlie  farmer  perhaps 
may  contrive  to  give  his  horses  a  little  more  corn,  and  a  little  less  hay,  and  straw, 
and  chaff,  without  much  additional  expense;  he  may  contrive,  too,  to  shorten  the 
period  of  fasting,  and  therefore  prevent  the  ravenous  manner  in  which  agricultural 
horses  often  feed;  and  more  regularity  may  take  place  between  the  periods  of  feed- 
ing and  of  work.  We  have  recommended  the  nose-bag  as  a  preventive  of  stomach- 
staggers;  we  can  as  earnestly  recommend  it  as  a  preventive  of  broken-wind. 

This  disease  depends  as  mucli  upon  the  cramped  state  of  the  lungs,  from  the 
pressure  of  an  overgorged  stomacli  in  the  ordinary  state  of  the  animal,  as  on  the 
effects  of  over-exertion.  Tlie  agriculturist  knows  that  many  a  horse  becomes  bro- 
ken-winded in  the  straw-yard.  There  is  little  nutriment  in  the  provender  which 
he  there  finds,  and,  to  obtain  enough  for  the  support  of  life,  he  is  compelled  to 
keep  the  stomach  constantly  full,  and  pressing  upon  the  lungs.  Some  have  come 
up  from  grass  broken-winded  tliat  went  out  perfectly  sound.  The  explanation  of 
this  case  is  the  same.  The  stomach  was  habitually  gorged  with  coarse  and  innu- 
tritive  herbage,  and  its  pressure  on  the  lungs  cramped  and  confined  their  action, 
and  produced  those  violent  efforts  which  burst  some  of  the  air-cells,  and  especially 
when  in  their  gambols  in  the  straw-yard  or  in  the  field,  or  sometimes  being  wan- 
tonly driven  about,  the  lungs  were  suddenly  called  upon  to  perform  extraordinary 
work.  There  are  difficulties  attending  this  explanation  of  the  disease,  but  it  can- 
not be  denied  that  the  dissection  of  horses  which  had  broken-wind  has  almost  in- 
variably presented  these  enlarged  air-cells,  one  of  which  would  occupy  the  space 
of  a  great  many  of  their  natural  dimensions. 

The  cure  of  a  broken-winded  horse  no  one  ever  witnessed;  yet  much  may  be 
done  in  the  way  of  palliation.  The  food  of  the  animal  should  consist  of  much  nu- 
triment condensed  into  a  small  compass;  the  quantity  of  oats  should  be  increased, 
and  that  of  hay  proportionably  diminished;  the  bowels  should  be  gently  relaxed  by 
the  frequent  use  of  mashes;  the  water  should  be  given  sparingly  through  the  day, 
although  at  night  the  thirst  of  tlie  animal  should  be  fully  satisfied;  and  exercise 
should  never  be  taken  when  the  stomach  is  full.  It  will  scarcely  be  believed  how 
much  relief  these  simple  measures  will  afford  to  the  broken-winded  horse,  and  of 
how  much  exertion  he  may  be  gradually  rendered  capable.  Some  treated  on  this 
plan  have  even  been  hunted,  and  have  acquitted  themselves  well  in  the  field.     Car- 


THE  DIAPHRAGM.  155 

rots  are  very  useful  to  the  broken-winded  horse,  not  only  as  containing'  much  nutri- 
ment and  considerable  moisture,  so  that  less  water  may  be  required,  but  from  some 
property  which  they  possess  rendering-  them  beneficial  in  every  chest  affection.  A 
broken-winded  horse  turned  out  to  grass  will  never  improve,  on  account  of  the  al- 
most constant  distension  of  the  stomacli;  but  he  ma}'  be  fed  on  more  succulent  sub- 
stances, as  turnips  and  mangel-wurzel,  with  evident  advantage.  They  are  easy  of 
digestion,  and  they  soon  pass  out  of  the  stomach. 

Medical  treatment  is  of  little  avail,  except  that  organs  so  violently  excited  as  the 
lungs  of  broken-winded  horses  frequently  are,  must  be  subject  to  inflammation, 
and  the  difficulty  of  breathing  in  tliese  horses  is  sometimes  sadly  increased.  A 
little  blood  may  then  be  subtracted;  and  other  means  taken  which  have  been  re- 
commended for  inflammatory  affections  of  the  chest.  In  cases  of  frequent  or  pe- 
riodical returns  of  difficulty  of  breatliing,  to  which  these  horses  are  very  subject, 
a  course  of  mild  aperients,  united  with  mercur}',  have  been  given  with  decided  ad- 
vantage. Two  drachms  of  aloes,  and  one  of  calomel,  may  be  given  twice  in  the 
week.  The  barbarous  practice  of  some  farriers  of  making  holes  near  the  anus, 
and  sometimes  in  other  parts,  to  let  out  the  broken  wind,  cannot  be  too  strong-ly 
reprobated. 

Thick-wind  and  broken-wind  exist  in  various  degrees,  and  many  sliades  of  differ- 
ence. Dealers  and  horsemen  generally  have  characterized  them  by  names  that 
can  boast  no  elegance,  but  are  considerably  expressive  of  the  state  of  the  animal. 
Our  readers  should  not  be  ignorant  of  them.  Some  horses  make  a  shrill  noise 
when  in  quick  action — they  are  said  to  be  Pipers.  This  is  a  species  of  Roaring. 
There  is  usually  a  ring  of  coagulated  matter  round  the  inside  of  the  windpipe,  by 
which  the  cavity  is  materially  diminished,  and  the  sound  produced  in  quick  breath- 
ing must  evidently  be  shriller.  Sometimes  the  piping  is  produced  by  a  contraction 
of  the  small  passages  of  the  lungs. 

The  Wheezer  utters  a  sound  not  unlike  that  of  an  asthmatic  person  when  a 
little  hurried.  This  is  a  kind  of  thick-wind,  and  is  caused  by  the  lodgment  of  some 
mucous  fluid  in  the  small  passages  of  the  lungs.  It  frequently  accompanies  brori' 
chitis.  Wheezing  can  be  heard  at  all  times,  even  when  the  horse  is  at  rest  in  the 
stable;  roaring  is  confined  to  the  increased  breathing  of  considerable  exertion. 

The  Whistler  utters  a  shriller  sound  than  the  wheezer,  but  only  when  in  exer- 
cise, and  that  of  some  continuance.  A  sudden  motion  will  not  always  produce  it. 
It  seems  to  be  referable  to  some  contraction  in  the  windpipe  or  the  larynx.  The 
sound  is  a  great  nuisance  to  tlie  rider,  and  the  whistler  very  speedily  becomes  dis- 
tressed.    A  sharp  gallop  up  hill  will  speedily  detect  the  whistler. 

When  the  obstruction  seems  to  be  principally  in  the  nose,  the  horse  loudlypuffs 
and  blows,  and  the  nostrils  are  dilated  to  the  utmost,  while  the  flanks  are  compara- 
tively quiet.  This  animal  is  said  to  be  a  High-blower.  With  all  his  apparent 
distress,  he  often  possesses  great  speed  and  endurance.  The  sound  is  unpleasant, 
but  the  lungs  may  be  perfectly  sound. 

Every  horse  violently  exercised  on  a  full  stomach,  or  when  overloaded  with  fat, 
will  grunt  very  much  like  a  hog.  The  pressure  of  the  stomach  on  the  lungs,  or 
that  of  the  fat  accumulated  about  the  heart,  will  so  much  impede  the  breathing-, 
that  the  act  of  forcible  expiration  will  be  accompanied  by  this  kind  of  sound;  but 
there  are  some  horses  who  will  at  all  times  utter  this  sound,  if  suddenly  touched 
with  the  whip  or  spur.  They  are  called  Gruxters,  and  should  be  avoided.  There 
is  some  altered  structure  of  the  lungs,  which  prevents  them  from  suddenly  accom- 
modating themselves  to  an  unexpected  demand  for  exertion.  It  is  the  consequence 
of  previous  disease,  and  is  frequently  followed  by  thick,  or  broken-wind,  or  roaring". 


CHAPTER    XI  . 

THE     BELLY     AND     ITS     CONTENTS 


THR    DIAPHRAGM. 


The  chest  is  separated  from  the  abdomen  or  belly,  by  the  diaphragm  or  midriff, 
which  extends  obliquely  from  the  loins  to  the  breast-bone.      In  its  natural  state  it 


156  THE  HORSE. 

is  convex,  or  projecting  forward  towards  the  lungs,  and  concave  or  hollo\y  back- 
ward towards  the  stomach  and  intestines.  On  the  side  towards  the  chest  it  is  co- 
vered by  the  membrane  which  invests  the  lungs,  and  towards  the  belly  by  that 
which  covers  the  intestines.  It  is  attached  to  the  spine,  the  ribs,  and  the  breast- 
bone, by  tendinous  or  fleshy  expansions,  and  in  the  centre  it  is  composed  of  strong 
muscular  fibres.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  muscles  of  the  frame.  It  is,  as 
we  have  described  it,  the  principal  agent  in  breathing.  When  it  acts,  its  fibres  are 
shortened;  it  loses  its  convexity  and  becomes  plane;  the  chest  is  thereby  enlarged, 
and  the  lungs  enlarge  with  the  expansion  of  the  cavity  in  which  they  are  placed; 
and  air  rushes  in,  and  inspiration  is  performed.  When  tlie  fibres  of  the  diaphragm 
cease  to  act,  that  muscle  returns  to  its  natural  form;  it  becomes  again  convex;  it 
presses  upon  the  lungs,  and  helps  to  force  out  the  air,  and  expiration  is  accom- 
phshed.  It  assists  likewise  in  the  natural  constant  motion  of  the  bowels,  and  lends 
its  powerful  aid  in  the  expulsion  of  the  dung  and  urine,  and  in  the  birth  of  the 
young  animal.  It  is  most  concerned  in  coughing,  yawning,  sighing,  &c.  The 
membrane  which  covers  the  diaphragm  is  very  subject  to  inflammation.  Whether 
the  original  seat  of  disease  be  in  the  lungs  or  the  bowels,  the  diaphragm  soon  be- 
comes inflamed  and  irritable,  which  accounts  for  the  breathing  of  the  horse  being 
so  much  affected  under  every  inflammation  of  the  chest  or  belly.  The  diaphragm 
is  likewise  occasionally  ruptured,  principally  from  violent  exertion.  It  has  so  much 
to  do  in  the  act  of  breathing,  that  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  if,  when  the  respiration 
is  exceedingly  hurried,  this  muscle  should  give  way.  The  symptoms  of  ruptured 
diaphragm  are  very  obscure.  There  are  none  on  which  we  can  perfectly  depend. 
This,  however,  is  a  matter  of  little  consequence,  for  it  is  unifoi-mly  fatal.  If  the 
rupture  be  small,  some  portion  of  the  intestines  insinuates  itself,  and  becomes  en- 
tangled, and  the  passage  is  incurably  obstructed;  and  if  the  aperture  be  large,  so 
much  of  the  intestine  passes  thi-ough  as  to  press  upon  the  lungs,  and  render  breath- 
ing impossible. 

Three  large  vessels  pass  through  the  diaphragm;  the  great  artery  which  conveys 
the  blood  from  the  heart  to  the  hinder  part  of  the  frame,  and  which  goes  through 
a  kind  of  division  of  the  diaphragm,  so  that  it  cannot  be  pressed  upon;  the  great 
vein  carrying  the  blood  from  the  hinder  parts  and  the  liver  to  the  heart,  and  which 
penetrates  the  firm  tendinous  part  of  the  diaphragm  so  as  likewise  to  be  preserved 
from  pressure;  and  the  gullet,  which  passes  through  the  most  fleshy  portion  of  the 
diaphragm,  and  is  liable  to  be  compressed  by  the  constant  action  of  this  muscle, 
which,  however,  is  a  matter  of  little  consequence,  for  there  is  sufficient  power  in  the 
muscles  of  the  gullet  to  propel  the  food  through  the  diaphragm  into  the  stomach. 

The  gullet  terminates  in 

THE    STOMACH, 

Which  is  found  on  the  left  side  of  the  belly,  lying  upon  the  large  intestines;  its 
fore  part  close  to  the  liver;  and  its  left  side  in  contact  with  tlie  diaphragm.  This 
situation  of  the  stomach  will  at  once  explain  the  reason  why  a  horse  is  so  much 
distressed,  and  sometimes  irreparably  injured  if  worked  hard  immediately  after  a 
full  meal.  The  stomach  must  be  displaced  and  driven  back  in  the  belly  by  every 
contraction  of  the  diaphragm  or  act  of  inspiration;  then  in  proportion  to  the  fulness 
of  the  stomach  will  be  the  weight  to  be  overcome,  and  the  labor  of  the  diaphragm, 
and  the  exhaustion  of  the  animal.  If  the  stomach  be  much  distended,  it  may  be 
too  weighty  to  be  forced  sufficiently  far  back  to  make  room  for  the  quantity  of  air 
which  the  animal  in  a  state  of  exertion  requires.  Hence  the  frequency  and  labor 
of  the  breath,  and  tlie  quickness  with  which  such  a  horse  is  blown,  or  possibly, 
destroyed.  Hence  the  folly  of  giving  too  full  a  meal,  or  too  much  water  before 
the  horse  starts  on  a  journey  or  for  the  chase;  and  hence,  likewise,  tlie  absurdity 
and  danger  of  that  unpardonable  custom  of  some  grooms  to  gallop  the  horse  after 
his  drink,  in  order  to  warm  it  in  his  belly,  and  prevent  gripes. 

The  horse  was  destined  to  be  the  servant  of  man,  and  to  serve  him  at  all  hours, 
and  whether  fasting  or  full:  it  would  seem,  therefore,  that  to  lessen  the  inconve- 
nience or  danger  of  the  pressure  of  the  stomach  on  the  diaphragm,  a  smaller  sto- 
mach, in  proportion  to  his  size,  is  given  to  the  horse  than  to  almost  any  other  ani- 
mal. The  bulk  of  the  horse,  and  the  services  required  of  him,  demand  much  nu- 
triment; and  his  nutriment  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it  must  occupy  a  very  conside- 
rable space,  yet  his  stomach,  compared  with  his  bulk,  is  not  half  so  large  as  that 
of  the  human  being;  and  therefore,  although  he,  like  every  other  animal,  feels  in- 


THE   STOMACH.  157 

convenience  from  great  exertion  iminediately  after  a  full  meal,  lie  feels  not  so  much  as 
other  animals,  lor  his  stomach  is  small,  and  a  great  proportion  of  what  he  eats  rapidly  pass- 
es through  it,  and  descends  to  a  part  of  the  intestines  distant  from  the  diaphragm,  and 
where  the  existence  and  pressure  of  the  food  cannot  cause  him  any  annoyance. 

CUT  OF  THE  STOMACH. 


a  The  oesophagus  or  gullet,  extending  to  the  stomach 

6  The  entrance  of  the  gullet  into  the  stomach.  The  circular  layers  of  the  muscles  are 
very  thick  and  strong,  and  which,  by  their  contractions,  help  to  render  it  difficult 
for  the  food  to  be  returned  or  vomited. 

c  The  portion  of  the  stomach  which  is  covered  by  cuticle  or  insensible  skin. 
d  d  The  margin  which  separates  the  cuticular  from  the  villous  portion. 
e  e  The  mucous  or  villous  (velvet)  portion  of  the  stomach,  in  which  the  food  is  princi- 
pally digested. 

f  The  communication  between  the  stomach  and  the  first  intestine. 

g  The  common  orifice  through  which  the  bile  and  the  secretion  from  the  pancreas 
pass  into  the  first  intestine.    The  two  pins  mark  the  two  tubes  here  united. 

h  A  smaller  orifice,  through  which  a  portion  of  the  secretion  of  the  pancreas  enters  the 
intestines. 

The  orifice  by  which  the  gullet  enters  the  stomach  is  called  the  cardiac,  b,  from  its 
nearness  to  the  heart,  or  sympathy  with  it.  It  is  constantly  closed  by  strong  muscular 
fibres,  except  when  food  is  passing  into  the  stomach.  It  is  the  construction  of  the  soft 
palate,  however,  as  has  been  already  described,  and  not  this  closing  of  the  cardiac  orifice 
of  the  stomach,  that  chiefly  prevents  the  act  of  vomiting  in  the  horse. 

The  stomach  has  four  coats.  The  outermost  is  in  the  lining  of  the  cavity  of  the  belly, 
and  the  common  covering  of  all  the  intestines  ;  by  which  they  are  all  confined  in  their 
respective  situations,  and  fi-om  which  a  fluid  is  given  out,  which  prevents  all  friction 
between  them.     This  is  called  the  peritoneum,  or  that  which  stretches  round. 

The  second  is  the  muscular  coat,  consisting  of  two  layers  of  fibres,  one  running  length- 
ways, and  the  other  circularly,  and  by  means  of  which  a  constant  gentle  motion  is  com- 
municated to  the  stomach,  by  which  the  food  is  more  thoroughly  mixed  together,  and 
prepared  for  digestion,  and  by  the  pressure  of  which  also  the  food  when  properly  pre- 
pared is  pushed  on  into  the  intestines. 

The  third,  or  cuticular,  (skin-like  coai,)  c,  covers  but  a  portion  of  the  inside  of  the 
stomach.  It  is  a  continuation  of  the  lining  of  the  gullet.  There  are  numerous  glands 
on  it,  which  pour  out  a  mucous  fluid ;  and  it  is,  probably,  intended  to  be  a  reservoir  in 
which  a  portion  of  the  food  is  retained  for  a  while,  and  softened  and  better  prepared  for 
the  action  of  the  other  or  true  digestive  portion  of  the  stomach.  The  cuticular-  coat  oc- 
cupies nearly  one-half  of  the  inside  of  the  stomach. 


158  THE  HORSE. 

The  fourth  coat  is  the  mucous  or  villous  (velvet)  coat,  e,  where  the  work  of  digestion 
properly  commences.  The  mouths  of  numerous  little  vessels  open  upon  it,  pounngout 
a  peculiar  fluid,  the  gastric  (stomach)  juice,  which  mixes  with  the  food  already  softened, 
and  converts  it  into  a  fluid  called  chyme.  As  this  is  formed,  it  passes  out  of  the  other 
orifice  of  the  stomach,  the  pyloric  (a  door  to  guaid,)  /,  and  enters  the  first  small  intes- 
tine ;  the  harder  and  undissolved  parts  being  turned  back  to  undergo  further  action. 

The  stomach  of  the  horse  being  small,  this  wonderful  change  which  is  eflected  in 
the  food,  and  the  nature  of  which  has  never  been  thoroughly  understood,  proceeds  very 
rapidly.  The  horse,  in  a  short  time,  will  eat  a  great  deal  more  than  the  stomach  will 
hold,  and  room  can  only  be  made  for  tlie  reception  of  the  fresh  food  by  that  which  had 
been  previously  received  being  discharged  tlirough  the  pyloric  orifice. 

Of  one  disease  of  the  stomach,  arising  from  over  distention,  stomach-slaggers,  we  have 
already  spoken.  In  a  few  instances  the  stomach  has  been  known  to  be  distended  with 
air,  but  there  are  no  characteristic  symptoms  by  which  this  may  be  distinguished  from 
distension  by  food,  and  the  treatment  would  be  tlie  same. 

Of  inflammation  of  the  stomach  in  the  horse,  except  from  poisonous  herbs  or  drugs, 
we  know  little.  It  very  rarely  occurs,  and  then  can  with  diflicuity  be  distinguished  fi-om 
inflammation  of  the  bowels,  and  in  both  diseases  the  assistance  of  a  skilful  veterinary  sui"- 
geon  is  required. 

Few  horses  are  destroyed  by  the  poisonous  plants  in  our  meadows.  Natural  instinct 
teaches  them  to  avoid  those  which  would  be  injurious.  More  are  destroyed  by  the 
leaves  of  the  yew  than  by  any  other  vegetable  poison.  A  sleepiness,  from  which  the 
animal  can  scarcely  be  roused,  steals  over  him,  and  he  dies  without  any  symptom  of  pain. 
Ten  grains  of  the  faiina  of  the  croton  nut  should  be  given,  as  soon  as  the  poisoning  is 
suspected ;  he  should  be  drenclied  largely  with  equal  parts  of  vinegar  and  thin  gruel, 
and  the  croton  repeated  in  six  hours,  if  it  has  not  previously  operated. 

The  Water  Dropwort,  common  in  ditches  and  marshy  places,  is  generally  refused  by 
horses ;  but  brood-mares,  with  appetite  somewhat  vitiated  from  their  being  in  foal,  have 
been  destroyed  by  it.  The  antidote  would  be  vinegar  and  gruel,  and  bleeding  if  there 
be  inflammation. 

The  Water  Parsley  deserves  not  all  the  bad  reputation  it  has  acquired,  although,  when 
eaten  in  too  great  quantities,  it  has  produced  palsy  in  the  horse,  and  which  Has  beea 
strangely  attributed  to  a  harmless  beetle  that  inhabits  the  stem. 

Of  the  Common  Hemlock  and  the  Water  Hemlock  we  know  no  harm,  so  far  as  the 
horse  is  concerned.  We  have  repeatedly  seen  him  eat  the  latter  without  bad  eflfects,  but 
cows  have  been  poisoned  by  it. 

Of  the  mineral  poisons  we  will  mention  only  two.  Arsenic  was  formerly  celebrated 
as  a  tonic  and  a  destroyer  of  worms  in  the  horse  ;  and  doses  sufficient  to  kill  three  or 
four  men  used  to  be  daily  administered,  and  generally  with  impunity :  the  dose  has, 
however,  in  some  cases  been  too  strong,  and  me  animal  has  died.  There  are  better 
tonics  and  vermifuges,  and  the  drug  will  j)robably  soon  be  discarded  from  veterinaiy 
practice.  Corrosive  sublimate  is  given  internally,  and  often  with  advantage  in  farcy.  It 
is  used  externally  to  destroy  vermin,  to  cure  mange,  and  dispose  deep  and  fistulous  ul- 
cers to  heal.  The  symptoms  of  an  over-dose  of  either  are  loss  of  appetite,  discharge  of 
saliva  from  the  mouth,  pawing,  looking  eagerly  at  the  flanks,  rolling,  profuse  perspira- 
tion, thready  pulse,  rapid  weakness,  violent  purging  and  streiining,  convulsions,  and 
death. 

The  stomach  will  be  found  intensely  inflamed,  with  patches  of  yet  greater  inflamma- 
tion. The  whole  course  of  the  intestine  will  be  inflamed,  with  particular  parts  black 
and  gangrenous. 

The  antidote,  if  it  be  not  too  late  to  administer  it,  would  be,  for  arsenic,  lime-water, 
or  chalk  and  w"ater,  or  soap  and  water,  given  in  great  quantities  with  the  stomach-pump; 
and  for  corrosive  sublimate,  the  white  of  eggs  mixed  with  water,  or  thick  starch,  or 
arrow-root.  If  the  poisoning  be  malicious,  arsenic  may  be  most  readily  detected  by 
mixing  a  little  of  the  fluid  taken  from  the  intestines  with  a  wealc  solution  of  blue  vitriol, 
to  which  a  little  hartshorn  has  been  added — the  mixture  will  gradually  become  green ; 
or,  if  a  little  of  the  more  solid  contents  of  the  stomach  or  small  intestines  be  thrown  on 
a  red-hot  iron,  a  smell  of  garlic  will  be  perceived. 

For  corrosive  sublimate  there  is  a  simpler  test.  Place  a  drop  of  the  suspected  fluid  on 
a  sovereign,  let  the  stem  of  a  small  key  touch  the  sovereign  w'hile  the  handle  is  brought 
into  contact  with  the  drop,  and  the  gold  will  immediately  be  stained  ;  or  mix  a  little  of 
the  suspected  fluid  with  lime-water,  and  the  corrosive  sublimate,  if  there  be  any,  will  be 
thrown  to  the  bottom,  of  an  orange  colour ;  or  if  hartshorn  be  used,  the  precipitate  will 
be  white. 


BOTS. 
BOTS. 


159 


In  the  sprino-  and  early  part  of  tlie  summer,  horses  are  much  troubled  by  a  grub  or  cater- 
pillar, wliicl?  crawls  out  ot  tlie  anus,  fastens  itself  under  the  tail,  and  seems  to  cause  a 
great 'deal  of  itching  or  uneasiness.  Grooms  are  sometimes  alarmed  at  the  appearance 
of  these  insects.  Their  history  is  curious,  and  will  dispel  every  fear  with  regard  to 
them.    We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Bracy  Clarli  for  almost  all  we  know  of  the  bot. 

CUT  OF  THE  BOT. 


a  and  h  The  eggs  of  the  gad-fly,  adhering  to  the  hair  of  the  horse. 

c  The  appearance  of  the  bots  on  the  stomach,  firmly  adhering  by  their  hooked 
mouths.  The  marks  or  depressions  are  seen  which  are  left  on  the  coats 
of  the  stomach  when  the  bots  are  detached  from  their  hold. 

d  The  bot  detached. 

e  The  female  of  the  gad-fly,  of  the  horse,  prepared  to  deposit  her  eggs. 

f  The  gad-fly  by  which  the  red  bots  are  produced. 

g  The  smedler  or  red  bot. 

A  species  of  gad-fly,  e,  the  oestrus  equi,  is  in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  exceed- 
ingly busy  about  the  horse.  They  are  observed  to  be  darting  with  great  rapidity 
towards  the  knees  and  sides  of  the  animal.  The  females  are  depositing  their  eggs  on 
the  hair,  and  which  adhere  to  it  by  means  of  a  glutinous  fluid  with  whicn  they  are  sur- 
rounded, (a  and  b.)  In  a  few  days  the  eo;g3  are  ready  to  be  hatched,  and  the  slightest 
application  of  warmth  and  moisture  will  liberate  the  little  animals  which  they  contain. 
The  horse  in  licking  himself  touches  the  egg,  it  bursts,  and  a  small  worm  escapes, 
which  adheres  to  the  tongue,  and  is  conveyed  witli  the  food  into  the  stomach ;  there  it 
clings,  by  means  of  a  hook  on  either  side  of  its  mouth,  to  the  circular  portion  of  the 
stomach,  e ;  and  its  hold  is  so  firm  and  so  obstinate,  that  it  will  be  broken  before  it 
will  be  detached.  It  remains  feeding  there  on  the  mucus  of  the  stomach  during  the 
whole  of  the  winter,  and  to  the  end  of  the  ensuing  spring;  when,  having  attained  a 
considerable  size,  d,  and  being  destined  to  undergo  a  certain  transformation,  it  disengages 
itself  from  the  cuticular  coat,  is  carried  into  the  villous  portion  of  the  stomach  with  the 
food,  passes  out  of  it  with  the  chyme,  and  is  at  length  evacuated  with  the  dung. 

The  larva  or  maggot  being  thus  thrown  out  seeks  shelter  in  the  ground,  contracts  in 
size,  and  becomes  a  chrysalis  or  grub ;  in  which  state  it  lies  inactive  for  a  few  weeks, 
and  then,  bursting  from  its  confinement,  assumes  the  form  of  a  fly.  The  female,  becom- 
ing impregnated,  quickly  deposits  her  eggs  on  those  parts  of  the  horse  which  he  is  most 
likely  to  lick,  and  so  the  species  is  perpetuated. 

There  are  several  plain  conclusions  from  this  history.  The  bots  cannot,  while  they 
inhabit  the  stomach  of  the  horse,  give  the  animal  any  pain,  for  they  are  fastened  on  the 
cuticular  and  insensible  coat.  They  cannot  stimulate  the  stomach  and  increase  its  diges- 
tive power,  for  they  are  not  on  the  digestive  portion  of  the  stomach.  They  can- 
not, by  their  roughness,  assist  the  trituration  or  rubbing  down  of  the  food,  for  no  such 
office  is  performed  in  that  part  of  the  stomach — the  food  is  softened,  not  rubbed  down. 
They  cannot  be  injurious  to  the  horse,  for  he  enjoys  the  most  perfect  health  when  the 


160 


THE  HORSE. 


cuticular  part  of  his  stomach  is  filled  with  them,  and  their  presence  is  not  even  suspected 
until  they  appear  at  the  anus.  They  cannot  be  removed  by  medicine,  because  they  are 
not  in  that  part  of  the  stomach  to  wliich  medicine  is  usually  conveyed ;  and  if  they 
were  their  mouths  are  too  deeply  buried  in  the  mucus  for  any  medicine,  that  czn 
safely  be  administered,  to  aiiiect  them  ;  and,  last  of  all,  in  due  course  of  time  they  detach 
themselves,  and  come  away.  Therefore,  the  wise  man  will  leave  them  to  themselves, 
or  content  himsell'  with  picking  them  oil' when  they  collect  under  the  tail  and  annoy  the 
animal. 
The  smaller  bot,  /  and  g,  is  not  so  frequently  found. 

INTESTINES. 

The  food  having  been  partially  digested  in  the  stomach,  and  converted  into  chyme, 
passes  through  the  pyloric  orifice  into  the  intestines. 

CUT  OF  THE  INTESTINES. 


a  The  commencement  of  the  small  intestines.    The  ducts  which  convey  the  bile  and 
the  secretion  from  the  pancreas  are  seen  entering  a  little  below. 
b  feThe  convolutions  or  windings  of  the  small  intestines. 

c  A  portion  of  the  mesentery. 

d  The  small  intestines  terminating  in  the  cof>cum. 

e  The  ccecum  or  blind  gut,  with  the   bands  running  along  it,  puckering  and  dividing 
it  into  numerous  cells. 

/"The  beginning  of  the  colon. 

g^The  continuation  and  expansion  of  the  colon,  divided  like  the  ccecum  into  cells. 

h  The  termination  of  the  colon  in  the  rectum. 

t  The  termination  of  the  rectum  at  the  anus. 

The  intestines  of  a  full  grown  horse  are  not  less  than  ninetj-  feet  in  length.  The  length 
of  the  intestines  in  different  animals  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  food.  The  nutritive 
matter  is  with  much  more  difficulty  extracted  from  vegetable  than  animal  substances, 
therefore  the  alimentary  canal  is  large,  long,  and  complicated,  in  those  which,  like  the 
horse,  are  fed  on  herbs  alone.  They  are  divided  into  the  small  and  large  intestines  ;  the 
former  of  which  occupy  about  sixty-six  feet,  and  the  latter  twenty-four.  The  intestines, 
like  the  fetomach,  are  composed  of  three  coats.  The  outer  one  consists  of  the  perito- 
neum, that  membrane  which  we  have  already  described  as  covering  the  contents  of  the 
belly.  By  means  of  this  coat  the  bowels  are  confined  in  their  proper  situations  ;  and, 
this  membrane  being  smooth  and  moist,  all  friction  and  concussion  are  avoided.  Did 
the  bowels  float  loosely  in  the  belly  they  would  be  subject  to  constant  entanglement  and 
injury  amid  the  rapid  and  violent  motions  of  the  horse. 

The  middle  coat,  like  that  of  the  stomach,  is  muscular,  and  composed  of  two  layers 
of  fibres,  one  running  longitudinally,  and  the  other  circularly ;  and  by  means  of  these 


THE  INTESTINES. 


161 


muscles,  which  are  continually  contracting  and  relaxing  from  the  upper  part  downward, 
the  food  is  forced  along  tiie  bowels.  The  inner  coat  is  the  mucous  or  villous  ; — mucous 
because  it  abounds  witn  small  gLands  which  pour  out  a  mucous  lluid  to  lubricate  the 
passage  and  defend  it  from  irritating  or  acrimonious  substances  ;  and  \  illous  from  its 
soft  velvet  feel.  This  coat  is  crowded  with  innumerable  little  mouths,  which  are  the 
commencement  of  minute  vessels,  by  which  the  nutiitive  part  of  the  iood  is  taken  up; 
and  these  vessels,  uniting  and  passing  over  the  mesentery^  carrj'  this  nutritive  matter  to 
a  receptacle  lor  it,  whence  it  is  conveyed  intotlie  circulation  and  distributed  to  every  part. 
The  intestines  ai-e  more  particularly  retained  in  their  places  by  the  mcsenferij,  c,  (mid- 
dle of  the  intestines,) which  is  a  doubling  of  tlie  peritoneum,  including  the  intestine  in 
its  bottom,  and  likewise  inclosing  between  its  folds  the  arteries  and  veins,  and  nerves, 
and  the  vessels  which  convey  the  nutriment  from  the  intestines  to  the  circulation.  The 
mesentery  has  somewhat  tlie  appearance  of  an  expanded  fan,  and  all  these  things  rami- 
fying between  its  transparent  folds,  give  it  a  beautiful  appearance. 

The  first  of  the  small  intestines  is  the  duodenum,  a,  so  called  because,  in  the  human 
subject,  it  is  about  twelve  inches  lon^.  In  the  horse  it  is  nearly  two  leet  in  length. 
It  is  the  largest  in  circumference  of  all  the  small  intestines.  It  receives  the  food  con- 
verted into  chyme  by  the  digestive  power  of  the  stomach,  which  in  it  undergoes  ano- 
ther and  a  very  important  change  ;  a  portion  of  it  is  converted  into  chyle.  It  is  mixed 
with  the  bile  and  the  secretion  Irom  the  pancreas,  which  enter  about  five  inches  down 
the  intestine.  The  bile  seems  to  be  the  principal  agent  in  this  change  ;  no  sooner  does 
it  mingle  with  the  chyme,  than  the  fluid  begins  to  be  separated  into  two  distinct  ingredi- 
ents ;  a  white  thick  liquid  termed  chyle,  and  containing  the  nutritive  part  of  the  food, 
and  a  yellow,  pulpy  substance,  which  becomes  the  excrement.  As  these  matters  pass 
on  by  the  motion  of  the  intestines,  tlie  separation  becomes  more  complete  ;  the  chyle  is 
gradually  taken  up  by  the  mouths  of  these  numerous  little  vessels,  which  ai'e  called  the 
lacteals,  and  at  length  the  excrement  alone  remains. 

The  next  portion  of  the  sm.all  intestine  is  the  jejunum,  so  called,  because  it  is  generally 
empty.  The  passage  of  the  food  seems  to  be  very  rapid  through  it.  It  is  smaller  in 
bulk,  and  paler  in  colour,  than  the  duodenum. 

To  this  succeeds  the  ileum  ;  but  there  is  no  point  at  which  it  can  be  said  that  the  jeju- 
num terminates,  and  the  ileum  begins,  except,  that  the  latter  is  said  to  be  about  one- 
fifth  longer  than  the  former.     The  whole  of  these  small  intestines  will  contain  about 
eleven  gallons  of  water. 
At  the  termination  of  the  ileum,  d,  commence  the  large  intestines.    The  first  of  them 

is  the  cocccum  (blind,)  c,  it  has  butone  open- 
ing into  it,  and  consequently  every  thing 
that  passes  through  it,  having  reached  the 
blind  or  closed  end,  must  return,  in  order  to 
escape.  It  is  not  a  continuation  of  the 
ileum,  but  tlie  ileum  pierces  the  head  of  it, 
as  it  were,  at  right  angles,  (d)  and  projects 
some  way  into  it,  and  has  a  valve  at  its  ex- 
tremity,so  that  what  has  traversed  the  ileum, 
and  entered  the  head  of  the  colon  whence 
the  ccecum  arises,  cannot  return  into  the 
ileum.  Along  the  outside  of  the  ccecum  I'un 
three  strong  bands,  each  of  them  shorter 
than  the  intestine,  and  therefore  puckering 
it  up,  and  forming  it  into  three  sets  of  cells, 
as  shown  in  the  accompanying  side  cut. 

That  portion  of  the  food,  then,  which  has 
not  been  taken  up  by  the  lacteals  or  absor- 
bent vessels  of  the  small  intestines,  passes  tl  rough  this  valvular  opening  of  the  ileum, 
and  a  part  of  it  enters  the  colon,  while  the  remainder  flows  into  the  ccecum.  Then,  from 
this  being  a  blind  pouch,  and  from  the  cellular  structure  of  this  pouch,  the  food  must  be 
detained  in  it  a  very  long  time  ;  and  in  order  that,  during  this  detention,  all  the  nutri- 
ment may  be  extracted,  the  ccecum  and  its  cells  are  largely  supplied  with  nlood-vessels 
and  absorbents.  It  is  principally  the  fluid  part  of  the  food  that  seems  to  enter  the  ccecum. 
A  horse  will  drink  at  once  a  great  deal  more  than  his  stomach  will  contain,  or  even  if  he 
drinks  a  less  quantity,  it  remains  not  in  the  stomach  or  small  intestines,  but  passes  on  to 
the  ccecum,  and  there  is  retained,  as  in  a  reservoir,  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  system. 
In  his  state  of  servitude  tlie  horse  does  not  often  drink  more  than  twice  or  thrice  in  a 
day,  and  the  food  of  the  stable  horse  being  chiefly  diy,  this  water  stomach  is  most  use- 
ful to  him.    The  ccecum  will  hold  four  gallons. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  food,  and  the  more  solid  part  of  it,  goes  on  to  the  colon  (g 
g.)     This  is  an  intestine  of  exceedingly  large  dimensions  ;  it  is  capable  of  containing  no 
less  than  twelve  gallons  of  liquid  or  pulpy  food.     As  its  union  with  the  ccecum  ana  the 
21 


162  THE  HORSE. 

Ueum,  although  larger  than  the  latter  intestine  (/,)  it  is  of  comparatively  small  bulk, 
hut  it  soon  swells  out  to  an  enormous  extent.  It  has  likewise,  in  the  greater  part  of  its 
course,  three  hands  like  the  ccecum,  which  also  divide  it,  internally,  into  the  same  des- 
cription of  cells.  The  intention  of  this  is  evid'int,— to  retard  the  progress  of  the  food, 
and  to  give  a  more  extensive  surface  on  which  the  vessels  of  the  lacteals  may  open  :  and 
therefore,  in  the  colon,  all  the  chyle  is  finally  separated  and  taken  up.  When  this  is 
nearly  accompUshed,  the  construction  of  the  colon  is  somewhat  changed  :  we  find  but 
two  bands  towards  the  rectum,  and  these  not  puckering  the  intestine  so  much,  or  form- 
ing such  numerous  or  deep  cells.  The  food  does  not  require  to  he  much  longer  detained, 
and  the  mechanism  for  detaining  it  is  gradually  disappearing.  The  blood-vessels  and 
aijsorbents  are  likewise  rapidly  diminishing.  The  colon,  also,  once  more  contracts 
in  size,  and  the  chyle  having  been  all  absorbed,  the  remaining  mass,  being  of  a  harder 
consistence,  is  moulded  into  pellets  or  balls  in  its  passage  through  these  shallower  cells. 
At  the  termination  of  the  colon,  the  rectum  (straight  gut)  commences.  It  is  smaller  in 
the  circumference  and  capacity  than  the  colon,  and  serves  as  a  reservoir  for  the  dung  until 
it  is  evacuated.  It  has  none  of  these  bands,  because,  all  the  nutriment  being  extracted, 
the  passage  of  the  excrement  that  remains  should  be  hastened  and  not  retarded.  This 
descends  to  the  lower  part  of  the  rectum,  which  somewhat  enlarges  to  receive  it ;  and 
when  it  has  accumulated  to  a  certain  extent,  the  animal,  by  the  aid  of  the  diaphragm 
and  the  muscles  of  the  belly,  presses  it  out,  and  it  is  evacuated.  A  curious  circular 
muscle,  and  always  in  action,  called  the  sphincter  (binder  together,)  is  placed  at  the 
anus,  to  prevent  the  constant  and  unpleasant  dropping  of  the  faeces,  and  to  retain  them 
until  the  animal  is  disposed  voluntarily  to  expel  tiiem. 


DISEASES   OF  THE  INTESTINES, 


These  form  a  very  important  part  of  horse  surgery,  and  many  erroneous  notions  are 
prevalent  respecting  them.    The  first  disease  we  will  consider  is 

SPASMODIC    COLIC. 

We  have  said  that  the  passage  of  the  food  through  the  intestinal  canal  is  effected  by  the 
alternate  contxaction  and  relaxation  of  the  muscular  coat  of  the  intestines.  When  that 
action  is  simply  increased  through  the  whole  of  the  canal,  the  food  passes  more  rapidly, 
and  purging  is  produced ;  but  the  muscles  of  every  part  of  the  frame  are  liable  to  irregu- 
lar and  spasmodic  action,  and  the  muscular  coat  of  some  portion  of  the  intestines  may 
be  thus  alfected.  A  species  of  cramp  may  attack  a  portion  of  the  intestines.  The 
spasm  may  be  confined  to  a  very  small  part  of  the  canal.  The  gut  has  been  found,  after 
death,  strangely  contracted  in  various  places,  contraction  not  extending  above  five  or  six 
inches  in  any  of  them.  In  the  horse,  the  ileum  is  the  usual  seat  of  this  disease.  It  is 
of  much  importance  to  distinguish  between  spasmodic  colic  and  inflammation  of  the 
bowels,  for  the  symptoms  have  considerable  resemblance,  although  the  mode  of  treat- 
ment should  be  very  different. 

The  attack  of  colic  is  usually  very  sudden.  There  is  often  not  the  slightest  warning. 
The  horse  begins  to  shift  his  posture,  look  round  at  his  flanks,  paw  violently,  strike  his 
belly  with  his  feet,  lie  down,  roll,  and  that  frequently  on  his  back.  In  a  few  minutes  the 
pain  seems  to  cease,  the  horse  shakes  himself,  and  begins  to  feed ;  but  on  a  sudden,  the 
spasm  returns  more  violently,  every  indication  of  pain  is  increased,  he  heaves  at  the  flanks, 
breaks  out  into  a  profuse  perspiration,  and  throws  himself  more  violently  about.  In 
the  space  of  an  hour  or  two,  either  the  spasms  begin  to  relax,  and  the  remissions  are  of 
longer  duration,  or  the  torture  is  augmented  at  eveiy  paroxysm,  the  intervals  of  ease  are 
fewer  and  less  marked,  and  inflammation  and  death  supervene. 

Of  the  symptoms  by  which  it  may  best  be  distinguished  from  inflammation  of  the 
bowels,  we  shall  speak  when  we  treat  of  that  disease.  Among  the  causes  of  colic  are, 
the  drinking  of  cold  water  when  the  horse  is  heated.  There  is  not  a  surer  cause  of 
violent  spasms  than  this.  Colic  will  sometimes  follow  the  exposure  of  ahorse  to  the  cold 
air,  or  a  cold  wind  afl:er  violent  exercise.  Green  meat,  althougn,  generally  speaking,  most 
beneficial  to  the  horse,  yet  given  in  too  large  a  quantity,  or  when  the  horse  is  hot,  will 
frequently  produce  gripes.  In  some  horses  there  seems  to  be  a  constitutional  predisposi- 
tion to  colic.  They  cannot  be  hardly  worked,  or  exposed  to  unusual  cold,  without  a  fit 
of  it.  In  many  casesj  when  these  horses  have  died,  stones  have  been  found  in  some 
part  of  the  alimentary  canal. 


ENTANGLEMENT  OF  THE  BOWELS.  163 

Fortunately,  we  are  acquainted  with  several  medicines  tliat  allay  these  spasms ;  and 
the  disease  often  ceases  almost  as  suddenly  as  it  appeared.  Turpentine  is  one  of  the 
most  powerful  remedies,  especially  if  given  in  union  with  opium.  Three  ounces  of 
spirit  or  oil  of  turi)entine,  with  an  ounce  of  laudanum,  given  in  a  pint  of  waim  ale, 
will  frequently  have  an  almost  instantaneous  eli'ect.     The  account  which  we  have  just 

fiven  of  the  ccecum  will  not  be  lorgotten.     Even  a  small  quantity  of  fluid  will  seldom 
e  detained  in  the  stomach,  but  will  pass  through  the  ileum  to  the  coecum  or  water- 
stomach,  and  in  its  passage  will  come  in  immediate  contact  with  the  spasmed  part. 

If  relief  be  not  obtained  in  hcilf  an  hour  it  will  be  prudent  to  bleed,  because  the  con- 
tinuance of  violent  spasm  will  produce  inflammation.  Some  practitioners  bleed  at  first, 
and  it  is  fai-  from  bad  practice ;  for  although  the  majority  of  cases  will  yield  to  turpen- 
tine, opium,  and  aloes,  an  early  bleeding  may  occasionally  prevent  the  occurrence  of 
inflammation,  or  at  leeist  mitigate  it.  If  it  be  clearly  a  case  of  colic,  half  of  the  first 
dose  may  be  repeated,  with  a  full  ounce  of  Barbadoes  aloes  dissolved  in  warm  wa+er 
The  stimulus  produced  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  bowels  by  the  purgative  may  coun- 
teract the  irritation  which  caused  the  spasm.  The  belly  should  be  well  rubbed  with  a 
brush  or  warmed  cloth,  but  not  bruised  and  injured  by  the  broom-handle  rubbed  over  the 
belly  by  two  great  fellows  with  all  their  strength.  The  horse  should  be  walked  about,  or 
trotted  moderately.  The  motion  thus  produced  in  the  bowels,  and  the  friction  of  one 
intestine  over  the"  other,  may  relax  the  spasm,  but  the  hasty  gallop  may  speedily  cause 
inflammation  to  succeed  to  colic.  Clysters  of  warm  water,  or  containing  a  solution  of 
aloes,  will  be  injected.    The  patent  syringe  will  here  be  most  useful. 

When  relief  has  been  obtained,  the  clothing  of  the  horse,  saturated  with  perspiration, 
should  be  removed,  and  fresh,  dry  clothing  substituted.  He  should  be  well  littered 
down  in  a  warm  stable  or  box,  and  have  bran  mashes  for  the  two  or  three  next  days, 
and  drink  only  lukewarm-water. 

Some  persons  give  gin,  and  even  gin  and  pepper,  in  cases  of  gripes.  This,  however, 
is  a  practice  to  which  we  strongly  object ;  it  may  be  useful,  or  even  sufficient,  in  ordi- 
nary cases  of  colic,  but  if  there  be  any  inflammation  or  tendency  to  inflammation,  it  can- 
not fail  to  be  highly  injurious. 

CALCULI,    OR    STONES    IN    THE    INTESTINES. 

We  have  mentioned  these  as  a  cause  of  colic  in  horses  that  are  subject  to  frequent 
attacks  of  it.  Some  indigestible  substance  lodges  in  the  ccecum  or  colon:  earthy,  or 
half-digested  vegetable  matter  gradually  accumulates  around  this,  and  a  ball,  weighing 
many  pounds,  is  sometimes  formed.  This  will  produce  colic,  or  obstruct  the  passage 
of  the  gut,  or,  by  its  pressure,  produce  inflammation ;  but  as  there  are  few  or  no  symp- 
toms by  which  the  presence  of  these  stones  is  cleai-ly  indicated,  and  few,  or  rather,  no 
certain  means,  by  which  they  may  be  removed,  we  will  pass  on  to  an  occasional  conse- 
quence of  colic. 

INTUSUSCEPTION    OF    THE    INTESTINES. 

The  spasmodic  action  of  the  ileum  long  continued,  may  be  succeeded  by  an  inverted 
action  from  the  ccecum  towards  the  stomach,  more  powerful  than  the  natural  action  ;  and 
the  contracted  portion  of  the  intestine  is  thus  forced  into  a  portion  above  it  that  retains 
its  naturally  calibre  ;  and  the  irritation  caused  by  this  increases  the  action,  until  more 
is  forced  in,  and  an  obstruction  is  formed  which  no  power  can  overcome.  Even  the 
natural  motion  of  the  bowels  will  be  sufficient  to  produce  intususception,  when  the 
contraction  of  a  portion  of  the  ileum  is  very  great.  There  are  no  symptoms  to  indicate 
the  presence  of  this,  except  continued  and  increasing  pain ;  or  if  there  were,  all  our 
means  of  relief  would  here  fail. 

ENTANGLEMENT    OF    THE    BOWELS. 

This  is  another  and  more  singular  consequence  of  colic.  Although  the  ileum  is  en- 
veloped in  the  mesenteiy,  and  its  motion  to  a  considerable  degree  confined,  yet  under 
the  spasm  of  colic,  and  diuring  the  violence  with  which  the  animal  rolls  and  throws  him- 
self about,  portions  of  the  ileum  become  so  entangled  as  to  be  twisted  into  nooses  and 
knots,  drawn  together  with  a  degree  of  tightness  scarcely  credible.  Nothing  but  the 
extreme  and  lengthened  torture  of  the  animal  can  lead  us  to  suspect  that  this  has  taken 
place,  and  could  we  ascertain  its  existence,  there  would  be  no  cure. 

INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    BOWELS. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  this  malady.  The  first  is  inflammation  of  the  external 
coats  of  the  intestines,  accompanied  by  considerable  fever  and  costiveness.  The  second 


164  THE  HORSE. 

is  tliat  of  the  internal  or  muco^is  coat,  usually  the  consequence  of  an  over-dose  of  physic, 
and  accompanied  by  violent  purging.  We  will  here  specie  of  the  first  of  these  affections. 
It  has  been  divided  into  indainmation  of  the  peritoneal  coat,  and  that  of  the  muscular : 
but  the  causes,  syjnptoms,  and  treatment  of  both  are  so  much  alike,  that  it  would  be 
raising  unnecessaiy  difficulties  to  endeavor  to  distinfjuish  between  them.  Inflammation 
of  the  external  coats  of  the  stomach,  whether  the  peritoneal  or  muscular,  or  both,  is  a 
verj'  frequent  and  fatal  disease.  It  speedily  runs  its  course,  and  it  is  of  great  consequence 
that  its  early  symptoms  should  be  known.  If  the  horse  has  been  carefully  obsei-ved, 
restlessness  and  fever  will  have  been  seen  to  precede  the  attack  ;  in  many  cases  a  direct 
shivering  fit  will  be  observed  ;  the  mouth  will  be  hot,  and  the  nose  red.  The  horse  v^dll 
soon  express  the  most  dreadful  pain  by  pawing,  striking  at  his  belly,  looking  wildly  at  his 
flanks,  groaning  and  rolling.  The  pulse  will  be  quickened  and  small;  the  ears  and  legs 
cold;  thebelly  tender  and  sometimes  hot;  the  breathing  quickened  ;  the  bowels  costive  ; 
and  the  horse  becoming  rapidly  and  fearfully  weak. 

It  maybe  useful  to  give  a  short  table  of  the  distinguishing  symptoms  of  colic  and  in- 
flammation of  the  bowels,  because  the  treatment  recommended  for  the  former  would 
often  be  fatal  in  the  latter. 

COLIC.  INFLAMMATION'    OF    THE    BOWELS. 

Sudden  in  its  attack.  Gradual  in  its  approach,  with  previous 

indications  of  fever. 

Pulse  rarely  much  quickened  in  the  early        Pulse  very  much  quickened,  but  small, 
period  of  the  disease,  and  during  the  inter-     and  often  scarcely  to  be  felt, 
vals  of  ease  :  but  evidently  fuller. 

Legs  and  ears  of  the  natural  temperature.        Legs  and  ears  cold. 

Relief  obtained  firom  rubbing  the  belly.  Belly  exceedingly  tender  and  painful  to 

the  touch. 

Relief  obtained  from  motion.  Motion  evidently  increasing  the  pain. 

Intervals  of  rest.  Constant  pain. 

Strength  scarcely  affected.  Rapid  and  great  weakness. 

The  causes  of  this  disease  are,  first  of  all,  and  most  frequently,  sudden  exposure  to 
cold.  If  a  horse  that  has  been  highly  fed,  carefully  groomed,  and  kept  in  a  warm  stable, 
be  heated  with  exercise,  and  have  been  for  some  hours  without  food  ;  and  in  this  state 
of  exhaustion  be  suffered  to  drink  freely  of  cold  water,  or  be  drenched  with  rain,  or  have 
his  legs  and  belly  washed  with  cold  water,  an  attack  of  inflammation  of  the  bowels  will 
often  follow.  An  overfed  horse  subjected  to  severe  and  long-continued  exertion,  if  his 
lungs  were  previously  weak,  will  probably  be  attacked  by  inflammation  of  them  ;  but 
if  the  lungs  were  sound,  the  bowels  will  on  the  following  day  be  the  seat  of  disease. 
Stones  in  the  intestines  are  an  occasional  cause  of  inflammation,  and  colic  neglected, 
or  wrongly  treated,  will  terminate  in  it. 

The  treatment  of  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  like  that  of  the  lungs,  should  be  prompt 
and  energetic.  The  first  and  most  powerful  means  of  cure  will  be  bleeding.  From  six 
to  eight  or  ten  quarts  of  blood  should  be  taken  as  soon  as  possible,  and  the  bleeding 
repeated  to  the  extent  of  four  or  five  quarts  more  if  the  pain  be  not  relieved,  and  the 

Sulse  have  not  become  rounder  and  fuller.  The  speedy  weakness  that  accompanies  this 
isease  should  not  deter  from  bleeding  largely.  It  is  the  weakness  that  is  the  conse- 
quence of  violent  inflammation  of  these  parts,  and  if  that  inflammation  be  subdued  by 
the  loss  of  blood,  the  weakness  will  disappear.  The  bleeding  should  be  effected  on  the 
first  appearance  of  the  disease,  for  there  is  no  malady  that  so  quickly  runs  its  course. 

Next  to  bleeding  will  foUow  clysters.  Although  the  bowels  are  usually  confined, 
we  cannot  administer  a  strong  purgative  ;*  the  intestines  are  already  in  far  two  irrita- 
ble a  state.  The  clyster  may  consist  of  warm  water,  or  veiy  thin  giiiel,  in  which  half 
a  pound  of  Epsom  salts,  or  half  an  ounce  of  aloes  has  been  dissolved,  and  too  much 
fluid  can  scarcely  be  thrown  up.  If  the  common  ox-bladder  and  pipe  be  used,  it  should 
be  frequently  replenished  :  but  with  Reed's  patent  pump,  already  referred  to,  sufficient 
may  be  injected  to  penetrate  beyond  the  rectum,  and  reach  to  the  colon  and  cecum,  and 
dispose  them  to  evacuate  their  contents.  The  horse  may  likewise  be  encouraged  to 
drink  plentifully  of  warm  water  or  thin  gruel ;  and  draughts,  each  containing  a  couple 
of  drachms  of  dissolved  aloes,  may  be  given  every  six  hours,  until  the  bowels  are  free- 
ly opened. 

*  The  human  practitioner  gives,  under  this  disease,  and  with  advantage,  very  power- 
ful doses  of  purgative  medicine  ;  and  he  may  be  disposed  to  demur  to  the  cautious  mode 
of  proceeding  we  recommend  with  regard  to  the  horse.  Although  we  may  not  be  able 
to  give  him  a  satisfactory  theoretical  reason  in  defence  of  our  treatment,  we  can  appeal 
to  the  experience  of  every  veterinary  surgeon,  that  a  strong  dose  of  physic  given  in 
inflammation  of  tlie  bowels  would  be  certain  poison. 


WORMS.  165 

Next,  it  will  be  prudent  to  endeavor  to  excite  considerable  external  inflammation,  as 
near  as 'possible  to  the  seat  oi"  internal  disease,  and  thereibre  the  whole  o(  the  belly 
should  be  blistered.  In  a  well-marked  case  of  this  inflammation,  no  time  should  be  lost 
in  applying  fomentations,  but  the  blister  be  at  once  resorted  to.  The  tincture  of  Spa- 
nish flies,  whether  made  with  spirit  of  wine  or  turpentine,  should  be  well  rubbed  in. 
The  legs  should  be  well  bandaged,  to  restore  tlie  circulation  to  them,  and  thus  lessen  the 
flow  of'blood  to  the  inflamed  p'art,  and  for  the  same  reason  the  horse  should  be  warmly 
clothed,  but  the  air  of  the  stable  or  box  should  bp  cool. 

No  corn  or  hay  should  be  given  during  the  disease,  but  bran-mashes,  and  green  meat 
if  it  can  be  procured.  The  latter  will  be  the  best  of  all  food,  and  may  be  given  without 
the  sliglitest  apprehension  of  danger.  When  the  horse  begins  to  recover,  he  may  get  a 
handful  of  corn  two  or  three  times  in  the  day,  and,  if  the  weather  be  warm,  may  be 
turned  into  a  paddock  for  a  few  hours  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  Clysters  of  gruel 
should  be  continued  for  three  or  four  days  afer  the  inflammation  is  beginning  to  subside, 
and  good  hand-rubbing  applied  to  tJie  legs. 

The  second  variety  of  inflammation  of  the  bowels  affects  the  internal  or  mucous  coat, 
and  is  generally  the  consequence  of  pliysic  given  in  too  great  quantity,  or  of  an  impro- 
per kind.  Tiie  purging  is  more  violent,  and  continues  longer  than  was  intended ;  the 
animal  shows  that  he  is  sufleruig  great  pain ;  he  frequently  looks  round  at  his  flanks  ; 
his  breathing  is  laborious,  and  the  pulse  is  quick  and  small ;  not  so  small,  however,  as  in 
inflammation  of  the  peritoneal  coat,  and,  contrary  to  some  of  tlie  most  frequent  and  cha- 
jacteristic  symptoms  of  that  disease,  the  mouth  is  hot,  and  the  legs  and  ears  are  warm. 
Unless  the  purging  is  excessive,  and  the  pain  and  distress  great,  we  should  hesitate  at 
administering  any  astringent  medicine  at  first.  We  should  plentifully  administer  gruel, 
or  thin  staicTi,  or  arrow-root,  by  the  mouth  and  by  cl)^ster,  removing  all  hay  and  corn, 
and  particlarly  green  meat.  We  should  endeavor  thus  to  sheath  the  irritated  surface 
of  the  bowels,  wliile  we  permitted  any  remains  of  tlie  medicine  to  be  carried  off.  If, 
however,  twelve  hours  should  pass,  and  the  purging  and  the  pain  remain  undiminished, 
vpe  should  continue  the  gruel,  but  add  to  it  clialk,  catechu,  and  opium,  in  doses  of  an 
ounce  of  the  first,  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  the  second,  and  two  scruples  of  the  last, 
repeated  eveiy  six  hours.  As  soon  as  the  purging  begins  to  subside,  the  astringent 
medicine  should  be  lessened  in  quantity,  and  gradually  discontinued.  Bleeding  will 
rarely  be  necessary  unless  the  inflammation  be  very  great,  and  attended  by  symptoms  of 
general  fever.  The  horse  should  be  warmly  clothed,  and  be  placed  in  a  warm  stable, 
and  his  legs  .should  be  hand-rubbed  and  bandaged. 

Violent  purging,  and  attended  with  much  inflammation  and  fever,  will  sometimes 
occur  from  other  causes.  Green  meat  will  sometimes  purge.  A  horse  worked  hard 
upon  green  meat  wiU  scour.  The  remedy  is  change  of  diet,  or  loss  labour.  Young 
horses  will  scour,  and  sometimes  without  any  apparent  cause.  Astringents  should 
be  used  with  much  caution  here.  It  is  probably  an  effort  of  nature  to  get  rid  of 
something  that  oflends.  A  few  doses  of  gruel  will  assist  in  effecting  this  purpose,  and 
the  purging  will  cease  without  astringent  medicine. 

Some  horses  that  are  not  well-ribbed  home,  (having  too  great  space  between  the  last 
rib  and  the  hip-bone,)  are  subject  to  purging  if  more  than  usual  exertion  is  required 
from  them.  They  are  recognised  by  the  term  oi  washy  horses.  Th'^3'  are  often  free  and 
fleet,  but  destitute  of  continuance.  They  should  have  rather  more  than  the  usual  allow- 
ance of  corn,  tvith  beans,  when  at  work;  and  a  cordial  ball,  with  oae  drachm  of  cate- 
chu, and  ten  grains  of  opium  will  often  be  serviceable  either  before  or  after  a  journey. 


Worms  of  different  kinds  inhalut  the  intestines  ;  but  except  when  they  exist  in  veiy 
great  numbers,  they  are  not  so  hurtful  as  is  generally  supposed,  although  the  groom  or 
carter  may  trace  to  them  hidebound,  and  cough,  and  loss  of  appetite,  and  gripes,  and 
megrims,  and  a  variety  of  other  ailments.  Of  the  origin  or  mode  of  propagation  of 
these  parasitical  animals  we  will  say  nothing;  neither  writers  on  medicine,  nor  even  on 
natural  history,  have  given  us  any  satisfactory  account  of  the  matter. 

The  long  white  worm  (lumbricus  teres)  much  resembling  the  common  earth-worm, 
and,  being  from  six  to  ten  inches  long,  inhabits  the  small  intestines.  It  is  a  formidable 
looking  animal,  and  if  there  are  many  of  them  they  may  consume  more  than  can  be 
spared  of  the  nutritive  part  of  the  food  or  the  mucous  of  the  bowels  ;  and  we  think  that 
we  have  seen  a  tight  skin,  and  rougli  coat,  and  tucked  up  belly,  connected  with  their 
presence.  Theyliave  then,  however,  been  voided  in  large  quantities,  and  when  they 
are  not  thus  voided  we  should  be  disposed  to  trace  these  appearances  to  otlier  causes. 
A  dose  of  physic  will  sometimes  bring  away  almost  incredible  quantities  of  them.  Calo- 
mel is  frequently  given  as  a  vermifuge.  The  seldomer  this  drug  is  administered  to  the 
horse  tlie  better.     It  is  the  principal  ingi-edient  in  some  quack  medicines  for  the  expul- 


166  THE  HORSE. 

sion  of  worms  in  the  human  subject,  and  thence,  perhaps,  it  came  to  be  used  for  the 
horse,  but  in  him  we  believe  it  to  be  inert  as  a  vermifuge,  or  only  useful  as  quickening 
the  operation  of  the  aloes.  When  the  horse  can  be  spared,  a  strong  dose  of  physic  is 
an  excellent  vermifuge,  so  far  as  the  long  round  worm  is  concerned ;  but  perhaps  a  bet- 
ter medicine,  and  not  interfering  with  either  the  feeding  or  work  of  the  horse,  is  two 
drachms  of  emetic  tartar,  with  a  scruple  of  ginger,  made  into  a  ball,  with  hnseed  meal 
and  treacle,  and  given  every  morning  half  an  hour  before  the  horse  is  fed. 

A  smaller  darker  coloured  worm,  called  the  needle  worm,  or  ascaris,  inhabits  the  large 
intestines.  Hundreds  of  them  sometimes  descend  into  the  rectum,  and  immense  quan- 
tities have  been  found  in  the  coecum.  These  are  a  more  serious  nuisance  than  the 
former,  for  they  cause  a  very  troublesome  irritation  about  the  fundament,  which  some- 
times sadly  annoys  the  horse.  Their  existence  can  generally  be  discovered,  by  a  small 
portion  of  mucous,  which  hardening,  is  converted  into  a  powder,  and  is  found  about  the 
anus.  Physic  will  sometimes  bring  away  great  numbers  of  these  worms,  but  when 
there  is  much  irritation  about  the  tail,  and  much  of  this  mucous  indicating  that  they  have 
descended  into  the  rectum,  an  injection  of  a  quart  of  hnseed  oil,  or  of  an  ounce  of  aloes 
dissolved  in  warm  water,  will  be  a  more  effectual  remedy. 

The  tape  worm  is  seldom  found  in  the  horse. 

PHYSICKING. 

This  would  seem  to  be  the  most  convenient  place  to  speak  of  physicking  horses,  a 
mode  of  treatment  necessary  under  various  diseases,  but  which  has  injured  the  constitu- 
tion of  more  horses,  and  in  fact  absolutely  destroyed  more  of  them,  than  any  other  thing 
that  can  be  mentioned.  When  a  horse  comes  from  grass  to  hard  meat,  or  from  the  cool 
open  air  to  a  heated  stable,  a  dose  of  physic  or  even  two  doses  may  be  useful  to  prevent 
the  tendency  to  inflammation  which  must  be  the  necessary  consequence  of  so  sudden 
and  great  a  change.  To  a  horse  that  is  becoming  too  fat,  or  has  surfeit,  or  grease,  or 
mano-e,  or  that  is  out  of  condition  from  inactivity  of  the  digestive  organs,  a  dose  of 
physic  is  often  most  serviceable ;  but  we  do  enter  our  protest  against  the  periodical  phy- 
sicking of  all  horses  in  the  spring  and  the  autumn,  and  more  particularly  against  that 
severe  system  which  is  thought  to  be  necessary  to  train  them  for  work,  cind  the  absurd 
method  of  treating  the  horse  when  under  the  operation  of  physic. 

A  horse  should  be  carefully  prepared  for  the  action  of  physic.  Two  or  three  bran- 
mashes  given  on  that  or  the  preceding  day  are  far  from  sufficient,  when  a  horse  is  about 
to  be  physicked,  whether  to  promote  his  condition  or  in  obedience  to  custom.  Mashes 
should  be  given  until  the  dung  becomes  softened  ;  a  less  quantity  of  physic  will  then 
suffice,  and  it  will  more  quicldy  pass  through  the  intestines,  and  be  more  equally 
diffiised  over  them.  '  Five  drachms  of  aloes  given  when  the  dung  has  thus  been  soften- 
ed, will  act  more  effectually,  and  much  more  safely  than  seven  drachms,  when  tlie  lower 
intestines  are  obstructed  by  hardened  faeces. 

On  the  day  on  which  the  physic  is  given,  the  horse  should  have  walking  exercise, 
or  may  be  gently  trotted  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  twice  in  the  day ;  but  after  the  physic 
begins  to  work,  he  should  not  be  moved  from  his  stall.  Exercise  then  would  produce 
gripes,  irritation,  and  possibly  dangerous  inflammation.  The  common  and  absurd 
practice  is  to  give  the  horse  most  exercise  after  the  physic  has  begun  to  operate. 

A  little  hay  may  be  put  into  the  rack ;  as  much  mash  may  be  given  as  the  horse  will 
eat,  and  as  much  water,  with  the  coldness  of  it  taken  off  as  he  will  drink.  If,  however, 
he  obstinately  refuses  to  drink  warm  water,  it  is  better  that  he  should  have  it  cold,  than 
to  continue  without  taking  any  fluid ;  but  he  should  not  be  suffered  to  tcike  more  than 
a  quart  at  a  time,  with  an  interval  of  at  least  an  hour  between  each  poiiion. 

When  the  purging  has  ceased,  or  the  physic  is  set,  a  mash  should  be  given  once 
or  twice  every  day  until  the  next  dose  is  taken,  between  which  and  the  setting  of  the 
first  there  should  be  anintervalof  a  week.  The  horse  should  recover  from  the  languor 
and  debihty  occasioned  by  the  first  dose,  before  he  is  harrassed  by  a  second. 

Eight  or  ten  tolerably  copious  motions  will  be  perfectly  sufficient  to  answer  every  good 
purpose,  although  the  groom  or  the  carter  may  not  be  satisfied  unless  double  the  quantity 
are  procured.  The  consequence  of  top  strong  purgation  will  be,  that  a  lowness  and 
weakness  will  hang  about  the  horse  for  many  days  or  weeks,  and  inflammation  will 
often  ensue  from  the  over- irritation  of  the  intestinal  canal. 

Long  continued  custom  has  made  aloes  the  almost  invariable  purgative  of  the  horse, 
and  very  properly  so  ;  for  there  is  no  other  at  once  so  sure  and  safe.  The  Barbadoes 
aloes,  although  sometimes  very  dear,  should  alone  be  used.  The  dose,  witli  a  horse 
properly  prepared,  will  vary  from  five  to  seven  drachms.  The  preposterous  doses  of 
nine,  ten,  or  even  twelve  drachms  are,  happily  for  the  horse,  generally  abandoned. — 
Custom  has  assigned  the  form  of  a  ball  to  physic,  but  good  sense  will  in  due  time 
.introduce  the  solution  of  aloes,  as  acting  more  speedily,  effectually,  and  safely. 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LIVER.  167 

The  only  other  purgative  on  which  dependence  can  be  placed  is  the  croton.  The 
farina  or  meal  of  the  nut  is  used  ;  but  from  its  acrimony  it  should  be  given  in  the  form 
of  ball,  with  linseed  meal.  The  dose  varies  from  a  scruple  to  hdf  a  drachm.  It  acta 
more  speedily  than  the  aloes,  without  the  nausea  which  they  produce ;  but  it  causes  more 
watery  stools,  and  consequently  more  debility. 

Linseed  oil  is  an  uncertain  but  safe  purgative,  in  doses  from  a  pound  to  a 
pound  and  a  half.  Olive  oil  is  more  uncertain  but  safe  ;  and  castor  oil,  that 
mild  aperient  in  the  human  being,  is  both  uncertain  and  unsafe.  Epsom  salts  are 
inefficacious,  except  in  immense  doses  of  a  pound  and  a  half,  and  then  not  always  safe. 

The  horse,  and  particularly  the  perfect  horse,  is  occasionally  subject  to 

HERNIA  OR  RUPTURE. 

A  portion  of  the  intestines  protrudes  out  of  the  cavity  of  the  belly  either  through 
some  natural  or  artificial  opening.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  returned,  but  from  the 
impossibility  of  applying  a  truss  or  bandage,  it  soon  returns  again.  At  other  times  the 
opening  is  so  narrow,  tliat  the  gut,  gradually  distended  by  faeces,  or  thickened  by  in- 
flammation, cannot  be  returned,  and  strangulated  hernia  is  then  said  to  exist.  The 
seat  of  hernia  is  either  in  the  scrotum  of  the  perfect  horse,  or  the  groin  of  the  gelding. 
The  causes  are  violent  struggling  when  under  operations,  over-exertion,  kicks,  or  acci- 
dents.    The  assistance  of  a  veterinary  surgeon  is  here  indispensable. 

THE    LIVER. 

Between  the  stomach  and  the  diaphragm,  its  right  lobe  or  division  in  contact  with  the 
diaphragm,  the  duodenum  and  the  right  kidney,  and  the  middle  and  left  divisions  with 
the  stomach,  is  the  liver.  It  is  an  irregularly  shaped,  reddish-brown  substance  of  con- 
siderable bulk,  and  performs  a  very  singular  and  important  office. 

We  have  edready  stated,  that  the  blood  which  has  been  conveyed  to  tlie  different 
parts  of  the  body  by  the  arteries,  is  carried  back  to  the  heart  by  the  veins ;  but 
that  which  is  returned  from  the  stomach  and  intestines,  and  spleen,  and  pancreas,  and 
mesentery,  instead  of  flowing  directly  to  the  heart,  passes  first  through  the  liver.  It 
enters  by  two  large  vessels  which  spread  by  means  of  innumerable  minute  branches 
through  every  part  of  the  liver.  As  the  blood  traverses  this  organ,  a  fluid  is  separated 
from  it,  called  the  bile.  This  is  probably  a  kind  of  excrement,  the  continuance  of 
which  in  the  blood  would  be  injurious  ;  but  while  this  is  thrown  off,  another  important 
purpose  is  answered ;  the  process  of  digestion  is  promoted,  and  particularly  by  the  bile 
changing  the  nutritive  part  of  the  food  from  chyme  into  chyle,  and  separating  it  from 
that  which,  containing  little  or  no  nutriment,  is  voided  as  excrement. 

The  bile,  thus  formed,  is  in  most  animals  received  into  a  reservoir,  the  gall-bladder, 
whence  it  is  conveyed  into  the  duodenum,  (g.  p.  160)  at  the  times  and  in  the  quantities, 
which  the  purposes  of  digestion  require ;  but  the  horse  has  no  gall-bladder,  and,  conse- 
quently, the  bile  flows  into  the  intestine  as  fast  as  it  is  separated  from  the  blood.  The 
reason  of  this  is  plain ;  a  small  stomach  was  given  to  the  horse,  that  the  food  might 
quickly  pass  out  of  it,  and  the  diaphragm  and  the  lungs  might  not  be  injuriously  pressed 
upon,  when  we  require  his  utmost  speed ;  and  that  we  might  use  him  with  little  danger 
compared  with  that  which  would  attach  to  other  animals,  even  when  his  stomach  is  dis- 
tended with  food.  Then  the  stomach,  so  small,  and  so  speedily  emptied,  must  be  oftener 
replenished  ;  the  horse  must  be  oftener  eating,  and  food  must  be  oftener  passing  out  of 
his  stomach  ;  and,  consequently,  there  is  no  necessity  for  this  reservoir.  The  ox  occu- 
pies a  long  time  in  filling  his  paunch,  and  it  is  only  during  rumination  that  the  food 
passes  into  the  true  stomach  to  be  digested.  The  meal  of  the  dog  is  speedily  swallow- 
ed. They  need  a  gall-bladder  to  contain  the  bile,  which  continues  to  be  secreted  when 
it  cannot  be  used  :  out  to  the  horse,  so  frequently  eating,  it  would  be  useless. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LIVER 

Is  a  disease  of  rare  occurrence  in  the  horse.  He  is  not  exposed  to  the  causes  which 
produce  that  complaint  in  other  animals.  Although  his  food  is  sometimes  highly  nutri- 
tive, the  work  which  is  exacted  from  him  prevents  it  from  unduly  stimulating  this  im- 
portant organ ;  and  when  inflammation  of  the  liver  does  occur,  it  is  with  so  much  diffi- 
culty, distinguished  from  that  of  the  bowels,  that  if  yellowness  of  the  eyes  and  skin  are 
not  present,  even  the  professional  man  is  liable  to  be  deceived. 

Bleeding  from,  or  rupture  of  the  liver,  is  anotlier  decease  of  old  horses,  and 
especially  of  those  that  have  been  highly  fed.  It  is  generally  fatal,  but  of  unfrequent 
occurrence  ;  it  is  recognised  by  the  frequent  and  feeble  pulse,  the  pawing  and  sighing 
of  the  animal,  the  coldness  of  the  extremities,  whiteness  of  the  eye  and  mouth,  fulness 


168  THE  HORSE. 

of  the  belly,  and  speedy  debility.    A  veterinary  surgeon  is  alone  competent  to  give 
assistance  here. 

JAUNDICE, 

Commonly  called  the  yellows,  is  a  more  tractable  disease,  and  a  little  more  frequent. 
It  is  the  introduction  of  bile  into  the  general  circulation,  and  which  is  usually  caused  by 
some  obstiiiction  in  the  ducts  or  tubes  which  convey  the  bile  from  the  liver  to  the  intes- 
tines. The  horse,  however,  has  but  one  duct,  through  which  the  bile  usually  flows  as 
quickly  as  it  is  formed,  and  tliere  is  no  gall-bladder  in  which  it  can  become  thickened, 
and  even  hardened  into  masses  so  hard  as  to  be  very  appropriately  Ccdled  gall-stones. 
Jaundice  does,  however,  occasionally  appear  either  fiom  an  increased  flow  or  altered 
quality  of  the  bile,  or  obstruction  even  in  this  simple  tube.  The  yellowness  of  the  eyes 
and  mouth,  and  of  the  skin  where  it  is  not  covered  with  hair,  mark  it  sufliciently  plain- 
ly. The  dung  is  small  and  hard ;  the  urine  high  coloured ;  the  horse  languid,  and  the 
appetite  impaired. 

It  is  first  necessary  to  inquire  whether  this  affection  of  the  liver  be  not  the  conse- 

Suence  of  the  sympathy  of  this  organ  with  some  other  part ;  for,  to  a  very  considerable 
egree,  it  frequently  accompanies  inflammation  of  the  bowels  and  the  lungs.  These 
diseases  being  subdued,  jaundice  will  disappear.  If  there  be  no  otlier  disease  to  any 
great  extent,  we  must  endeavor  to  restore  the  natural  passage  of  the  bile  by  purgatives, 
not  consisting  of  large  doses,  lest  there  should  be  some  undetected  inflammation  of  the 
lungs  or  bowels,  in  either  of  which  a  strong  purgative  would  be  dangerous ;  but  given 
in  small  quantities,  repeated  at  short  intervals,  and  until  the  bowels  are  freely  opened. 
Two  drachms  of  aloes,  and  one  of  calomel,  given  twice  eveiy  day,  will  be  as  much  as 
can  at  all  times  be  administered  with  safety.  Bleeding  should  always  be  resorted  to, 
regulated  according  to  the  apparent  degree  of  inflammation,  and  the  occasional  stupor  of 
the  animal.  Plenty  of  water  slightly  warmed,  or  thin  gruel,  should  be  given  ;  the  horse 
should  be  warmly  clothed,  and  the  stable  well  ventilated,  but  not  cold.  Carrots  or  green 
meat  will  be  very  beneficial.  Should  the  purging,  v\  hen  once  excited,  prove  violent, 
we  should  be  in  no  haste  to  stop  it,  unless  inflammation  is  beginning  to  be  connected  with 
it,  or  the  horse  is  very  weak.  The  medicine  recommended  under  diarrhoea  may  then  be 
exhibited.  A  few  slight  tonics  should  be  given  when  the  horse  is  recovering  from  an  at- 
tack of  strangles.  Two  drachms  each  of  gentian  and  chamomile,  with  one  of  ginger, 
will  form  a  useful  ball. 

THE  spleen. 

This  organ,  known  commonly  by  the  name  of  the  melt,  is  a  long,  bluish-brown  sub- 
stance, broad  and  thick  at  one  end  and  tapering  at  the  other,  lying  along  the  left  side  of 
the  stomach,  and  between  it  and  the  short  ribs.  It  is  of  a  spongy  nature,  divided  into 
numerous  Ittle  cells  not  unlike  a  honeycomb,  and  over  which  thousands  of  minute  ves- 
sels thickly  spread.  The  particular  use  of  this  body  has  never  been  clearly  ascertained ; 
for  in  some  cruel  experiments  it  has  been  removed  without  apparent  injury  to  digestion, 
or  any  other  function.  It  is,  however,  useful,  at  least  occasionally,  or  it  would  not  have 
been  given.  It  is  perhaps  a  reservoir  or  receptacle  for  any  fluid  that  may  be  conveyed 
into  the  stomach  more  than  is  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  digestion. 

The  spleen  is  sometimes  very  extraordinarily  enlarged,  and  has  been  ruptured;  but 
we  are  not  aware  of  any  symptoms  by  which  tliis  can  be  discovered. 

THE  pancreas. 

In  the  domestic  animals  which  are  used  for  food,  this  organ  is  called  the  sweetbread. 
It  lies  between  the  stomach  and  left  kidney.  It  much  resembles  in  structure  the  saliva- 
ry glands  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  mouth,  and  the  fluid  which  it  secretes  is  very  like 
common  saliva.  The  pancreatic  fluid  is  carried  into  the  intestines  by  a  duct  which  en- 
ters at  the  same  aperture  with  that  from  the  liver.  Its  use,  whether  to  dilute  the  bile, 
or  the  chyme,  or  to  assist  in  the  separation  of  chyme  from  the  feculent  matter,  has  never 
been  ascertained,  but  it  is  clearly  employed  in  aiding  the  process  of  digestion. 

We  know  not  of  any  disease  to  which  the  pancreas  of  the  horse  is  liable. 

As  soon  as  the  belly  of  the  most  of  our  domestic  animals  is  opened,  a  membrane  is 
perceived  spreading  over  all  tlie  contents  of  this  cavity ;  it  is  denominated 

THE  OMENTUM, 

Or  cawl.  It  is  a  doubling  of  the  peritoneum,  or  ratlier  consists  of  four  layers  of  it. 
It  has  been  supposed  to  be  placed  between  the  intestines  and  the  walls  of  the  belly,  to  pre- 


THE  KIDNEYS.  169 

vent  concussion  and  injury  during  the  rapid  movement  of  the  animal.  That,  however, 
cannot  be  its  principal  use  in  the  horse,  from  whom  the  most  rapid  movements  are  re- 
quired ;  for  in  him  it  is  unusually  short,  extending  only  to  the  pancreas,  and  a  small 
portion  of  the  colon.  Being,  however,  thus  short,  the  horse  is  exempt  from  a  veiy  trouble- 
some and,  occasionally,  I'atal  species  of  rupture,  when  a  portion  of  the  omentum  pene- 
trates through  some  accidental  opening  in  the  covering  of  the  belly. 

The  blood  contains  a  great  quantity  of  watery  fluid  unnecessary  for  tlie  nutriment  or 
repair  of  the  frame.  There  likewise  mingle  with  it  matters  which  would  be  noxious 
if  suffered  to  accumulate  too  much.  " 

THE  KIDNEYS 

Are  actively  employed  in  separating  this  water,  and  likewise  carrying  off  a  substance 
which  constitutes  the  peculiai-  ingredient  in  urine,  called  the  vrea,  and  consists  princi- 
pally of  that  which  would  be  poisonous  to  the  animal.  The  kidneys  are  two  large 
glandular  bodies,  placed  under  the  loins,  very  much  of  the  shape  of  a  kidney  bean.  The 
right  kidney  is  most  forward,  lying  under  the  liver ;  the  left  is  pushed  more  backward 
by  the  stomach  and  spleen.  A  large  artery  runs  to  each,  carrying  not  less  than  a  sixth 
part  of  the  whole  of  the  blood  that  circulates  through  the  frame.  The  artery  divides 
into  innumerable  little  branches  most  curiously  complicated  and  coiled  upon  each 
other;  and  the  blood  traversing  these  convolutions,  has  its  wateiy  parts  and  others,  the 
retaining  of  which  would  be  injurious,  separated  from  it. 

The  fluid  thus  separated  varies  materially  both  in  quantity  and  composition,  even  dur- 
ing health.  There  is  no  animal  in  which  it  varies  so  much  as  in  the  horse.  There  is 
no  organ  in  that  animal  so  much  under  our  command  as  the  kidney ;  and  no  medicines 
are  so  useful,  or  may  be  so  injurious,  eis  diuretics.  In  speaking  of  fever  and  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lungs,  and  indeed  of  inflammation  generally,  we  have  recommended  the  use  of 
nitre  and  digitalis,  not  only  on  account  of  their  febrifuge  or  sedative  eflects,  but  because 
they  act  as  diuretics.  They  stimulate  the  kidneys  to  separate  more  aqueous  fluid  than 
they  otherwise  would  do,  and  thus  lessen  the  quantity  of  blood ;  the  quantity  which  the 
heart  is  labouring  to  circulate  through  the  frame,  ana  the  quantity  which  is  determined 
or  driven  to  a  part  already  overloaded.  The  main  objects  we  have  to  accomplish  in  these 
diseases  is  to  reduce  the  force  of  the  circulation,  and  to  calm  the  violence  of  excitement ; 
and  diuretics,  by  lessening  the  quantity  of  blood,  are  useful  assistants  in  accomplishing 
these  purposes.  It  is,  however,  in  the  varieties  of  dropsy  that  their  benefit  is  most  evi- 
dent. The  horse  is  more  subject  to  efl'usions  of  fluid  in  particulai-  parts  than  any  other 
domestic  animal.  Swelled  legs  is  a  disease  peculiar  to  him.  The  ox,  the  sheep,  the 
dog,  the  ass,  and  even  the  mule,  have  it  very  seldom ;  and  for  the  removal  of  this  depo- 
site  of  fluid  in  the  cellular  substance  of  the  legs  we  have  recourse  to  diuretics.  The 
kidneys  are  stimulated  to  separate  more  than  the  usual  quantity  of  water  from  the  blood. 
In  order  to  make  up  this  deficiency  in  quantity,  the  absorbents  set  to  work,  and  they 
take  up  and  pour  into  the  circulation  the  fluid  which  had  been  eflused  in  the  legs.  The 
legs  of  many  horses  cannot  be  rendered  fine,  or  kept  so,  without  the  use  of  diuretics; 
nor  can  grease,  often  connected  with  these  swellings,  producingthem  or  caused  by  them, 
be  otherwise  subdued.  We  therefore  rank  diuretics  among  the  most  useful  of  the  vete- 
rinary medicines. 

In  injudicious  hands,  however,  these  medicines  ai'e  sadly  abused.  Among  the  absurdi- 
ties of  stable  management  there  is  nothing  so  injurious  as  the  frequent  use  of  diuretics. 
INot  only  are  the  kidneys,  so  often  over-excited,  weakened,  disposed  to  disease,  but  the 
whole  frame  becomes  debilitated,  for  the  absorbents  have  carried  away  a  great  part  of 
that  which  was  necessary  to  the  health  and  condition  of  the  horse,  in  order  to  supply 
the  deficiency  of  blood  occasioned  by  the  inordinate  discharge  of  urine.  There  is  like- 
wise one  important  fact  of  which  the  groom  or  the  horseman  seldom  thinks  ;  that  when 
he  is  removing  these  humours  by  the  imprudent  use  of  diuretics,  he  is  only  attacking  a 
symptom  or  a  consequence  of  diseaise,  and  not  the  disease  itself.  The  legs  will  fill  again, 
and  the  grease  will  return.  While  the  cause  remains,  the  effect  will  be  produced.  We 
shall  say  more  of  this  when  we  treat  particularly  of  these  diseases  of  the  extremities. 

In  the  administration  of  diuretics  there  are  two  things  to  be  chiefly  attended  to.  The 
first  is  that  which  seems  to  be  contradictory,  but  the  good  eflect  of  which  the  testimony 
of  every  intelligent  man  will  confirm — let  the  horse  have  pUnVj  to  drink.  Not  only  will 
inflammation  be  prevented,  but  the  operation  of  the  medicine  will  be  much  promoted. 
If  more  water  than  usual  be  drunk,  a  great  deal  more  will  be  evacuated.  The  next  cau- 
tion is,  that  during  the  administration  of  a  diuretic  neither  the  clotliing  nor  the  stable 
should  be  too  warm,  otherwise  that  which  was  intended  to  stimulate  the  iddney  will  pass 
off  by  perspiration  ;  for  it  seems  to  be  a  law  of  the  frame,  that  what  increases  the  dis- 
charge from  the  sldn  proportionably  lessens  the  action  of  the  kidneys. 

22 


170  THE  HORSE. 

The  best  diuretic,  and  which  given  simply  to  promote  an  increased  secretion  from  the 
kidneys,  supersedes  every  other,  is  turpentine ;  either  the  common  hquid  turpentine  in 
doses  of  hcilf  an  ounce,  and  made  into  a  ball  with  linseed  meal,  and  half  a  drachm  of 

ginger ;  or,  what  is  better,  the  same  quantity  of  powdered  resin,  with  two  drachms  of 
nseed  meal,  and  half  a  drachm  of  ginger  fonned  into  a  mass  with  palm-oil.  In  cases 
of  inflammation  or  fever,  nitre  or  digitalis  should  be  used.  The  spirit  of  nitrous  ether, 
cream  of  tartar,  and  bedsam  of  capivi  have  some  diuretic  effect. 

INFLAMMATION    OF    THE   KIDNEY 

Is  no  common  disease  in  the  horse,  and  is  more  unskilfully  and  fatally  treated  than  al- 
most any  other.  The  early  symptoms  are  those  of  fever  generally,  but  the  seat  of  the 
disease  soon  becomes  evident.  The  horse  looks  anxiously  round  at  his  flanks ;  stands 
with  his  hinder  legs  wide  apart ;  straddles  aa  he  walks ;  expresses  pain  in  turning ; 
shrinks  when  the  loins  are  pressed,  and  some  degree  of  heat  is  felt  there.  The  urine  is 
voided  in  small  quantities,  and  frequently  it  is  high-coloured,  and  sometimes  bloody.  The 
attempt  to  urinate  becomes  more  frequent,  and  the  quantity  voided  smaller ;  until  the 
animcJ  strains  painfully  and  violently,  but  the  discharge  is  nearly  or  quite  suppressed. 
The  pulse  is  quick  and  hard ;  full  in  the  eaily  stage  of  the  disease,  but  rapidly  becoming 
small,  yet  not  losing  its  character  of  haxdness.  These  symptoms  clearly  indicate  an 
affection  of  the  urinary  organs  ;  but  they  do  not  distinguish  inflammation  of  the  kidney 
from  that  of  the  bladder.  The  hand  must  be  introduced  into  the  rectum.  If  the  bladder 
be  felt  full  and  hard  under  the  rectum,  there  is  inflammation  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder : 
if  the  bladder  be  empty,  yet  on  the  portion  of  the  intestines  immediately  over  it  there  is 
more  than  natural  heal  and  tenderness,  there  is  inflammation  of  the  body  of  the  bladder; 
but  if  the  bladder  be  empty,  and  there  is  no  increased  heat  or  tenderness,  there  is  in- 
flammation of  the  kidney. 

Among  the  causes  are  improper  food.  There  is  no  more  frequen*.  cause  than  hay  that 
has  been  mow-burnt,  or  oats  that  are  musty.  The  farmer  should  look  well  to  this.  Oats 
that  have  been  dried  on  the  kiln  acquire  a  diuretic  property,  and  if  horses  are  long  fed 
on  them,  the  continual  excitement  of  this  organ  which  they  produce  will  degenerate  into 
inflaonmation.  Too  powerful,  or  too-often-repeated  diuretics  produce  inflammation  of 
the  kidney ;  or  a  degree  of  irritation  and  weeikness  of  that  organ,  that  disposes  to  in- 
flammation from  causes  that  would  otherwise  have  no  injurious  effect.  If  a  horse  is 
sprained  in  the  loins,  by  being  urged  on,  far  or  fast,  by  a  heavy  rider,  or  by  being  suddenly 
pulled  up  on  his  haunches,  the  inflammation  of  the  muscles  of  the  loins  is  often  speedily 
transferred  to  the  kidneys,  with  which  they  lie  in  contact.  Exposure  to  cold  is  another 
frequent  origin  of  this  malady,  especially  if  the  horse  be  drenched  with  rain,  or  the 
wet  drips  upon  his  loins ;  and  more  particularly,  if  he  were  previously  disposed  to  inflam- 
mation, or  ttiese  organs  had  been  previously  weaJf  ened.  For  this  reeison,  hackney-coach 
horses  and  others,  exposed  to  the  vicissitud[es  of  the  weather,  and  often  fed  on  unwhole- 
some provender,  have,  or  should  have,  their  loins  protected  by  a  leather  or  a  cloth. 

The  treatment  will  only  vary  from  that  of  inflammation  of  other  parts,  by  the  conside- 
ration of  the  peculiarity  of  the  organ  affected.  Bleeding  must  be  promptly  resorted  to, 
and  carried  to  its  full  extent.  An  active  purge  should  next  be  administered ;  and  a  coun- 
ter-inflammation excited  as  near  as  possible  to  the  seat  of  disease.  For  this  purpose, 
the  loins  should  be  fomented  with  hot  water,  or  covered  with  a  mustard  poultice ;  but  no 
cantharides  or  turpentine  must  be  used,  and,  most  of  all,  must  no  diuretic  be  given  inter- 
nally. When  the  groom  finds  this  difficulty  or  suppression  of  staling,  he  immediately 
has  recourse  to  a  diuretic  ball,  to  force  on  the  urine ;  and  by  thus  farther  irritating  a  part 
already  too  much  excited,  he  adds  fuel  to  fire,  and  frequently  destroys  the  horse.  When 
the  action  of  the  purgative  begins  a  little  to  cease,  white  hellebore  may  be  administered, 
in  doses  of  a  scruple  three  times  a  day,  with  or  without  emetic  tartar.  The  horse  should 
be  warmly  clothed ;  his  legs  well  bandaged,  and  plenty  of  water  offered  to  him.  The 
food  should  be  carefully  examined,  and  anything  that  could  have  excited,  or  that  may 
prolong  the  irritation,  carefully  removed. 

DIABETES,  OR  PROFUSE  STALING 

Is  a  comparatively  rare  disease.  It  is  the  consequence,  generally,  of  undue  irritation  of 
the  kidney,  by  bad  food  or  strong  diuretics ;  and  sometimes  follows  inflammation  of  the 
kidney.  It  can  seldom  be  traced  in  the  horse  to  any  disease  of  the  digestive  organs. 
The  treatment  is  obscure,  and  the  result  often  uncertain.  It  is,  evidently,  increased 
action  of  the  kidney,  and  therefore  the  most  rational  plan  of  treatment  is  to  endeavor  to 
abate  that  action  ;  and  nearly  the  same  course  should  be  pursued  in  the  early  stage  of 
diabetes,  as  in  actual  inflammation  ;  but  the  lowering  system  should  not  be  carried  to  so 
great  an  extent.    To  bleeding,  purging,  and  counter-irritation,  medicines  of  an  astringent 


STONE  IN  THE  BLADDER.  171 

quality  should  succeed,  as  catechu,  the  powdered  leaf  of  the  wortle-berry  (uva  ursi,)  and 
opium,  in  doses  of  two  drachms  each  of  the  two  first,  and  half  a  drachm  of  the  last. 
Very  careful  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  food.  The  hay  and  oats  should  be  of  the 
best  quality ;  and  green  meat,  and  especially  carrots,  will  be  very  serviceable, 

THE    BLADDER. 

The  urine  separated  by  the  blood  is  discheirged  by  the  minute  vessels,  of  which  we 
have  spoken,  into  some  larger  canals,  which  terminate  in  a  cavity  or  reservoir  in  the 
body  of  the  kidney,  called  its  pelvic ;  and  thence  is  conveyed  by  a  duct,  called  the  ureter, 
to  a  larger  reservoir,  the  bladder.  It  is  constantly  flowing  from  the  kidney  through  the 
ureter ;  and  were  there  not  this  provision  for  its  detention,  it  would  be  incessantly  and 
annoyingly  dribbling  from  the  animal.  The  bladder  Ues  in,  and  when  distended  by  urine, 
nearly  tills  the  cavity  of  the  gi-eat  bones  of  the  haunch,  termed  the  pelvis.  It  has  three 
coats — the  outer  one  covering  the  greater  part  of  it,  and  being  a  portion  of  the  perito- 
neum ;  the  muscular,  consisting  of  two  layers  of  fibres,  as  in  the  stomach  :  the  external, 
ruiuung  longitudinally,  and  the  inner  circularly,  so  that  it  may  yield  to  the  pressure  of 
the  urine  as  it  enters,  and  contract  again  into  an  exceedingly  small  space  as  it  runs  out, 
and  by  that  contraction  assist  in  the  expulsion  of  the  urine.  The  inner  or  mucous  coat 
contains  numerous  little  glands  which  pour  out  a  mucous  fluid  to  defend  the  bladder 
from  the  acrimony  of  the  urine.  The  bladder  terminates  in  a  small  neck,  round  which 
is  a  strong  muscle,  keeping  the  passage  closed,  and  retaining  the  urine  until,  at  the  will 
of  the  animal,  or  when  the  bladder  contains  a  certain  quantity  of  fluid,  the  muscular 
coat  begins  to  contract,  and  the  lungs  being  filled  with  air,  the  diaphragm  is  rendered 
convex  towards  the  intestines,  and  presses  then  on  the  bladder,  and  by  these  united  pow- 
ers, the  fluid  is  forced  through  the  sphincter  muscle  at  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  ana  es- 
capes. 

INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    BLADDER. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  this  disease — inflammation  of  the  body  of  the  bladder,  and 
of  its  neck.  The  symptoms  are  nearly  the  same  with  those  of  inflammation  of  the  kid- 
ney, except  that  there  is  rarely  a  total  suppression  of  urine,  and  there  is  heat  felt  in  the 
rectum  over  the  situation  of  the  bladder.  The  causes  are  the  presence  of  some  acrid  or 
irritant  matter  in  the  urine,  or  of  calculus  or  stone  in  the  bladder.  With  reference  to  in- 
flammation of  the  body  of  the  bladder,  mischief  has  occasionally  been  done  by  the  intro- 
duction of  cantharides  or  some  irritating  matter  to  hasten  the  period  of  horsing  in  the 
mare.  The  treatment  will  be  the  same  as  in  the  inflammation  of  the  Iddney,  except 
that  it  is  of  more  consequence  that  the  horse  should  drink  freely  of  water  or  thin  gruel, 
and  that  gruel  or  mucilage  of  any  kind  may,  by  one  who  understands  the  anatomy  of 
the  animal,  be  easily  introduced  into  the  bladder  of  the  mare. 

In  inflammation  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder  there  is  the  same  frequent  voiding  of  urine 
in  small  quantities,  generally  appearing  in  an  advanced  stage  of  the  disease,  and  often 
ending  in  almost  total  suppression.  There  is  also  this  circumstance,  which  can  never  be 
mistaken  by  him  who  will  pay  diligent  attention  to  the  case,  that  the  bladder  is  distend- 
ed with  urine,  and  may  be  distinctly  felt  under  the  rectum.  It  is  spasm  of  the  part,  clo- 
sing the  neck  of  the  bladder  so  powerfully,  thai  the  contraction  of  the  bladder,  and  the 
pressure  of  the  muscles,  are  unable  to  force  out  the  urine. 

Here  the  object  to  be  attempted  is  sufficiently  plain.  The  spasm  must  be  relaxed. 
The  most  likely  means  to  effect  this  is  to  bleed  largely,  and  even  to  fainting.  This  will 
sometimes  succeed,  and  there  will  be  at  once  an  end  to  the  disease.  To  the  exhaustion 
and  loss  of  muscular  power  occasioned  by  copious  bleeding,  should  be  added  the  nausea 
consequent  on  physic.  Should  not  this  speedily  have  effect,  another  mode  of  abating 
spasm  must  be  ti'ied.  A  drachm  of  the  powdered  opium,  made  into  a  ball  or  drink, 
may  be  given  every  two  or  three  hours  ;  while  an  active  blister  is  applied  exteriicJly.  In 
the  mare  the  bladder  may  be  easily  evacuated  by  means  of  a  catheter  in  skilful  hands ; 
but  owing  to  the  curved  direction  of  the  penis,  a  catheter  cannot  be  introduced  into  the 
bladder  of  a  horse,  without  an  operation  to  which  a  veterinary  surgeon  alone  is  compe- 
tent. 

STONE    IN  THE  BLADDER. 

The  urine  is  a  very  compound  fluid ;  in  a  state  of  health  it  contains  a  great  many  acids 
and  alkalies  variously  combined,  which  under  disease  are  incrccised  botn  in  number  and 
quantity.  It  is  very  easy  to  conceive  that  some  of  these  shall  be  occasionally  separated 
from  the  rest,  and  assume  a  solid  form  both  in  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney,  and  in  the  blad- 
der. This  is  known  to  be  the  case  both  in  the  human  being  and  the  brute.  These  cal- 
culi or  stones  are  in  the  horse  found  oftener  in  the  kidney  than  in  the  bladder,  contrary 
to  the  experience  of  the  human  surgeon.     The  explanation  of  this,  however,  is  not  diffi- 


172  THE  HORSE. 

cult  In  the  human  being  the  kidney  is  situated  above  the  bladder,  and  these  concre- 
tions descend  from  the  kidney  to  the  bladder  by  their  weight.  The  belly  of  the  horse 
is  horizontal,  and  the  force  of  gravity  can  in  no  way  affect  the  passage  of  the  calculus; 
therefore  it  remains  in  the  pelvis  of  tiie  kidney,  until  it  increases  so  much  in  size  as 
often  to  fill  it.     We  know  not  of  any  symptoms  which  would  satisfactorily  indicate  the 

Eresence  of  a  stone  in  the  kidney ;  and  if  the  disease  could  be  ascertained,  we  are  una- 
le  to  say  what  remedial  measures  could  be  adopted. 

The  symptoms  of  stone  in  the  bladder  much  resemble  those  of  spasmodic  colic,  ex- 
cept that  on  careful  inquiry  it  will  be  found  that  there  has  been  much  irregularity  in  the 
discharge  of  urine,  and  occasional  suppression  of  it.  When  fits  of  apparent  colic  fre- 
quently return,  and  are  accompanied  by  any  peculiarity  in  the  discharge  of  urine,  the 
horse  should  be  carefully  examined.  He  should  be  thrown.  If  there  be  stone  in  the 
bladder,  it  will,  while  the  horse  lies  on  its  back,  press  on  the  rectum,  and  may  be  dis- 
tinctly felt  if  the  hand  be  inb'oduced  into  the  rectum.  Several  cases  have  lately  occur- 
red of  successful  extraction  of  the  calculus  ;  but  here  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  re- 
course to  the  aid  of  a  veterinary  practitioner. 

Many  horses  occasionally  void  a  considerable  quantity  of  gravel,  sometimes  without 
inconvenience,  at  others  with  evident  spasm  or  pain.  A  diuretic  might  here  be  useful, 
as  increasing  the  flow  of  urine,  and  possibly  wasliing  out  tlie  concretions  before  they  be- 
come too  numerous  or  bulky. 

The  urine  having  passed  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  flows  along  the  urethra,  and  is  dis- 
charp-ed.  The  sheath  of  the  penis  is  sometimes  considerably  enlarged.  When  at  the 
close  of  acute  diseases,  there  are  swellings  and  ettusions  of  fluid,  under  the  chest  and 
belly,  this  part  seldom  escapes.  Diuretics,  mixed  with  a  small  portion  of  cordial  medi- 
cine, will  be  beneficial,  although  in  some  extreme  cases  slight  scarifications  may  be 
necessary.  The  inside  of  the  sheath  is  often  the  seat  of  disease ;  the  mucous  matter 
naturally  secreted  there  to  defend  the  part  from  the  acrimony  of  the  urine,  accumulates 
and  becomes  exceedingly  offensive,  and  produces  swelling,  tenderness,  and  even  excori- 
ation, and  sometimes  considerable  discharge.  A  little  fomentation  with  warm  water, 
and  the  cleansing  of  the  part  with  soap  and  water,  £uded  perhaps  by  a  diuretic  ball,  will 
speedily  remove  every- inconvenience.  Carters  are  much  too  apt  to  neglect  cleanliness 
in  this  respect. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

BREEDING,  CASTRATION,  &c. 

This  may  be  a  proper  period  to  recur  to  the  important  subject  of  breeding,  particular- 
ly important  when  there  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  our  breed  of  useful  horses  has,  within 
the  last  twenty  years,  most  materially  degenerated.  Our  running-horses  still  maintain 
their  supremacy ;  our  carriage-horses  are  not  much  lessened  in  excellence  and  value ; 
but  our  hunters  and  hackneys  are  not  what  they  used  to  be.  We  shall  endeavor  to 
to  point  out  the  cause  of  this. 

Our  observations  must  be  of  a  general  nature,  and  will  be  very  simple  :  and  the  first 
axiom  we  would  lay  down  is,  that  "  like  will  produce  like,"  that  the  progeny  vdll  inherit 
the  qualities,  or  the  mingled  qualities  of  the  parents.  We  would  refer  to  the  subject  of 
diseases,  and  again  state  our  perfect  conviction,  that  there  is  scarcely  one  by  which 
either  of  the  parents  is  affected,  that  the  foal  will  not  inherit,  or,  at  least,  the  predisposi- 
tion to  it :  even  the  consequences  of  ill  usage  or  hard  work  will  descend  to  the  progeny. 
We  have  already  enlarged  on  this,  but  its  importance  will  be  a  sufficient  apology  for  tfie 
repetition.  We  have  had  proof  upon  proof,  that  blindness,  roarin»,  thick  wind,  broken 
wind,  spavins,  curbs,  ringbones,  and  founder,  have  been  bequeathed,  both  by  the  sire 
and  the  dam,  to  the  offspring.  It  should  likewise  be  recollected,  that  although  these 
blemishes  may  not  appear  in  the  immediate  progeny,  they  frequently  will  in  the  next 
generation.  Hence  the  necessity  of  some  knowledge  of  the  parentage  both  of  the  sire 
and  dam. 

Peculiarity  of  form  and  constitution  will  also  be  inherited.  This  is  a  most  important, 
but  neglected  consideration ;  for  however  desirable,  or  even  perfect,  may  have  been  the 
conformation  of  the  sire,  eveiy  good  point  may  be  neutralized  or  lost  by  the  defective 
form,  or  want  of  blood,  of  the  mare.     There  are  niceties  in  this,  of  which  some  breed- 


BREEDING.  173 

ers  used  to  be  aware,  and  they  employed  their  knowledge  to  great  advantage.  When 
they  were  careful  that  the  essential  points  should  be  good  in  both  parents,  and  that  some 
minor  detect  in  either  should  be  met,  and  got  rid  of,  by  excellence  in  that  particular 
point  in  the  other,  the  result  was  creditable  to  tlieir  judgment,  and  highly  profitable. 
The  unskilful  or  careless  bi'eeder  will  often  so  badly  pair  the  animals,  that  the  good 
points  of  each  will  be,  in  a  manner  lost ;  the  defects  of  both  will  be  increased,  and  the 
produce  wiU  be  lai-  inferior  to  both  sire  and  dam. 

Of  late  years,  these  principles  have  been  much  lost  sight  of  in  the  breeding  of  horses 
for  general  use  ;  and  the  following  is  the  explanation  of  it.  There  are  nearly  as  good 
stallions  as  there  used  to  be.  Few  but  well-lbrmed  and  valuable  horses  will  be  selected 
and  retained  as  stallions.  They  are  always  tlie  veiy  prime  of  the  breed  ;  but  the  mares 
are  not  what  they  used  to  be.  Poverty  has  induced  many  of  the  breeders  to  part  with 
the  mares  from  which  they  used  to  raise  their  stock,  and  which  were  worth  their  weight 
in  gold  ;  and  the  jade  on  which  the  farmer  now  rides  to  market,  or  which  he  uses  in  his 
farm,  costs  him  but  little  money,  and  is  only  retained  because  he  could  not  get  much 
money  for  her.  It  has  likewise  become  the  fashion  for  gentlemen  to  ride  mares,  almost 
as  frequently  as  geldings  ;  and  thus  the  better  kind  are  taken  from  tlie  breeding  service, 
until  old  age  or  injury  renders  tliem  worth  little  lor  it.  An  intelligent  veterinciry  sur- 
geon, Mr.  Castley,  has  placed  this  in  a  very  strong  light,  in  the  third  volimie  of  the 
"Veterinarian,"  p.  371. 

We  would  wish,  then,  to  impress  it  on  the  minds  of  breeders,  that  peculiarity  of  form 
and  constitution  are  inherited  from  both  parents  :  that  the  excellence  of  the  mare  is  a 

{)oint  of  quite  as  much  importance  as  that  of  the  horse  :  and  that  out  of  a  sorry  mare, 
et  the  horse  be  as  perfect  as  he  may,  a  good  foal  will  rarely  be  produced.  All  this  is 
recognised  upon  the  turf,  although  poverty  or  cailessness  have  made  the  general  breeder 
neglect  or  forget  it. 

It  is  recognised  in  the  midland  counties  in  the  breed  of  cart-horses ;  and  the  strict 
attention  which  has  been  paid  to  it,  has  brought  our  heavy  horses  to   eilmost  the  same 

Eerfection  in  their  way  as  the  blood-horse.  It  is  strange  that  in  our  saddle-horses,  our 
unters,  and  to  a  great  degree,  our  carriage-horses,  this  should  be  left  to  chance.  The 
breeder  begins  to  care  little  about  the  quality  of  the  mare,  and  progeny  is  becoming 
comparatively  of  little  v.orth.  Experience,  it  is  said,  will  make  fools  wise,  but  experi- 
ence will  here  be  bought  at  a  very  deai-  rate,  botli  as  it  regards  the  breeder  and  the  com- 
munity. 

That  the  constitution  and  endurance  of  the  horse  are  inherited,  no  sporting  man  ever 
doubted.  The  qualities  of  the  sire  or  the  dam  descend  from  generation  to  generation, 
and  the  exceOences  or  defects  of  certain  horses  are  traced,  and  justly  so,  to  some  pecu- 
liarity in  a  far  distant  ancestor. 

It  may,  perhaps,  be  justly  affirmed,  that  there  is  more  difficulty  in  selecting  a  good 
mare  to  breed  from,  than  a  good  horse,  because  she  should  possess  somewhat  opposite 
qualities.  Her  carcase  should  be  long,  to  give  room  for  the  growth  of  the  fetus,  and 
yet  there  should  be  compactness  of  form  and  shortness  of  leg.  What  can  they  expect 
who  go  to  Smithficld  market  to  purchase  a  number  of  worn-out,  spavined,  foundered 
mares,  about  whom  they  fancy  there  have  been  some  good  points,  and  send  them  far 
into  the  country  to  breed  from,  and  with  all  their  variety  of  shape,  to  be -covered  by 
the  same  horse .'  In  a  lottery  like  this,  there  may  be  now  and  then  a  prize,  but  there 
must  be  many  blanks.  "  If  horse-breeders,  possessed  of  good  judgment,  would  pay 
the  same  attention  to  breed  and  shape  as  Mr.  Blakewell  did  with  sheep,  they  would 
probably  attain  their  wishes  in  an  equal  degree,  and  gTeatly  to  their  advantage,  whether 
for  the  collar  or  the  road,  for  racing  or  for  hunting."* 

As  to  the  shape  of  the  stallion,  little  satisfactory  can  be  said.  It  must  depend  on 
that  of  the  mare,  and  the  kind  of  horse  wished  to  be  bred ;  but  if  there  be  one  point 
which  we  should  say  is  absolutely  essential,  it  is  this — "  compactness" — as  much  goodness 
and  strength  as  possible  condensed  in  a  little  space.  If  we  are  describing  the"  reverse 
of  the  common  race  of  stallions  for  hunters  and  coach-horses,  the  fault  lies  with  the  bad 
taste  and  judgment  of  the  majority  of  breeders. 

Next  to  compactness,  the  inchnation  of  the  shoulder  will  be  regarded.  A  huge  stal- 
lion, with  upright  shoulders,  never  got  a  capital  hunter  or  hackney.  From  him  the 
breeder  can  obtain  nothing  but  a  cart  or  dray-horse,  and  that,  perhaps,  spoiled  by  the 
opposite  form  of  the  mai-e.  On  the  other  hand,  an  upright  shoulder  is  desirable,  if  not 
absolutely  necessary,  when  a  mere  draught  horse  is  required. 

It  is  of  no  little  importance,  that  the  parents  should  be  in  full  possession  of  their 
natural  strength  and  powers.  It  is  a  common  error,  that  because  a  mare  has  once 
been  good,  she  is  fit  for  breeding  when  she  is  no  longer  capable  of  ordinary  work. 

*  Parkinson  on  the  Breeding  and  Management  of  live  Stock,  vol.  ii.  p.  59. 


174  m^r    THE  HORSE. 

Her  blood  and  perfect  frame  may  ensure  a  foal  of  some  value,  but  he  will  inherit  a 

portion  of  the  worn-out  constitution  of  her  from  whom  he  sprung. 

On  the  subject  of  breeding  in  and  in,  that  is  persevenng  in  the  same  breed,  and 
selecting  the  best  on  either  side,  much  has  been  said.  The  system  of  crossing  requires 
much  judgment  and  experience ;  a  great  deal  more,  indeed,  than  breeders  usually 
possess.  The  bad  qualities  of  the  cross  are  too  soon  engi-afted  on  the  original  stock, 
and  once  engrafted  there,  are  not  for  many  generations,  eradicated.  The  good  ones 
of  both  are  occasionally  neutredized  to  a  most  mortifying  degree.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  the  fact,  however  some  may  deny  it,  that  strict  confinement  to  one  breed,  however 
valuable  or  perfect,  produces  gradual  deterioration.  The  truth  here,  as  in  many  other 
cases,  lies  in  the  middle ;  crossing  should  be  attempted  with  great  caution,  and  the 
most  perfect  of  the  same  breed  should  be  selected,  but  varied,  by  being  frequently  taken 
from  different  stocks.  This  is  the  secret  of  the  course.  The  pure,  south-eastern  blood 
is  never  left,  but  the  stock  is  often  changed  with  manifest  advantage. 

A  mare  is  capable  of  breeding  at  three  or  four  years  old  ;  some  have  injudiciously 
commenced  at  two  years,  before  her  form  of  strength  is  sufficiently  developed,  and  with 
the  developement  of  which  this  early  breeding  will  materially  interfere.  If  she  does 
little  more  than  farm-work,  she  may  continue  to  be  bred  from  until  she  is  nearly  twenty; 
but  if  she  has  been  hardly  worked,  and  bears  the  marks  of  it,  let  her  have  been  what 
she  will  in  her  youth,  she  will  deceive  the  expectations  of  the  breeder  in  her  old  age. 

The  mare  comes  into  heat  in  the  Ccirly  part  of  the  spring.  She  is  said  to  go  with 
focd  eleven  months,  but  there  is  sometimes  a  strange  irregularity  about  this.  Some 
have  been  known  to  foal  five  weeks  earlier,  wliile  the  time  of  others  has  been  extended 
to  six  weeks  beyond  the  eleven  months.  We  may,  however,  take  eleven  months  as 
the  average  time.  In  running  horses,  that  are  brought  so  early  to  the  starting-post,  and 
whether  they  are  foaled  early  in  January  or  late  in  April,  rank  as  of  the  same  age,  it  is 
of  importance  that  the  mare  should  go  to  cover  as  early  as  possible ;  in  a  two  or  three- 
year  old,  foiu-  months  would  make  considerable  difference  in  the  growth  and  sti'ength  ; 
yet  many  of  these  early  foals  are  almost  worthless,  because  they  have  been  deprived 
of  that  additional  nutriment  which  nature  designed  for  them.  For  other  breeds,  the 
beginning  of  May  is  the  most  convenient  period.  The  mare  would  then  foal  in  the 
early  part  of  April,  when  there  would  begin  to  be  sufllcient  food  for  her  and  her  colt, 
without  confining  them  to  the  stable. 

From  the  time  of  covering  to  that  of  foaling,  the  mare  may  be  kept  at  moderate  work, 
and  that  not  only  without  injury,  but  with  decided  advantage.  The  work  may  be  con- 
tinued up  to  the  very  time  when  she  is  expected  to  foaJ  ;  and  of  which  she  will  give  at 
least  a  day's  notice,  by  the  adhesive  matter  that  will  appear  about  the  teats.  When  this 
is  seen,  it  will  be  prudent  to  release  her  from  work,  and  keep  her  near  home,  and  under 
the  frequent  inspection  of  some  careful  person. 

When  nearly  half  the  time  of  pregnancy  has  elapsed,  the  mare  should  have  a  little 
better  food.  She  should  be  allowed  one  or  two  feeds  of  corn  in  the  day.  This  is  about 
the  period  when  they  are  accustomed  to  slink  their  foals,  or  when  abortion  occurs  :  at 
this  time,  therefore,  the  eye  of  the  owner  should  be  frequently  upon  them.  Good 
feeding  and  moderate  exercise  will  be  the  best  preventatives  against  this.  The  mare 
that  has  once  slinked  her  foal  is  ever  liable  to  the  same  accident,  and  therefore  should 
never  be  suffered  to  be  with  other  mares  about  the  time  that  this  usually  occurs,  which 
is  between  the  fourth  and  fifth  months ;  for  such  is  the  power  of  imagination  or  of 
sympathy  in  the  mare,  that  if  one  of  them  suffers  abortion,  the  gi'eater  number  of  those 
in  the  same  pasture  will  share  the  same  fate.  Farmers  wash,  and  paint,  and  tar  their 
stables  to  prevent  some  supposed  infection  : — the  infection  lies  in  the  imagination. 

If  a  mare  has  been  regularlyexercised,  and  apparently  in  health  while  she  was  in  foal, 
little  danger  will  attend  the  act  of  parturition.  It  there  be  false  presentation  of  the  foetus, 
or  difficulty  in  producing  it,  it  will  be  better  to  have  recourse  to  a  well-informed  practi- 
tioner, rather  tlian  injure  the  mother  by  the  violent  and  injurious  attempts  which  are  often 
made  to  relieve  the  animal. 

As  soon  as  the  mare  has  foaled,  she  shoidd  be  turned  into  some  well-sheltered  pasture, 
with  a  hovel  or  shed  to  run  into  when  she  pleases :  and  as,  supposing  she  has  foaled  in 
April,  the  grass  is  scanty,  she  should  have  a  couple  of  feeds  of^corn  daily.  The  breeder 
may  depend  upon  it,  that  nothing  is  gained  by  starving  the  mother,  and  stinting  the  foal 
at  mis  time.  It  is  the  most  important  time  in  the  life  of  the  horse  ;  and  if,  from  false 
economy,  his  growth  be  arrested  now,  his  puny  form  and  want  of  endurance  will  ever 
afterwards  testify  the  error  that  has  been  committed.  The  corn  should  be  given  in  a 
trough  on  the  ground,  that  the  foal  may  partake  of  it  with  the  mother.  When  the  new 
grass  is  flush  and  plenty,  the  corn  may  be  gradually  discontinued. 

Our  work  is  intended,  principally,  for  farmers :  they  well  know  that  the  mare  may  be  put 
to  moderate  work  again  a  month  after  the  foaling.  The  foal  is  at  first  shut  in  the  stable 
during  the  hours  of  work ;  but  as  soon  as  it  acquires  sufficient  strength  to  toddle  after 


BREAKING-IN.  176 

the  mare,  and  especially  when  she  is  at  slow  work,  it  wDl  be  better  for  the  foal  and  the 
dam  that  they  should  be  together.  The  work  will  contribute  to  the  health  of  the  mother ; 
the  foal  will  more  frequently  draw  the  milk,  and  thrive  better ;  and  will  be  hardy  and 
tractable,  and  gradually  familiarized  with  the  objects  among  which  it  is  afterwards  to 
live.  While  the  mother,  however,  is  thus  worked,  she  and  the  foal  should  be  well  fed ; 
and  two  feeds  of  corn,  at  least,  should  be  added  to  the  green  food  which  they  get  when 
turned  out  after  their  work,  and  at  night.  The  mare  will  usually  be  found  at  heat  at  or 
before  the  expiration  of  a  month  from  the  time  of  Ibaling,  when,  if  she  be  kept  princi- 
pally for  breeding  purposes,  she  may  be  put  again  to  the  horse. 

In  five  or  six  montlis,  according  to  the  growth  of  the  foal,  it  may  be  weaned.  It 
should  then  be  housed  for  three  weeks  or  a  month,  or  turned  into  some  distant  rick-yard. 
There  can  be  no  better  place  for  the  focd  than  the  latter,  as  affording,  and  that  without 
trouble,  both  food  and  shelter.  The  mother  should  be  put  to  harder  work,  and  have  drier 
meat.  One  or  two  urine  balls,  or  a  physic  bdl,  will  be  useful  if  the  milk  should  be  trouble- 
some, or  she  should  pine  after  her  foal. 

There  is  no  principle  of  greater  importance  than  the  liberal  feeding  of  the  foal  during 
the  whole  of  his  growth,  and  at  this  time  in  particular.  Bruised  oats  and  bran  should 
form  a  considerable  part  of  his  daily  provender.  The  farmer  may  be  assured  that  money 
is  well  laid  out  which  is  expended  on  the  liberal  nourishment  of  the  gi'owing  colt :  while, 
however,  he  is  well  fed,  he  should  not  be  rendered  delicate  by  excess  of  care.  A  racing 
colt  is  sometimes  stabled;  but  one  that  is  destined  to  be  a  hunter,  a  hackney,  or  an  agri- 
cultural horse,  should  merely  have  a  square  rick,  under  the  leeward  side  of  which  he 
may  shelter  himself,  or  a  hovel,  into  which  he  may  run  at  night,  or  out  of  the  rain.  The 
process  of  breaking-in  should  commence  from  the  very  period  of  weaning.  The  foal 
should  be  daily  handled,  particdly  dressed,  accustomed  to  the  halter,  led  about,  and  even 
tied  up.  The  tractability,  and  good  temper,  and  value  of  the  horse,  depend  a  great  deal 
more  upon  this  than  breeders  are  aware ;  this  should  be  done  as  much  as  possible  by  the 
man  by  whom  they  are  fed,  and  whose  management  of  them  should  be  always  kind  and 
gentle.  There  is  no  fault  for  which  a  breeder  should  so  invariably  discharge  his  servant 
as  cruelty,  or  even  harshness,  towards  the  rising  stock ;  for  the  principle  on  which  their 
after  usefulness  is  founded,  is  early  attachment  to,  and  confidence  in  man,  and  obedience, 
implicit  obedience,  resulting  principally  from  these. 

After  the  second  winter,  the  work  of  breaking-in  may  commence  in  good  earnest.  He 
may  first  be  bitted,  and  a  bit  carefully  selected  that  will  not  hurt  his  mouth,  and  much 
smaller  than  those  in  common  use  ;  with  this  he  may  be  suffered  to  amuse  himself,  and 
to  play,  and  to  champ  for  an  hour,  on  a  few  successive  days. 

Having  become  a  little  tractable,  portions  of  the  harness  may  be  put  upon  him,  and 
last  of  all,  the  blind  winkers ;  and  a  few  days  afterwards  he  may  go  into  the  team.  It 
would  be  better  if  there  could  be  one  before,  and  one  behind  him,  beside  the  shaft  horse. 
Let  there  be  first  the  mere  empty  waggon.  Let  nothing  be  done  to  him,  except  that  he 
may  have  an  occasional  pat  or  kind  word.  The  other  horses  will  keep  him  moving,  and 
in  his  place  ;  and  no  great  time  will  pass,  sometimes  not  even  the  first  day,  before  he 
will  begin  to  pull  with  the  rest:  then  the  load  may  be  gradually  increased. 

The  agricultural  horse  is  wanted  to  ride  as  well  as  to  draw.  Let  his  first  lesson  be 
given  when  he  is  in  tlie  team.  Let  his  feeder,  if  possible,  be  first  put  upon  him:  he 
will  be  too  much  hampered  by  his  harness,  and  by  the  other  horses,  to  make  much  resist- 
ance ;  and,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  will  quietly  and  at  once  submit.  We  need  not 
repeat,  that  no  whip  or  spur  should  be  used  in  giving  the  first  lessons  in  riding. 

When  he  begins  a  little  to  understand  his  business,  backing,  the  most  difficult  part  of 
his  work,  may  be  taught  him  ;  first  to  back  well  without  anything  behind  him,  then  with 
a  light  cart,  and  afterwards  with  some  serious  load ;  and  taking  the  greatest  care  not 
seriously  to  hurt  the  mouth.  If  the  first  lesson  causes  much  soreness  of  the  gums,  the 
colt  will  not  readily  submit  to  a  second.  If  he  has  been  rendered  tractable  before  by 
kind  usage,  time  and  patience  will  do  all  that  can  be  wished  here.  Some  carters  are  in 
the  habit  of  blinding  the  colt  when  teaching  him  to  back  :  it  may  be  necessary  with  the 
restive  and  obstinate  one,  and  should  be  used  only  as  a  last  resort. 

The  colt  having  been  thus  partially  broken-in,  the  necessity  of  implicit  obedience  may 
be  taught  him,  and  that  not  Ijy  severity,  but  by  firmness  and  steadiness  ;  the  voice  will 
go  a  great  way,  but  the  whip  or  the  spur  is  sometimes  indispensable — not  so  cruelly  ap- 
plied as  to  excite  the  animal  to  resistance,  but  to  convince  him  that  we  have  the  power 
to  enforce  submission.  Few,  we  would  almost  say,  no  horses,  are  naturally  vicious.  It 
is  cruel  usage  which  has  first  provoked  resistance ;  that  resistance  has  been  followed  by 
greater  severity,  and  the  stubbornness  of  the  animal  has  increased ;  open  warfare  has 
ensued,  in  which  the  man  seldom  gained  an  advantage,  and  the  horse  was  frequently 
rendered  unserviceable.  Correction  may,  or  must  be  used,  to  enforce  implicit  obedience 
after  the  education  has  proceeded  to  a  certain  extent,  but  the  early  lessons  should  be  in- 
culcated with  kindness  alone.     Young  colts  ai"e  sometimes  very  perverse;  many  days 


176  *^<^     THE  HORSE. 

will  occasionally  pass  before  they  will  permit  the  bridle  to  be  put  on,  or  the  saddle  to  be 
worn ;  one  act  of  neirshness  will  double  or  ti-eble  this  time.  Patience  and  kindness  will, 
after  a  while,  prevail.  On  some  morning,  of  better  humour  than  usual,  the  bridle  will 
be  put  on,  and  the  saddle  will  be  worn ;  and  this  comphance  being  followed  by  kindness 
and  soothing  on  the  part  of  the  breaker,  and  no  inconvenience  or  pain  being  suffered  by 
the  animal,  all  resistance  will  be  at  an  end. 

The  same  principles  will  apply  to  the  brealcing-in  of  the  horse  for  the  road  or  the  chase. 
The  handling,  and  some  portion  of  instruction,  should  commence  from  the  time  of  wean- 
ing. The  future  tractability  of  the  horse  will  much  depend  on  this.  At  two  years  and 
a  half,  or  three  years,  the  regular  process  of  breaking-m  should  come  on.  If  it  be  de- 
layed until  the  animal  is  four  years  old,  his  strength  and  obstinacy  will  be  more  difficult 
to  overcome.  We  cannot  much  improve  on  the  plan  usually  pursued  by  the  breaker, 
except  that  there  should  be  much  more  kindness  and  patience,  and  far  less  harshness  and 
cruelty,  than  these  persons  are  accustomed  to  exhibit,  and  a  great  deal  more  attention  to 
the  form  and  natural  action  of  the  horse.  A  headstall  is  put  on  the  colt,  and  a  cavesson 
(or  apparatus  to  confine  and  pinch  the  nose)  affixed  to  it,  with  long  reins.  He  is  first 
accustomed  to  the  rein,  then  led  round  a  ring  on  soft  ground,  and  at  length  mounted  and 
taught  his  paces.  Next  to  preserving  the  temper  and  dociUty  of  the  horse,  there  is  no- 
thing of  so  much  importance  as  to  teach  him  every  pace,  and  every  part  of  his  duty, 
distinctly  and  thoroughly.  Each  must  constitute  a  separate  and  sometimes  long-continu- 
ed lesson,  and  that  taught  by  a  man  who  will  never  suffer  his  passion  to  get  the  better  of 
his  discretion. 

After  the  cavesson  has  been  attached  to  the  headstall,  and  the  long  rein  put  on,  the 
first  lesson  is,  to  be  quietly  led  about  by  the  breaker;  a  steady  boy  following  behind, 
by  occasionally  threatening  with  the  whip,  but  never  by  an  actual  blow,  to  Keep  the 
colt  up.  When  the  animal  follows  readily  and  quietly,  he  may  be  taken  to  tlie  ring, 
and  walked  round,  right  and  left,  in  a  very  small  circle.  Care  should  be  taken  to  teach 
him  this  pace  thoroughly,  never  sufFerieg  him  to  break  into  a  trot.  The  boy  with  his 
whip  may  here  again  be  necessaiy,  but  not  a  single  blow  should  actually  fall. 

Becoming  tolerable  perfect  in  the  walk,  he  should  be  quickened  to  a  trot,  and  kept 
steadily  at  it ;  the  whip  of  the  boy,  if  needful,  urging  him  on,  and  the  cavesson  restrain- 
ing him.  These  lessons  should  be  short.  The  pace  should  be  kept  perfect  and  distinct 
in  each ;  and  docility  and  improvement  rewarded  with  frequent  caresses,  and  handfuls 
of  corn.  The  length  of  the  reign  may  now  be  gradually  increased,  and  the  pace  quick- 
ened, and  the  time  extended,  until  the  animal  becomes  tractable  in  this  his  first  lessons, 
towards  the  conclusion  of  which,  crupper-straps,  or  something  similar,  may  be  attached 
to  the  clothing.  These,  playing^  about  the  sides  and  flanks,  accustom  him  to  the  flap- 
ping of  the  coat  of  the  rider.  The  annoyance  which  they  occasion  will  pass  over  in  a 
day  or  two ;  for  when  the  animal  finds  that  no  harm  comes  to  him  on  account  of  these 
straps,  he  will  cease  to  regai'd  them. 

Next  comes  the  bitting.  The  bit  should  be  large  and  smooth,  and  the  reins  should 
be  buckled  to  a  ring  on  either  side  of  the  pad.  There  are  many  curious  and  expensive 
machines  for  this  purpose,  but  the  simple  rein  will  be  quite  sufficient.  The  reins 
should  at  first  be  slack,  and  very  gradually  tightened.  This  will  prepare  for  the  more 
perfect  manner  in  which  the  head  will  be  afterwards  got  into  its  proper  position,  when 
the  colt  is  accustomed  to  the  saddle.  Occasionally  the  breaker  should  stand  in  front  of 
the  colt,  and  take  hold  of  each  side  reign  near  to  the  mouth,  and  press  upon  it,  and  thus 
begin  to  teach  him  to  stop  and  to  back  at  the  pressure  of  the  reign,  rewarding  every  act 
of  docility,  and  not  being  eager  to  punish  occasional  carelessness  or  waywardness. 

The  colt  may  now  be  taken  into  the  road  or  sti-eet  to  be  gradually  accustomed  to  the 
objects  among  which  his  services  will  be  required.  Here,  from  fear  or  playfulness,  a 
considerable  degree  of  starting  and  shying  may  be  exhibited.  As  little  notice  as  possi- 
ble should  be  taken  of  it.  The  same  or  a  similar  object  should  be  soon  passed  again,  but  at 
a  greater  distance.  If  the  colt  still  shies,  let  the  distance  be  farther  increased,  until  he 
takes  no  notice  of  the  object ;  then  he  may  be  gradually  brought  nearer  to  it,  and  this 
will  be  usually  effected  without  the  slightest  difficulty  :  whereas,  had  there  been  an  at- 
tempt to  force  the  animal  close  to  it  in  the  first  instance,  the  remembrance  of  the  contest 
would  have  been  associated  with  the  object,  and  the  habit  of  shying  would  have  been 
established. 

Hitherto,  with  a  cool  and  patient  breaker,  the  whip  may  have  been  shown,  but  will 
scarcely  have  been  used ;  the  colt  must  now,  however,  be  accustomed  to  this  necessary 
instrument  of  authority.  Let  the  breaker  walk  by  the  side  of  the  animal,  and  throw  his 
right  arm  over  his  back,  holding  the  reins  in  his  left ;  and  occasionally  quicken  his 
pace,  and,  at  the  moment  of  doing  this,  tap  the  horse  with  the  whip  in  his  right  hand, 
and  at  first  very  gently.  The  tap  of  the  whip  and  the  quickening  of  the  pace  will  soon 
become  associated  together  in  the  mind  of  the  animeJ.  If  necessary,  the  taps  may 
gradually  fall  a  little  heavier,  and  the  feeling  of  pain  be  the  monitor  of  the  necessity  of 


CASTRATION.  177 

increased  exertion.  The  lessons  of  reigning  in  and  stopping,  and  backing  on  the  pres- 
sure of  the  bit,  may  continue  to  be  practised  at  the  same  time. 

He  may  now  be  taught  to  bear  the  saddle.  Some  little  caution  will  be  necessary  at 
the  first  putting  of  it  on.  The  breaker  should  stand  at  the  head  of  the  colt,  patting  him, 
and  engaging  his  attention,  while  one  assistant,  on  the  off-side,  gently  places  the  saddle 
on  the  back  of  the  animal ;  and  another,  on  the  near  side,  slowly  tightens  the  girths. 
If  he  submits  quietly  to  this,  as  he  generally  will,  when  the  previous  process  of  break- 
ing-in  has  been  properly  conducted,  the  ceremony  of  mounting  may  be  attempted  on 
the  following  or  on  the  third  day.  The  breaker  will  need  two  assistants  to  accomplish 
this  operation.  He  will  remain  at  the  head  of  the  colt,  patting  and  making  much  of 
him.  The  rider  will  put  his  foot  into  the  stirrup,  and  bear  a  little  weight  upon  it,  while 
the  man  on  the  off-side  presses  equally  on  the  other  stirrup-leather ;  and  according  to 
the  docility  of  the  animal,  he  will  gradually  increase  the  weight,  until  he  balances  him- 
self on  tlie  stirrup.  If  the  colt  be  uneasy  or  fearful,  he  should  be  spoken  kindly  to  and 
patted,  or  a  mouthful  of  corn  be  given  to  him  :  but  if  he  offers  serious  resistance,  the 
lessons  must  terminate  for  that  day ;  he  may  be  probably  be  in  better  humour  on  the 
morrow. 

When  the  rider  has  balanced  himself  for  a  minute  or  two,  he  may  gently  throw  his 
leg  over,  and  quietly  seat  himself  in  the  saddle.  The  breaker  will  then  lead  the  animal 
round  the  ring,  the  rider  sitting  perfectly  still.  After  a  few  minutes  he  will  take  the 
reins,  and  handle  them  as  gently  as  possible,  and  guide  the  horse  by  the  pressure  of 
them ;  patting  him  frequently,  and  especially  when  he  thinks  of  dismounting,— and  after 
having  dismounted,  offering  him  a  little  corn  or  gi-een  meat.  The  use  of  the  rein  in 
checking  him,  and  of  the  pressure  of  the  leg  and  the  touch  of  the  heel  in  quickening  his 
pace,  wiU  soon  be  taught,  and  the  education  will  be  nearly  completed. 

The  horse  having  thus  far  submitted  himself  to  the  breaker,  these  pattings  and  re- 
wards must  be  gradually  diminished,  and  implicit  obedience  mildly  but  firmly  enforced. 
Severity  will  not  often  be  necessary ;  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  it  will  be  altogether 
uncalled  for:  but  should  the  animal,  in  a  moment  of  waywardness,  dispute  the  com- 
mand of  the  breaker,  he  must  at  once  be  taught  that  he  is  tiie  slave  of  man,  and  that  we 
have  the  power,  by  other  means  than  those  of  Icindness,  to  bend  him  to  our  will.  The 
education  of  tlie  horse  is  that  of  the  child.  Pleasure  is,  as  much  as  possible,  associated 
with  the  early  lessons ;  but  firmness,  or,  if  need  be,  coercion,  must  confirm  the  habit  of 
obedience.  Tyranny  and  cruelty  will,  more  speedity  in  the  horse  than  even  in  the 
child,  provoke  the  wish  to  disobey ;  and,  on  every  practicable  occasion,  the  resistance 
to  command.  The  restive  and  vicious  horse  is,  in  ninety-nine  case  out  of  a  hundred, 
made  so  by  ill-usuage,  and  not  by  nature.  None  but  those  who  will  take  the  trouble  to 
try  the  experiment  are  aware  how  absolute  a  command  the  due  admixture  of  firmness 
and  kindness  will  soon  give  us  over  any  horse. 

CASTRATION. 

The  period  at  which  this  important  operation  will  be  best  performed  depends  much 
on  the  breed  and  form  of  the  colt,  and  the  purpose  for  which  he  is  destined.  For  the 
common  agricultural  horse,  the  age  of  four  or  five  months  wiU  be  the  most  advisable, 
or,  at  least,  before  he  is  weaned.     Very  few  horses  ai-e  lost  when  cut  at  that  early  age. 

The  weather,  however,  should  not  be  too  hot,  nor  the  flies  too  numerous.  We  enter 
our  decided  protest  against  the  recommendation  of  some  valuable,  but  incautious  agri- 
cultural WTiters,  that  colts  should  be  cut  in  the  months  of  June  or  Jrdy,  when  the  flies 
pester  the  horses,  and  cause  them  to  be  continually  moving  about,  and  thereby  prevent 
swelUng.'  One  moment's  reflection  will  convince  the  reader  that  nothing  can  be  more 
likely  to  produce  inflammation,  and  consequent  swelling  and  danger,  than  the  torture 
of  the  flies  hovering  round  and  stinging  the  sore  part. 

If  the  horse  is  designed  either  for  the  carriage  or  for  heavy  draught,  the  farmer  should 
not  think  of  castrating  him  until  he  be  at  least  a  twelve-month  old ;  and,  even  then,  tiie 
colt  should  be  carefully  examined.  If  he  is  thin  and  spare  about  the  neck  and 
shouldei's,  and  low  in  the  withers,  he  will  materially  improve  by  remaining  uncut  anotlier 
six  months ;  but  if  his  fore-quarters  are  fairly  developed  at  the  age  of  a  twelvemonth, 
the  operation  should  not  be  delayed,  lest  he  become  heavy  and  gioss  before,  and  perhaps 
have  begun  too  decidedly  to  have  a  will  of  his  own.  No  specific  age,  then,  can  be  fixed ; 
but  the  castration  should  be  performed  rather  late  in  the  spring  or  early  in  the  autumn, 
when  the  air  is  temperate,  and  particularly  when  the  weather  is  dry.  No  prepjiration 
is  necessary  for  the  sucking  colt,  but  it  may  be  prudent  to  bleed  and  to  physic  one  of 
more  advanced  age.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  no  after  treatment  will  be  neces- 
sary, except  that  the  animal  should  be  sheltered  from  intense  heat,  and  more  particu- 
larly from  wet.  lii  temperate  weather  he  will  do  much  better  running  in  the  field  than 
nursed  in  a  close  and  hot  stable.  The  moderate  exercise  which  he  wul  take  in  grazing 
23 


178  THE  HORSE. 

will  be  preferable  to  perfect  inaction.  A  large  and  well-ventilated  box,  however,  may 
be  permitted. 

The  manner  in  which  the  operation  is  performed  will  be  properly  left  to  the  veteri- 
nary surgeon  ;  although  we  must  confess  that  we  are  disposed  to  adhere  to  the  old  way 
of  opening  the  bag  on  either  side,  cutting  oU'  the  testicle,  and  preventing  bleeding  by 
searing  the  vessels  with  a  hot  iron. 

There  is  at  least  an  appearance  of  brutality,  and,  we  believe,  much  unnecessary  pain 
inflicted,  when  the  spermatic  cord  (the  vessels  and  the  nerve)  is  tightly  compressed 
between  two  pieces  of  wood,  as  in  a  powerful  vice,  and  left  tliere  either  until  the  testicle 
drops  off,  or  is  removed  on  the  tbllowing  day  by  the  operator.  To  the  practice  of  some 
farmers,  of  twitching  their  colts  at  an  early  period,  sometimes  even  so  early  as  a  month, 
we  have  stionger  objection.  When  the  operation  of  twiching  is  performed,  a  small  cord 
is  drawn  as  tightly  as  possible  round  the  bag,  between  the  testicle  and  the  belly ;  the  cir- 
culation is  thus  stopped,  and,  in  a  few  days,  the  testicles  and  the  bag  drop  olf:  but  the 
animal  sufiers  sadly, — it  is  occasionally  necessary  to  tighten  the  cord  on  tlie  second  or 
third  day,  and  inflammation  and  death  have  frequently  ensued. 


CHAPT^'XIII. 

THE    FOEE  LEGS. 

We  arrive  now  at  those  parts  of  the  frame  most  essentially  connected  with  the  action 
and  value  of  the  horse,  and  oltenest,  and  most  annoyingly,  tlie  subjects  of  disease.  The 
extremities  contain  the  whole  apparatus  of  motion,  and  it  is  with  the  action,  and  speed, 
and  strength  of  the  horse  that  we  are  most  concerned. 

We  begin  with  the  fore  extremity,  and  with  its  upper  part  the  shoulder.  It  is  seen  at 
G,  page  49. 

THE    SHOULDER. 

The  scapula,  or  shoulder-blade,  situated  forward  on  the  side  of  the  chest,  is  a  bone  of 
a  somewhat  triangular  shape,  with  its  apex  or  point  downward,  and  its  base  or  broad  part 
upward.  The  point  lies  between  the  first  and  second  ribs ;  the  hinder  part  of  the  base 
reaches  as  far  back  as  the  seventh  rib ;  it  therefore  extends  obliquely  along  the  chest. 
It  is  divided,  externally,  into  two  unequal  portions  by  a  ridge  or  spine  running  through 
almost  the  whole  of  its  extent,  and  designed,  as  we  shall  presently  show,  for  the  attach- 
ment of  important  muscles.  The  broad  or  upper  part  having  no  muscles  of  any  conse- 
quence attached  to  it,  is  terminated  by  cartilage. 

We  have  stated  that  the  muscles  of  the  hinder  legs  are  principally  concerned  in  the 
motion  of  the  horse.  They  impel  the  machine  forward,  and  the  main  uses  of  the  fore 
extremities  are  to  lift  the  fore  part  of  the  horse  from  the  ground,  that  it  may  be  thus  im- 
pelled to  tlirow  forward  the  legs  as  far  as  possible  that  they  receive  this  weight  at  due 
distance,  and  to  support  the  force  and  shock  of  that  weight  when  it  reaches  the  ground. 
We  will  inquire  as  we  proceed  how  far  one  or  all  of  these  objects  are  accomphshed. 

The  shoulder-blade  is  united  to  the  chest  by  muscle  alone.  There  is  a  large  muscle, 
with  very  remarkable  tendinous  fibres,  and  of  immense  strength  (the  serratus  major, 
greater  saw- shaped  muscle,)  attached  to  the  chest,  and  to  the  extensive  smooth  internal 
surface  of  the  shoulder-blade,  and  by  which,  assisted,  or  rather  sti-engthened,  by  the 
muscles  of  the  breast,  the  weight  of  the  body  is  supported,  and  the  shock  of  the  vddest 
leap,  or  the  most  rapid  motion,  sustained.  Had  there  been  a  bony  union  between  the 
shoulder  and  the  body,  the  vital  parts  contained  in  the  chest  could  not  have  endured  the 
dreadful  shock  which  they  would  occasionally  have  experienced ;  nor  could  any  bone 
have  long  remained  whole  if  exposed  to  such  violence.  The  muscles  wdthin  the 
shoulder-blade  act  as  powerful  and  safe  springs.  They  yield,  as  far  as  necessary,  to  the 
force  impressed  upon  them ;  by  their  gradual  yielding  they  destroy  the  violence  of  the 
shock,  and  then,  by  their  elastic  power,  immediately  regain  their  former  situation. 

SPRAIN    OF    the    shoulder. 

In  some  violent  and  unexpected  shock  these  muscles  are  occasionally  injured.  Al- 
though we  do  not  believe  that,  in  one  case  in  twenty,  the  fanier  is  right  when  he  talks 


ACTION  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  179 

of  his  shoulder-lameness,  yet  it  cannot  be  denied,  that  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder  are 
occasionally  sprained.  This  is  eliected  oi'tener  by  <i  slip  or  side-fall,  than  by  fair, 
although  violent  exertion.  It  is  of  considerable  importance  to  be  able  to  distinguish  this 
shoulder-lameness  from  injuries  of  other  parts  of  the  fore  extremit}^  We  shall  look  in 
vain  for  much  tenderness,  or  heat,  or  sweUing:  it  is  a  sprain  of  muscles  deeply  seated, 
and  where  these  symptoms  of  injury  cannot  possibly  exist.  If,  on  standing  before  the 
horse,  and  looking  at  the  size  of  the  two  shoulders,  or  rather  their  points,  one  should 
appear  evidently  leu-ger  than  the  other,  we  must  not  consider  this  as  indicative  of  sprain 
of  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder.  It  probably  arises  from  bruise  of  the  point  of  the 
shoulder,  which  a  slight  examination  will  determine ;  or  the  whole  of  the  limb,  this 
portion  of  which  is  enlarged,  may  be  sound,  while  the  other  may  be  shrunk  from  want 
of  equal  exertion,  arising  from  injury  of  long  standing.  The  heat  and  tenderness,  if 
there  be  any,  will  be  found  witliin  the  arm,  close  to  the  chest ;  and  will  belong  more 
to  the  muscles  of  the  breast  than  to  those  under  tlie  shoulder. 

The  symptoms,  however,  of  shoulder-lameness  can  scai'cely  be  mistaken ;  and,  when 
we  relate  them,  the  farmer  will  recollect,  that  they  very  seldom  occurred  when  the  vil- 
lage-smith pointed  to  the  shoulder  as  the  seat  of  disease,  and  punished  the  animal  for  no 
purpose.  In  sprain  of  the  shoulder  the  horse  will  evidently  suffer  extreme  pain  while 
moving,  and  the  muscle  underneath  being  inflamed  and  tender,  he  will  extend  it  as  little 
as  possible.  He  will  drag  his  toe  along  the  ground.  It  is  in  the  lifting  of  the  foot  that  the 
shoulder  is  principally  moved  :  if  the  foot  be  lifted  high,  let  the  horse  be  ever  so  lame, 
the  shoulder  is  little,  if  at  all  affected.  The  lame  limb  is  suffered  to  bear  the  weight  a 
much  shorter  time  in  this  than  in  any  other  kind  of  lameness.  In  sprain  of  the  back 
sinews,  it  is  only  when  the  horse  is  in  motion  that  the  injured  parts  are  put  to  most  pain ; 
the  pain  is  greatest  here  when  the  weight  rests  on  the  limb,  and,  therefore,  there  is  a 
peculiar  quickness  in  catching  up  tlie  limb,  in  shoulders-lameness,  the  moment  the 
weight  is  thrown  on  it.  This  is  particularly  evident  when  the  horse  is  going  down 
hill,  and  the  injured  limb  bears  an  additional  portion  of  the  weight.  In  the  stable,  too, 
when  the  horse  points  or  projects  one  foot  before  the  other,  that  foot  is  usually  flat  on 
the  ground.  In  shoulder-lameness  the  toe  alone  rests  on  the  ground.  The  circum- 
stance which  most  of  all  characterizes  this  affection,  is,  that  when  the  foot  is  lifted,  and 
then  brought  considerably  forward,  the  horse  will  express  great  pain,  which  he  will  not 
do  if  the  lameness  be  in  the  fogt  or  leg.  We  have  dwelt  longer  on  this  point,  that  our 
readers  maybe  enabled  to  put  to  the  test  the  many  cases  of  shoulder-lameness  which  ex- 
ist only  in  the  imagination  of  the  groom  or  the  fanier. 

In  sprain  of  the  internal  muscles  of  the  shoulder,  few  local  measures  can  be  adopted. 
The  horse  should  be  bled  from  the  vein  on  the  inside  of  the  arm  (the  plate  vein,)  be- 
cause the  blood  is  then  abstracted  more  immediately  from  the  inflamed  part.  A  dose  of 
physic  should  be  given,  and  fomentations  applied,  and  principally  on  the  inside  of  the 
arm,  close  to  the  cnest;  while  the  horse  is  kept  as  quiet  as  possible.  The  injury  is  too 
deeply  seated  for  external  stimulants  to  have  very  great  elt'ect,  yet  a  blister  will  very 
properly  be  resorted  to,  if  the  lameness  is  not  speecUly  removed.  The  sicimming  of  the 
horse  is  an  inhuman  practice;  it  tortures  the  animal  and  increases  the  inflammation. 
The  pegging  of  the  shoulder  (puncturing  the  skin,  and  blowing  into  the  cellular  struc- 
ture beneath,  until  it  is  considerably  pufled  up, )  is  another  relic  of  ignorance  and  bar- 
barity. 

ACTION    OF    THE    SHOULDEE. 

The  lessening  or  break  of  the  shock,  from  the  weight  being  thrown  violently  on  the 
fore  legs,  is  effected  in  another  way.  It  will  be  observed,  that  (see  G  and  J,  p.  49)  the 
shoulder-blade  and  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder  are  not  connected  together  in  a 
straight  line,  but  form  a  very  considerable  angle  with  each  other.  This  will  be  more 
evident  from  the  following  cut,  which  represents  the  tore  and  hind  extremities  in  the 
situations  which  they  occupy  in  the  horse. 

This  angular  construction  of  the  limbs  reminds  us  of  the  similar  arrangement  of  tlie 
springs  of  a  carriage,  and  the  ease  of  motion,  and  almost  perfect  freedom  from  jolting, 
which  are  thereby  obtained. 

W^e  will  not  say  that  the  form  of  the  spring  was  boiTowed  from  this  constniction  of 
the  limbs  of  the  horse,  but  the  efl^ect  of  the  carriage-spring  beautifully  illustrates  the 
connexion  of  the  difierent  bones  in  the  extremities  of  this  quadruped. 

The  obliquity  or  slanting  direction  of  the  shoulder  eflects  another  veiy  useful  purpose. 
That  the  stride  in  the  gallop,  or  the  space  passed  over  in  the  trot,  may  be  extensive,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  fore  part  of  the  animal  should  be  considerably  elevated.  The  shoul- 
der, by  means  of  the  muscles  which  extend  from  it  to  the  inferior  part  of  the  limb,  is  the 
grand  agent  in  efl^ectingthis.    The  slighest  inspection  of  the  last  cut,  or  of  that  at  p 


180 


THE  HORSE. 


49,  will  show  that,  just  in  proportion  as  the  point  of  the  shoukler  is  brought  Ibrwai'd  and 
elevated,  will  be  the  foi-ward  action  and  elevation  of  tlie  limb,  or  the  space  passed  over 
at  eveiy  efibrt.  At  each  contraction  of  the  muscles  which  extend  from  G  to  J,  or  from 
the  shoulder-blade  to  the  bone  of  the  arm,  will  the  point  of  the  shoulder  be  projected  and 
elevated.  In  the  upright  shoulder  it  can  scarcely  be  cai'ried  beyond  the  point  at  which 
it  is  placed  in  these  cuts.  In  the  oblique  or  slanting  shoulder  it  commences  its  action 
from  that  point ;  therefore  it  is  that  a  slanting  shoulder  is  indispensable  in  a  horse  from 
which  good  action  and  considerable  speed  are  required. 


The  slanting  shoulder  accomplishes  another  very  useful  object.  The  muscles  extend- 
ing from  the  shoulder-blade  to  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder  are  the  powers  by  which 
motion  is  given  to  the  whole  of  the  limb.  The  extent  and  energy  of  that  motion  de- 
pend much  on  the  force  exerted  or  the  strength  of  the  muscle ;  but  there  are  circum- 
stances in  the  relative  situations  of  the  difl'erent  bones  which  have  far  greater  influence. 
Let  us  suppose  that  by  means  of  a  lever  we  are  endeavoring  to  raise  a  certain  weight. 

A  is  a  lever,  resting  or  turning  on  a  pivot  B  ;  C  is  the  weight  to  be  raised,  and  D  is 
the  power  and  the  situation  at  which  the  power  is  appUed.  If  we  apply  our  strength  in 
a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  lever,  as  represented  by  the  line  E,  we  can  easily 
calculate  the  strength  which  we  must  exert.    In  proportion  as  the  distance  of  the  power 


from  the  pivct  or  centre  of  motion  exeeds  that  of  the  weight  from  the  same  place,  so 
will  be  the  advantage  gained.      The  power  here  is  tmce  as  far  from  the  centre  as  the 


SLANTING  DIRECTION  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  181 

and  therefore  we  gain  advantage  in  tlic  proportion  of  two  to  one ;  or  if  the  weight 
be  equal  to  200  lbs.,  a  force  of  100  lbs.  will  balance  it.  If  we  alter  the  direction  in  which 
the  power  is  applied,  and  suppose  it  to  be  in  tliat  of  the  line  F,  will  100  lbs.  now  do  ? — 
No  ;  nothing  like  it.  How  shall  we  calculate,  then,  the  power  that  is  necessary  ?  We 
must  prolong  the  line  of  direction  until  another  line,  falling  perpendicularly  from  the  lever, 
and  commencing  at  tlie  centi-e  of  motion,  will  cut  it ;  and  the  Icngtli  of  that  hne  will 

ffive  us  tlie  actual  etlect  of  the  strength  we  employ.  Now,  this  new  line  is  but  half  as 
ong  as  the  distance  of  the  weight  from  the  centre  of  motion,  and  therefore  we  lose 
advantage  in  the  proportion  of  two  to  one ;  or  a  strength  equal  to  400  lbs.  must  be 
exerted  to  raise  the  200  lbs.  and  so  on  in  proportion  to  me  deviation  from  the  right  or 
perpendicular  line. 

Let  us  next  take  the  shoulder  of  the  horse.  The  point  of  the  shoulder,  the  shoulder 
joint,  is  the  pivot  or  centre  of  motion  ;  the  leg  attached  to  the  bone  of  the  arm  is  the 
weight ;  the  shoulder-blade  being  more  fixed  is  the  part  whence  the  power  is  exerted  ; 
and  the  muscles  extending  from  the  one  to  the  other,  are  the  lines  in  which  that  power 
is  exerted.  These  lines  approach  much  more  nearly  to  a  pei-pendicular  in  the  obhque 
than  in  the  upright  shoulder,  (see  cut.)  In  tlie  upright  shoulder,  the  shoulder-blade 
and  the  bone  of  the  arm  are  almost  in  a  straight  line,  and  the  real  action  and  power  of 
the  muscle  are  most  strangely  diminished.  In  this  point  of  view  the  oblique  shoulder 
is  most  important.  It  not  only  gives  extensive  action,  but  facility  of  action  ;  the  power 
of  the  muscles  is  more  than  doubled  by  being  exerted  in  a  line  approaching  so  much 
near  to  a  perpendicular. 

There  is  yet  another  advantage  of  the  oblique  shoulder.  The  point  of  the  shoulder 
is  projected  forward ;  and  therefore  the  pillars  which  support  the  fore  part  of  the  horse 
are  likewise  placed  proportionably  forward,  and  they  have  less  weight  to  cany ;  and 
are  exposed  to  less  concussion,  and  especially  concussion  in  rapid  action.  The  horse  is 
also  much  safer ;  for  having  less  weight  lying  before  the  pillars  of  support,  he  is  not  so 
likely  to  have  the  centre  of  gravity  thrown  oefore  and  beyond  them  b}^  an  accidental 
trip ;  or,  in  other  words,  he  is  not  so  likely  to  fall ;  and  he  rides  more  pleasantly,  for 
there  is  far  less  weight  bearing  on  the  hand  of  the  rider,  and  annoying  and  tiring  him. — 
It  likewise  happens  unfortunately  that  nature,  as  it  were  to  supply  the  deficiency  of 
action  and  of  power  in  an  upright  shoulder,  has  accumidated  on  it  more  muscle,  and 
therefore  the  upright  shoulder  is  proverbially  thick  and  cloddy  ;  and  the  muscles  of  the 
breast  which  were  designed  to  strengthen  the  attachment  of  the  shoulders  to  the  chest, 
and  to  bind  them  together,  must,  when  the  point  of  the  shoulder  lies  backward,  and 
under  the  horse,  be  proportionably  thickened  and  strengthened,  and  the  horse  is  thus 
still  more  heavy  before,  more  unpleasant,  and  more  unsate  to  ride. 

Then,  ought  every  horse  to  have  an  oblique  shoulder  ?  No  !  We  have  been  speak- 
ing of  those  which  are  designed  to  ride  pleasantly,  or  from  which  extensive  and  rapid 
action  is  required.  In  them  we  have  said  that  an  oblique  shoulder  is  indispensable  ;  but 
there  are  others  which  are  never  ridden  ;  whose  pace  is  slow,  and  who  have  nothing  to 
do  but  to  throw  as  much  weight  as  possible  into  the  collar.  To  them  an  upright  shoul- 
der is  an  advantage,  because  its  additional  thickness  gives  them  additional  weight  to 
throw  into  the  collar,  which  the  power  of  their  hinder  quarter  is  fully  sufi^cient  to 
accomplish ;  and  because  the  upright  position  of  the  shoulder  gives  that  direction  to  the 
collar  which  enables  the  horse  to  act  upon  every  part  of  it ;  and  that  inclination  of  the 
traces  which  will  enable  his  weight  or  power  to  be  most  advantageously  employed.  Of 
this,  however,  we  shall  better  speak  when  we  come  to  describe  the  implements  of 
agriculture,  and  particularly  the  consti'uction  of  wheel  carriages. 

An  improved  breed  of  our  heavy  draught  horses  has  of  late  years  been  attempted, 
and  with  much  success.  Sufficient  uprightness  of  shoulder  is  retained  for  the  purposes 
of  draught,  while  a  slight  degree  of  obliquity  has  materially  quickened  the  pace  and 
improved  the  appearance. 

Above  its  junction  with  the  humerus,  or  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  the  shoulder- 
blade  forms  what  is  called  the  point  of  the  shoulder.  There  is  a  round  blunted  pro- 
jection, best  seen  in  the  cut,  (p.  180.)  The  neck  of  the  shoulder  blade  then  forms  a 
shallow  cavity,  into  which  the  head  of  the  next  bone  is  received 

The  cavity  is  shallow  because  extensive  motion  is  required,  and  because  both  of  the 
bones  being  so  moveable,  and  the  motion  of  the  one  connected  so  much  with  that  of  the 
other,  dislocation  was  not  so  Ukely  to  happen  as  if  one  of  them  had  been  fixed.  A 
capsular  hgament,  or  one  extending  round  the  heads  of  both  bones,  confines  them 
securely  together. 

This  joint  is  rarely  or  never  dislocated  ;  or  should  it  suffer  dislocation,  the  muscles  of 
the  shoulder-blade,  and  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder  are  so  strong,  that  the  reduction 
of  it  would  be  impossible.  The  point  of  the  slioulder,  however,  projecting  considera- 
bly, is  much  exposed  to  injury  from  accident  or  violence  ;  even  turning  in  a  narrow  stall 
has  inflicted  a  serious  bruise.    Fomentations  of  warm  water  will  usually  remove  the 


182 


THE  HORSE. 


tenderness  and  lameness,  but  should  they  fail,  blood  may  be  taken  from  the  plate  vein, 
and,  in  very  obstinate  cases,  a  blister  may  be  resorted  to. 

A  description  of  the  principle  muscles  of  the  shoulder.blade,  their  situation,  attach- 
ments, and  use,  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  the  lover  of  the  horse,  £ind  may  guide  his 
judgment  as  to  the  capability  and  proper  form  of  that  noble  animal. 

CUT    OF   MUSCLES  ON   THE    OUTSI&E    OF   THE    SHOULDER. 

a  and  b  represent  a  portion  of  the  muscle  (the  trapezius,  quadrangular  muscle,)  which 
rises  from  the  longer  bones  of  the  withers,  broadly  and  sb-ongly,  and  from  the  ligament 
of  the  neck  (a  portion  of  which  is  seen  at  b,)  and  narrowing  below,  and  terminating 
almost  in  a  point,  is  inserted  into  a  prominent  part  of  the  spine  or  ridge  of  the  shoulder- 
blade.  It  occupies  the  space  between  the  withers  and  the  upper  part  of  the  shoulder- 
blade,  and  is  large  cUid  strong  in  proportion  to  the  height  of  the  withers,  and  the  slanting 
of  the  shoulder.  Its  use  is  evidently  to  support  the  shoulder,  to  raise  it,  and  likewise  to 
draw  it  backward ;  therefore,  constituting  one  of  the  most  important  muscles  connected 
with  the  action  of  the  horse,  and  illustrating  the  advantage  ot  high  withers  and  a  slant- 
ing shoulder.  A  portion  of  it  is  represented  as  tiirned  back,  to  show  other  muscles  be- 
neath. A  moment's  inspection  will 
convince  the  reader,  that  although 
we  may  have  been  justified  in  ob- 
jecting to  a  low  forehead  and  thick 
shoulder,  yet  still  some  fulness  and 
fleshiness  are  necessary,  even  about 
the  withers;  otherwise,  although 
there  may  be  height  of  withers,  and 
obliquity  of  shoulder,  to  give  exten- 
sive action,  there  will  not  be  suffi- 
cient muscular  power  to  work  the 
machine  with  either  quickness  or 
continuance. 

At  c  is  a  portion  of  tlie  levator  hu- 
meri (the  raiser  of  the  shoulder)  de- 
scending even  from  the  tubercles  at 
the  back  of  the  head,  (see  cut,  page 
49,)  and  from  the  base  of  the  tem- 
poral bone,  and  attaching  itself  to 
the  lour  first  bones  of  the  neck,  and 
to  the  ligament  of  the  neck ;  insert- 
ing itself  into  the  covering  of  the 
muscles  of  the  shoulder,  and  the 
muscles  about  the  point  of  the 
shoulder,  and  at  length  terminating 
in  a  ridge  on  the  lower  bone  of  tlie 
shoulder.  It  is  a  muscle  of  im- 
mense power  and  great  utility,  rais- 
ing and  drawing  foi-ward  the  should- 
er and  the  arm,  and,  when  these  are 
fixed,  turning  the  head  and  neck  if 
one  acts,  and  depressing  them  if  the 
muscles  on  both  sides  act  at ,  the 
same  time. 

At  (^  is  a  portion  of  the  great  saw- 
like or  tooth-shaped  muscle  of  the 
shoulder,  constituting  the  bulk  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  neck ;  deeply 
seated ;  arising,  as  here  seen,  from 
the  five  last  bones  of  the  neck,  and 
the  two  first  ribs,  and  the  lower  por- 
tion of  it  springing  from  all  the  true  ribs ;  all  the  fibres  tending  towards,  and  inserted  into 
the  inner  surface  of  the  shoulder ;  and  by  means  of  which  the  shoulder  is  attached  to 
the  chest,and  the  immense  weight  of  the  body  supported.  We  have  ah-eady  spoken 
of  the  use  of  this  muscle  in  obviating  concussion. 

When  the  horse  is  standing,  this  muscle  occasionally  discharges  another  important 
function.  The  shoulders  and  legs  are  then  rendered  fixed,  and  immoveable  by  the  weight 
of  the  body ;  and  this  muscle  no  longer  being  able  to  move  the  limbs,  exerts  its  power 


SLANTING  DIRECTION  OF  THE  SHOULDER. 


183 


in  enlarging  tlie  cavity  of  the  chest,  and  thus  materially  assists  in  the  act  of  breathing. 
Therefore,  as  we  have  stated  when  treating  of  that  disease,  a  horse  laboring  under 
inflammation  of  the  lungs  will  obstinately  stand  night  and  day,  that  he  may  obtain  the 
assistance  of  this  muscle  in  respiration,  wliich  is  become  laborious  and  painful ;  and  we 
regard  his  lying  down  as  one  of  the  most  favorable  symptoms  that  can  occur,  because 
it  shows  us  that  the  breatliing  is  so  much  relieved  that  he  needs  not  tlie  assistance  of  this 
muscle. 

At  e  is  a  small  portion  of  the  splenius  muscle,  of  which  we  have  spoken  when  de- 
scribing the  neck,  p.  121. 

f  represents  a  muscle  sometimes  descriped  as  a  portion  of  the  raiser  of  the  shoulder, 
arising  from  the  nipple-shaped  process  of  the  temporal  bone,  running  down  the  some- 
what lateral  but  fore-part  of  the  neck,  inserted  into  the  upper  and  middle  pai-t  of  the 
lower  bone  of  the  shoulder;  and  thence  continued  down  to  tlie  arm.  Its  othce  is  to 
bend  the  head  ;  or,  the  head  and  neck  being  fixed,  to  elevate  and  bring  forward  the  arm. 
It  is  in  powerful  action  when  the  horse  is  running  at  his  speed  with  the  head  projected. 
At  g  is  a  portion  of  the  sterm-maxillaris,  or  muscle  common  to  tlie  fore-part  of  the 
chest  and  the  lower  jaw,  and  described  at  p.  124. 

h  gives  the  principal  muscle  extending  from  the  shoulder  to  the  lower  bone  of  the 
shoulder,  and  employed  in  drawing  this  bone  towards  the  shoulder-blade,  and  bending 
the  whole  of  the  limb.  Exceedingly  powerful  action  is  required  from  this  muscle, 
therefore  it  is  very  tendinous,  and  inserted  in  such  a  direction  as  to  act  with  great  me-' 
chanical  advantage,  and  that  advantage  increased  in  proportion  to  ttie  slanting  of  the 
shoulder. 

The  muscle  at  i,  antea  spinatus  (before  the  spine)  is  situated,  as  its  name  would  inti- 
mate, on  tlie  external  part  of  the  shoulder  before  the  spine  or  ridge,  and  fills  the  whole 
of  that  space.  It  proceeds  towards  the  bone  of  the  arm,  and,  dividing  into  two  parts, 
is  inserted  into  tlie  two  prominences  in  front  of  that  bone.  It  is  a  verj'  stron"-  muscle^ 
and  extends  the  arm  and  carries  it  forward. 

The  muscle  di.t  j,  postea  spinatus,  (behind  the  spine  or  ridge,)  occupies  that  space. 
It  likewise  goes  to  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  and  is  inserted  into  the  outer  and 
upper  head  of  the  bone.     It  draws  this  bone  outward  and  upward. 

At  /c  is  a  muscle  common  to  the  breast  and  the  shoulder-blade,  and  called  the  little  pec- 
toral, or  breast  muscle.  It  arises  from  the  breast-bone,  and  reaches  to  the  covering  of 
the  shoulder-joint,  and  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder.  Its  action,  in  common  witli  that  of 
a  larger  muscle,  seen  at  m,  (the  great  pectoral,)  is  to  draw  back  the  head  of  the  lower 
bone  of  the  shoulder  and  the  lower  part  of  the  shoulder-blade,  and  to  make  the  latter 
bone  more  upright. 

At  gis  the  tendon  of  a  very  important  muscle,  the 
long  extensor  of  the  arm,  extending  from  the  upper  an- 
gle, and  the  posterior  border  of  the  shoulder-blade,  to  the 
point  of  the  elbow  and  the  inside  of  the  arm,  and 
which  will  be  presently  described ;  and  at  r  and  s 
are  the  three  divisions  of  another  muscle  concerned 
in  the  same  office,  arising  from  the  shoulder-blade  and  tlie 
lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  and  hkewise  attached  to  the 
point  of  the  elbow  by  a  very  strong  tendon. 

This  cut  represents  the  muscles  on  tlie  inside  of  the 
shoulder  and  fore-arm.  a  is  a  very  prominent  one  It 
is  called  the  pectoralis  transversus  (the  muscle  crossing 
the  breast.)  It  arises  from  the  first  four  bones  of  the 
chest,  and  runs  across  to  the  inner  part  of  the  arm,  and 
is  inserted  into  the  tendinous  substance  covering  the 
muscles  of  the  fore  arm,  and  reaching  a  considerable 
way  down  the  arm.  The  use  of  this  muscle  is  obvious 
and  important.  It  binds  the  arm  to  the  side  of  the 
horse  ;  it  keeps  tlie  legs  straight  before  the  horse  when  he 
is  at  speed,  that  the  weight  of  the  body  maybe  received 
on  tliem  in  a  direction  most  easy  and  safe  to  the  horse 
and  to  the  rider,  and  most  advantageous  for  the  full  play 
of  all  the  muscles  concerned  in  progression.  Consider- 
ing the  unevenness  of  surface  over  which  a  horse  often 
passes,  and  the  rapid  turnings  which  are  sometimes  ne- 
cessary, these  muscles  have  enough  to  do  :  and  when 
the  animal  is  pushed  beyond  his  strength,  and  these  mus- 
cles are  wearied,  and  the  forelegs  spread  out,  and  the 
horse  is  "all  abroad,"  the  confused  and  unpleasant  man- 
ner of  going,  and  the  sudden  falling  off  in  speed,  are 
well  known  to  every  rider. 


184  THE  HORSE. 

THE  LOWER  BONE  OF  THE  SHOULDER. 

Forming  a  joint  with  the  shoulder-blade  at  the  point  of  the  shoulder  is  the  hmnents, 
or  lower  bone  of  tlie  shoulder.  (J.  p.  49,  and  p.  180.)  It  is  a  short  strong  bone,  slant- 
ing backward  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  shoulder-blade.  At  the  upper  pjirt  it  has 
a  large  round  head,  received  into  the  shallow  cavity  of  the  shoidder-blade.  It  has  seve- 
ral proturberances  for  the  insertion  of  muscles,  and  is  terminated  below  by  two  condyles 
or  Reads,  which  in  front  receive  the  principle  bone  of  the  arm  between  them  as  in  a 
groove,  thus  adding  to  the  security  and  strength  of  the  joint,  and  limiting  the  action  of 
this  joint,  and  of  the  limb  below,  to  mere  bending  and  extension,  without  any  side 
motion.  Fai-ther  behind,  these  heads  receive  the  elbow  deep  between  them,  to  give 
more  extensive  action  to  the  arm.  In  a  well-formed  horse  this  bone  can  scarcely  be 
too  short,  in  order  that  the  fore-legs  may  be  as  forward  as  possible,  for  reasons  at  which 
we  have  already  glanced ;  and  because,  when  tlie  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder  is  long, 
the  shoulder  must  be  too  upright.  Dislocation  can  scai'cely  occur  in  either  of  the  at- 
tachments of  the  bone,  and  fracture  of  it  is  almost  impossible.  The  lower  bone  of  the 
shoulder,  and  tlie  shoulder-blade,  are  by  horsemen  confounded  together,  and  included 
under  the  appellation  of  the  shoulder,  and  in  compliance  with  general  usage  we  have 
described  them  as  combining  to  form  the  shoulder. 

Among  the  muscles  arising  from  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  are  too  short  and 
very  strong  ones,  seen  at  the  lower  r  and  s,  the  first  proceeding  from  the  upper  part  of 
this  bone  to  the  elbow,  and  the  second  from  the  internal  part  and  likewise  going  to  the 
elbow,  and  both  of  them  being  powerful  agents  in  extending  the  leg. 

In  front,  at  y,  is  one  of  the  muscles  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  the  external  one, 
employed  in  bending  the  arm ;  aiising  from  the  inner  and  back  part  of  the  neck  and 
body  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  turning  obliquely  round  that  bone,  and  inserted 
into  the  inner  and  upper  part  of  the  bone  of  the  arm.  •  ^ 

THE  ARM. 

The  arm  extending  from  the  elbow  to  the  knee  (see  K  and  L,  p.  49,  and  also  cut,  p. 
180,)  consists,  in  the  young  horse,  of  two  distinct  bones.  The  long  and  front  bone, 
C£illed  the  radius,  is  nearly  straight,  receiving  into  its  upper  end  the  lower  heads  of  the 
lower  bone  of  the  shoulder ;  and  the  lower  end  con-esponding  with  the  upper  layer  of 
the  bones  of  the  knee.  The  short  and  hinder  bone  is  called  the  ulna.  It  has  a  very 
long  and  powerful  projection,  received  between  the  heads  of  the  lower  bone  of  the 
shoulder,  and  called  the  elbow;  it  then  stretches  down,  narrowing  by  degrees  (see  L, 
p.  49,  and  the  cut,  p.  180,)  to  below  the  middle  of  the  front  bone,  where  it  terminates 
in  a  point.  The  two  bones  are  united  together  by  cartilage  and  ligament,  but  these  are 
by  degrees  absorbed  and  changed  to  bone,  and  before  the  horse  becomes  old  the  whole 
of  the  arm  consists  of  one  bone  only. 

It  will  be  perceived  that,  from  the  slanting  direction  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder, 
the  weight  of  the  horse,  and  the  violence  of  the  concussion,  vvill  be  shared  between  the 
radius  and  the  ulna,  and  therefore  lei?s  liable  to  injure  either;  and  the  circumstance  of 
so  much  weight  and  jar  being  communicated  to  them,  will  account  for  the  extensive 
and  peculiarly  sfrong  union  between  these  bones  in  the  young  horse,  and  the  speedy  in- 
flammation of  the  uniting  substance  and  absorption  of  it,  and  substitution  of  bone,  and 
complete  bony  union  between  the  radius  and  ulna,  in  the  old  horse.  The  immense 
muscles  which  are  attached  to  the  point  of  the  elbow  likewise  render  it  necessary  that 
the  union  between  these  bones  should  be  verj^  strong. 

The  arm  is  a  most  important  part  of  the  horse,  as  will  be  seen  when  we  describe  the 
muscles  which  belong  to  it.  We  have  spoken  of  those  at  q,  r,  and  s,  proceeding  from 
the  shoulder-blade  and  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  and  inserted  into  the  elbow. 
They  are  the  grand  agents  in  extending  the  arm ;  and  in  proportion  to  the  power  which 
tliey  exert,  wUl  be  the  quickness  and  the  length  of  the  stride.  The  strengtli  of  the 
horse,  so  far  as  his  fore-limbs  are  concerned,  principally  resides  here.  Then  we  look 
for  a  large  and  muscular  arm,  and  we  look  likewise  for  such  a  foimation  of  the  limb, 
and  particularly  of  the  elbow,  as  will  enable  these  muscles  to  act  with  most  advantage. 
The  principle  of  the  lever,  to  which  we  have  referred  (p.  180,)  is  here  beautifully 
applicable.  The  elbow-joint  is  the  centre  of  motion ;  tlie  whole  of  tlie  lower  part  of  tlie 
leg  is  the  weight  to  be  raised ;  and  the  power  by  which  it  is  to  be  raised  in  one  act  of 
progiession,  the  extending  of  the  limb,  is  the  muscles  inserted  into  the  elbow.  In  pro- 
portion as  the  weight  is  more  distant  than  the  power  from  the  centre  of  motion,  as  it  is 
in  the  construction  of  this  limb,  so  will  be  the  greater  degree  of  energy  requisite  to  be 
exerted.  We  will  suppose  Uiat  tiie  weight,  taking  the  knee  to  be  the  centre  of  it,  is 
eighteen  inches  from  the  elbow-joint,  that  the  limb  weighs  60  lbs.,  and  that  the  elbow 
projects  two  inches  from  the  joint ;  then  an  energy  equal  to  nine  times  the  weight,  oir 


THE  ARM.  185 

540  lbs.,  will  be  needed  to  move  and  extend  the  limb,  because  the  weight  is  nine  times 
fartlier  from  the  centre  of  motion  than  the  power  is.  We  will  suppose  that  in  another 
horse  tlie  point  of  the  elbow  projects  three  inches  liom  the  joint,  the  weight  of  the  leg 
remaining-  the  same.  Three  are  one-sixth  of  eighteen;  and  only  six  times  the  force,  or 
3G0  lbs.,  will  be  required,  making  a  did'erence  in,  or  saving  of  muscular  action,  equal  to 
180  lbs.  in  each  extension  of  the  arm.  If  a  few  pounds  in  the  weight  of  the  rider  tell  so 
much  tor  or  against  tire  horse  in  a  long  race,  this  saving  of  power  must  make  an  almost 
incalculable  ditierence  ;  and,  therefore,  judges  of  the  horse  rightly  attaciiso  much  impor- 
tance to  the  depth  of  the  elbow,  or  the  projection  of  the  point  of  the  elbow  from  the  joint. 
When  describing  the  proper  obliquity  of  tb.e  slioulder,  we  proved  that  the  power  was 
exerted  with  most  advantage  in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  arm  of  the  lever,  and  that  the 
slightest  deviation  from  that  line  was  manifestly  disadvantageous.  If  the  reader  will 
examine  the  cut  he  will  perceive  that  muscles  from  the  shoulder  and  the  bone  of  the 
arm  take  a  direction  much  nearer  to  a  perpendicular  line  in  the  long  than  in  the  short 
elbow,  and  therefore  act  with  proportionably  greater  advantage ;  and  if  we  add  this  ad- 
vantage from  the  direction  in  which  the  power  is  applied  to  that  which  we  gain  from  the 
increased  length  of  the  bone,  we  shall  be  justified  in  affirming  that  the  addition  of  one- 
third  to  the  length  or  projection  of  the  elbow  would  be  attended  by  a  saving  of  one-half 
in  the  expenditure  of  muscular  power.  There  is,  however,  a  limit  to  this.  In  propor- 
tion as  the  elbow  is  lengthened,  it  must  move  over  a  greater  space  in  order  to  give  the 
requisite  extension  to  the  limb ;  and  consequently  the  muscles  which  act  upon  it  must  be 
lengthened,  otherwise  we  might  have  easy  but  confined  action.  There  must  be  harmony 
of  proportion  in  the  different  parts  of  the  limb,  but  a  deep  elbow,  within  a  certain  range, 
is  always  connected  with  increased  power  of  action. 

The  elbow  is  sometimes  fractured.  If  the  animal  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  skilful 
veterinarian,  although  the  chances  of  cure  are  certainly  against  the  horse,  yet  the  owner 
need  not  despair.  Absolute  and  long  continued  rest,  and  that  produced  by  means  of  a 
sling,  will  be  indispensable. 

Enlargements  sometimes  appear  about  the  elbow,  either  the  consequence  of  a  violent 
blow,  or  from  the  calkins  of  the  shoes  injuring  this  part  w'hen  the  horse  sleeps  with  his 
legs  doubled  under  him.  If  a  seton  be  passed  through  the  tumour,  it  will  sometimes 
rapidly  diminish,  and  even  disappear ;  but  if  it  be  of  considerable  magnitude,  the  skin 
should  be  slit  open  along  the  middle  of  tlie  swelling,  and  the  tumour  dissected  out. 

The  elbow-joint  is  sometimes  punctured,  either  accidentally,  or  through  the  brutality 
of  the  groom  or  carter.  The  swelling  is  often  rapid  and  extensive,  and  fatal  inflamma- 
tion may  ensue.  Rest,  and  the  closure  of  the  wound,  are  the  most  important  considera- 
tions. 

There  are  other  muscles  of  the  fore-arm  employed  in  extending  the  limb.  At  x,  page 
182,  is  the  principal  one,  called  the  extensor  of  the  leg ;  it  is  of  considerable  bulk,  and 
occupies  the  front  part  of  the  arm.  Itai-ises  from  the  lower  part  of  the  body  of  the  lower 
bone  of  the  shoulder,  and  from  its  outer  head.  As  it  descends  down  the  ann,  it  becomes 
tendinous ;  the  tendon  passes  under  one  of  the  ligaments  of  the  knee ;  it  then  spreads 
out,  and  is  inserted  into  tlie  fore  and  upper  part  of  the  shank  bone.  It  is  also  seen  at  b, 
page  183. 

The  next  muscle  in  situation  and  importance  is  seen  at  w,  and  called  the  extensor  of  the 
foot.  It  rises  from  the  outer  head  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  and  likewise  from 
the  outer  head  of  the  bone  of  the  arm.  It  becomes  tendinous  as  it  proceeds,  and  passes 
under  a  strong  ring  at  the  knee,  by  which  it  is  confined  in  its  proper  situation  ;  it  then 
runs  along  th<^  front  of  the  shank-bone,  tied  down  by  strong  cellular  substance  ;  passes 
over  the  fetlock,  and  part  of  the  upper  pastern,  is  inserted  into  the  lower  part  of  the 
upper  pastern,  into  the  lower  pastern,  and  the  coffin-bone  or  bone  of  the  foot.  It  there- 
fore extends  all  these  bones ;  and  as  it  passes  over  the  shank,  being  tied  down  to  it  in 
every  part  of  its  course,  it  likewiseserves  to  extend  that  bone. 

At  u,  page  182,  is  the  tendon  of  another  extensor  muscle,  and  at  z  a  curious  oblique 
one,  passing  over  the  tendom  of  x,  confining  it  in  its  situation,  and  likewise  itself  assist- 
ing in  extending  or  straightening  the  leg. 

The  muscles  employed  in  bending  the  leg  are  both  numerous  and  powerful.  Two  of 
the  superficial  ones  are  given  in  the  cut,  page  182.  The  first  is  at  t,  page  182 ;  it  is  also 
seen  at  b,  page  183.  It  is  called  the  middle  flexor,  or  bending  muscle  of-  the  shank-bone, 
because  it  lies  precisely  on  the  middle  of  the  back  part  of  tne  arm.  It  arises  from  the 
inner  head  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  and  is  inserted  into  one  of  the  bones  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  knee.  The  other  is  seen  at  v,  page  182.  It  is  called  the  external  flexor 
of  the  leg,  because  it  lies  on  the  outer  side  of  the  arm,  towards  the  back.  It  arises  from 
the  outer  head  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder ;  advancing  towards  the  knee,  it  is  ten- 
dinous, and  the  tendon  divides  into  two  portions,  one  of  which  is  inserted  into  the  same 
bone  of  the  knee,  and  the  other  into  the  outer  small  bone  of  the  leg.  The  internal  flexor 
is  seen  at  e,  page  183.  It  proceeds  from  the  inner  head  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder, 
24 


186  THE  HORSE. 

and  is  inserted  into  the  head  of  the  inner  splint  bone,  and  its  office  is  to  bend  the  leg,  and 
very  slightly  turn  it.     A  portion  of  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  flexor  muscles,  and 

fowerful  indeed  they  must  be,  is  delineated  at  c,  page  183.  It  is  the  Jiexor  of  the  arm. 
t  rises  from  the  extremity  of  the  ridge  of  the  shoulder-blade  in  the  form  of  a  large  and 
round  tendon,  which  runs  between  two  prominences  in  the  upper  part  of  the  front  of  the 
lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  in  as  perfect  a  groove  or  pulley  as  art  ever  contrived.  This 
groove  is  lined  with  smooth  cartilage ;  and  between  it  and  the  tendon  there  is  an  oily 
fluid,  so  that  the  tendon  plays  freely  in  tlie  pulley  without  friction.  Having  escaped 
from  this  pulley,  and  passed  the  head  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  the  cord  swells 
out  into  a  round  fleshy  body,  still  containing  many  tendinous  fibres.  Deeply  seated,  it 
contributes  materially  to  the  bulk  of  the  front  of  the  arm  ;  and,  having  reached  the  arm, 
it  is  inserted  into  the  head  and  neck  of  the  bone  of  the  arm,  and  likewise  into  the  capsu- 
lai-  ligament  of  the  elbow  joint.  It  is  the  main  muscle  by  which,  almost  alone,  the  whole 
of  tlie  leg  below  the  arm  is  bent. 

It  acts  at  great  disadvantage.  It  is  inserted  into  the  veiy  head  of  the  bone  of  the 
arm,  and  expanded  even  upon  the  joint.  Then  the  power  is  applied  almost  close  to  the 
centre  of  motion,  while  tlie  weight  to  be  raised  is  far  distant  from  it.  The  power  is  thirty 
times  nearer  the  centre  of  motion  than  is  the  weight ;  and,  calculating,  as  before,  the 
weight  of  the  Jirm  and  tlie  rest  of  the  limb  at  60lbs.,  it  must  act  with  a  force  of  thirty 
times  sixty,  or  1800  lbs.  In  addition  to  this,  the  line  of  the  direction  of  the  force  strangely 
deviates  from  a  perpendicular :  the  direction  of  the  muscle  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of 
the  limb,  and  the  mechanical  disadvantage  is  almost  incalculably  great.  We  will  take  it 
at  only  ten  times  more  ;  then  this  muscle,  and  its  feeble  coadjutors,  act  with  a  force  of 
ten  times  1800  or  18,000  lbs. 

Why  this  almost  incredible  expenditure  of  muscular  power  ? — First,  that  the  beauty 
of  the  limb  might  be  preserved,  and  the  joint  might  be  compact.  If  the  tendon  had 
oeen  inserted  halfway  down  the  arm,  the  elbow-joint  would  have  offered  a  very  unsight- 
ly appearance. 

Beauty  of  form,  however,  is  the  least  result  of  this  conformation ;  without  it  the  ani- 
mal wodld  not  have  been  fitted  for  the  purposes  to  which  we  devote  him.  It  is  a  law  of 
mechanics,  that  what  is  lost  in  power  is  gained  in  velocity  The  product  of  the  power, 
and  the  space  passed  over  by  the  arm  of  the  lever  to  which  it  is  attached,  must  always  be 
equal  to  the  product  of  the  weight,  and  of  the  space  passed  over  by  the  arm  that  supports 
it ;  and  if  a  power,  equal  to  thirty  times  the  weight,  is  obliged  to  be  exerted  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  bone  of  the  arm,  the  centre  of  that  bone,  which  may  be  considered  as  the  cen- 
tre of  the  weight,  will  pass  over  thirty  times  the  space,  ai:id  the  extremity  of  the  limb  will 
pass  over  sixty  times  the  space.  The  muscle  will  contract  with  a  great  deal  of  rapidity, 
but  the  foot  will  move  with  sixty  times  that  rapidity,  in  order  to  pass  over  sixty  times  the 
space  in  the  same  time.  This  is  precisely  what  we  want.  Extensive  and  rapid  motion 
are  the  excellences  of  the  horse.  He  is  valuable  in  proportion  as  he  hastliem,  combined 
with  stoutness  ;  and  by  this  confonnation  of  the  limb  alone  could  he  obtain  them.  There- 
fore the  tendon  is  at  first  unusually  strong;  it  plays  through  the  natural  but  perfect  pul- 
ley of  the  bone  of  the  arm  without  friction  ;  the  body  of  the  muscle  is  mixed  with  ten- 
dinous fibres,  and  the  insertion  into  the  fore-arm  is  very  extensive,  lest  the  application 
of  such  immense  force  should  tear  it  from  its  adhesions.  There  is  suflicient  strength  in 
the  apparatus ;  the  power  may  be  safely  applied  at  tliis  mechanical  disadvantage ;  and  it 
is  applied  close  to  the  joint  to  give  an  extent  and  rapidity  of  motion  which  could  not 
otherwise  have  been  obtained,  and  without  which  the  horse  would  have  been  compara- 
tively useless. 

At  the  back  of  the  arm  are  other  flexor  muscles  of  great  power,  to  bend  the  lower 
portions  of  the  limb.  We  have  described  two  of  them  belonging  to  the  arm  and  the  leg, 
and  we  must  not  pass  over  tlie  very  peculiar  ones  acting  on  the  leet.  Only  a  small  por- 
tion of  one  of  them  can  be  seen  in  our  cut,  page  182,  at  1. 

The  first  is  the  perforated  flexor  muscle  ;  the  reason  of  the  name  will  presently  ap- 
peal". It  arises  from  &e  lower  and  back  part  of  the  inner  head  of  the  lower  bone  of  the 
shoulder,  and  intermixed  with,  or  rather  between  the  origins  of  the  muscle  next  to  be 
described,  and  called  the  perforating  muscle.  As  it  descends  along  the  bone  of  the  arm, 
it  becomes  tendinous  :  and,  approaching  the  knee,  it  is  bound  down  by  eurches  or  bands 
of  ligament,  that  it  may  not  start  in  sudden  and  violent  action.  Proceeding  from  the 
knee,  it  widens,  and  partly  wraps  round  the  tendon  of  the  peforating  muscle,  and  they 
run  down  together  in  contact,  yet  not  adhering ;  freely  playing  over  each  other,  and  mu- 
cous fluid  obviating  all  friction.  Both  of  them  are  inclosed  in  a  sheath  of  dense  cellular 
substance,  attached  to  them  by  numerous  fibrils  ;  and  they  are  likewise  supported  by  va- 
rious ligamentous  expansions.  Near  the  fetlock  the  tendon  still  farther  expands,  and 
forms  a  complete  ring  round  the  tendon  of  the  perforating  muscle.  This  is  seen  at  J, 
p.  88.  The  use  of  this  will  be  best  explained  when  we  are  treating  of  the  fetlock. 
The  peiforated  tendon  soon  afterwards  divides,  and  is  inserted  into  tne  smaller  and 
larger  pastern  bones,  and  flexes  or  bends  them. 


THE  KNEE.  187 

The  next  is  the  perforating  flexor  muscle.  It  has  nearly  the  same  origin  as  the  otlier, 
but  with  somewhat  distinct  heads.     It  continues  muscular  farther  down  the  arm  than  tlie 

f)erlbrated,  and  lies  before  it.  At  the  knee  it  passes,  like  the  perforated,  under  strong 
igamentary  arches,  which  confine  it  in  its  situation.  It  then  becomes  round,  and  is 
partly  wrapped  up  in  the  perforated ;  and  at  the  fetlock  is  entirely  surrounded  by  it.  It 
emerges  from  the  perforated  when  that  tendon  divides,  and  continues  its  progress  alone 
after  the  other  has  inserted  itself  into  the  pasterns,  and,  passing  over  the  navicular  bone, 
terminates  on  the  base  of  the  coffin-bone,  or  bone  of  the  foot. 

It  is  sufficiently  plain  that  the  arm  should  be  large  and  muscular,  otherwise  it  cannot 
discharge  all  these  duties.  Horsemen  ditfer  on  a  variety  of  other  points,  but  here  they 
are  agreed.  A  full  and  swelling  fore-arm  is  the  characteristic  of  every  thorough-bred 
horse,  and  for  speed  and  continuance  he  is  unequalled.  Whatever  other  good  points  a 
horse  may  possess,  if  the  arm  be  narrow  in  front  and  near  the  shoulder,  flat  on  the  side, 
and  altogether  poor  in  appearance,  that  horse  is  radically  defective :  he  can  neither  raise 
his  knee  for  rapid  action,  nor  throws  his  legs  sufficiently  forward. 

The  arm  should  likewise  be  long.  In  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  muscle  is  the 
degree  of  contraction  of  which  it  is  capable ;  and  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  con- 
traction in  the  muscle  will  be  the  extent  of  motion  in  the  part  of  the  limb  beneath.  A 
racer,  with  a  short  arm,  would  be  sadly  deficient  in  stride  :  a  hunter,  with  the  same  de- 
fect, would  not  be  able  to  double  his  legs  well  under  him  in  the  leap.  There  is,  however, 
a  medium  in  this,  and  the  advantage  of  length  in  the  arm  will  depend  on  the  use  to 
which  the  horse  is  applied.  The  lady's  horse,  the  cavalry  horse,  every  horse  in  which 
prancing  action  is  esteemed  a  beauty,  and  in  which  utility  is,  to  a  certain  degree,  sacri- 
ficed to  appearance,  must  not  be  too  long  in  the  arm.  If  he  be  long  there,  he  will  be 
proportionably  short  in  the  leg ;  and  although  this  is  an  undoubted  excellence,  whether 
speed  or  continuance  be  regarded,  the  short  leg  will  not  give  the  grand  and  imposing 
action  which  fashion  may  require  ;  and,  in  addition  to  this,  a  horse  with  short  legs  may 
not  have  quite  so  easy  action  as  another  whose  length  is  in  the  shank  rather  than  in  the  arm. 

THE   KNEE. 

The  knee  (M,  p.  49,  and  cut,  p.  180)  constitutes  the  joint  or  joints  between  the  arm 
and  the  shank  or  leg ;  and  it  is  far  more  complicated  than  any  joint  we  have  yet  discov- 
ered. Beside  the  lower  head  of  the  bone  of  the  arm,  and  the  upper  heads  of  the  three 
bones  of  the  leg,  there  are  no  less  than  six  other  bones  interposed,  arranged  in  two  rows, 
three  in  each  row,  and  the  seventh  placed  behind  the  other,  to  which  an  eighth  is  some- 
times added. 

What  was  the  intention  of  this  complicated  structure  ?  A  joint  between  the  elbow  and 
the  fetlock  was  absolutely  necessary  to  the  action  of  the  horse.  An  inflexible  pillar  of 
that  length  could  scarcely  have  been  lifted  from  the  ground,  and  certainly  could  not  have 
been  lifted  far  enough  for  rapid  or  safe  motion.  It  was  likewise  necessary,  that  the 
interposing  joint  should  be  so  constituted  as  to  preserve  this  part  of  the  limb  in  a  straight 
direction,  and  should  possess  sufficient  strength  to  resist  all  common  work  and  accidents. 
Being  in  a  straight  direction,  the  shock  or  jar  between  the  ends  of  the  bones  of  the  arm 
and  the  leg  would  be  dreadful,  and  would  speedily  inflict  irreparable  injury.  The  heads 
of  all  bones  are  covered  with  elastic  cartilage,  to  protect  them  from  injury  by  concussion, 
but  this  would  be  altogether  insufficient  here.  Six  distinct  bones,  then,  are  placed  here, 
each  covered  above  and  below  by  a  thick  coating  of  cartilage,  connected  together  by 
strong  ligaments,  but  separated  by  fluids  and  membranes  interposed.  The  concussion  is 
thus  spread  ovor  the  whole  of  them — shared  by  the  whole  of  them ;  and,  by  the  peculi- 
arity of  their  connexion,  deadened  and  rendered  harmless. 

These  six  distinct  bones,  united  to  each  other  by  numerous  and  powerful  ligaments, 
will  also  afford  a  far  stronger  joint  than  the  apposition  of  any  two  bones,  however  perfect 
and  strong  might  be  the  capsular  ligament,  or  by  whatever  other  ligaments  it  could  be 
strengthened.  In  addition  to  the  connexion  between  the  individual  bones,  there  is  a 
perfect  capsular  ligament  here,  extending  from  the  bone  of  the  arm  to  those  of  the  leg  ; 
and  the  result  of  the  whole  is,  that,  although  the  centre  of  such  a  column  must  be  the 
weakest  part,  and  most  liable  to  bow  out  and  give  way,  the  hardest  work  and  the  severest 
accidents  produce  little  deformity,  and  no  dislocation  in  the  knee ;  nor  do  the  shocks  and 
jars  of  many  a  year  cause  inflammation  or  disease.  It  is  an  undeniable  fact,  tliatsuch  is 
the  perfect  construction  of  this  joint,  and  to  so  great  a  degree  does  it  lessen  concussion, 
that  the  injuries  resulting  from  hard  work  are,  almost  without  an  exception,  found  below 
the  knee. 

The  seventh  bone,  the  trapezium,  so  called  from  its  quadrangular  figure,  is  placed  (see 
M,  p.  49)  behind  the  others,  and  does  not  bear  the  slightest  portion  of  the  weight.  It, 
however,  is  very  useful.  Two  of  the  flexor  muscles,  already  described,  proceeding  from 
the  bone  of  the  arm,  are  inserted  into  it;  and  thus,  being  thrown  off  the  limb,  have  a 
less  oblique  direction  given  to  them  ;  and,  therefore,  according  to  the  principle  of  the 
lever,  act  with  considerably  more  power     It  is  also  useful  in  another  way.    As   the 


188  THE  HORSE. 

tendons  of  the  various  muscles  descend  the  Uinbs,  they  are  tied  down,  zs  we  have 
described  by  strong  ligamentous  bands  ,•  this  is  particularly  the  case  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  joints.  The  use  of  tliis  is  evident.  The  extensor  tendons,  which  he  principally 
on  the  front  of  the  leg,  are  prevented  from  starting,  and  strengthened  and  assisted  in 
their  action ;  but  the  Hexor  tendons  which  he  at  the  back  would  be  liable  to  friction, 
and  their  motion  would  be  impeded,  if  they  were  bound  down  too  tightly.  This 
projecting  bone  prevents  the  aniudar  or  ring-like  ligament  from  passing  too  closely  on 
the  main  dexor  tendons  of  the  foot ;  and  while  it  leaves  them  room  to  play,  leaves  room 
likewise  for  a  little  bag,  filled  with  mucous  to  surround  tliem,  which  mucous,  oozing 
slowly  out,  supplies  the  whole  course  of  the  tendons  down  the  legs  with  a  tluid  tliat 
takes  away  the  possibility  of  injurious  friction. 

The  knee  should  be  broad.  It  should  present  a  very  striking  width,  compared  with 
the  arm  above,  or  the  shank  below.  The  broader  the  knee  is,  the  more  space  there  is 
for  the  attachment  of  the  muscles,  and  for  the  accumulation  of  ligamentous  expansions 
and  bands.  In  proportion  to  the  breadth  of  the  knee  there  will  be  more  strength  ;  and 
likewise  the  direction  of  some  muscles  will  be  less  oblique,  and  tliose  of  others  will  be 
more  removed  from  the  centre  of  motion ;  and,  in  either  case,  much  power  will  be 
gained. 

BROKEN   KNEES. 

The  treatment  of  broken  knees  is  a  subject  of  considerable  importance,  for  many 
horses  are  sadly  blemished,  and  others  are  destroyed,  by  wounds  in  the  knee-joint.  The 
horse,  when  talUng,  naturally  throws  his  knees  forward  ;  they  receive  all  his  weight, 
and  are  sometimes  very  extensively  lacerated.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is,  by  very 
careful  washing  with  warm  water,  to  cleanse  the  wound  from  all  gravel  and  dht.  It 
must  then  be  ascertained  whether  the  joint  is  penetrated.  The  grating  of  the  probe  on 
one  of  the  bones  of  the  knee,  or  the  depth  to  which  the  probe  enters  the  wound,  will 
often  too  plainly  indicate  that  the  joint  has  been  opened.  Should  any  doubt  exist,  let  a 
linseed-meal  poidtice  be  applied.  This  will  at  least  act  as  a  fomentation  to  the  wound, 
and  will  prevent  or  abate  inflammation  ;  and  when,  twelve  hours  afterwards,  it  is  taken 
off,  the  synovia,  or  joint-oil,  in  the  form  of  a  glairy,  yellowish,  transparent  fluid,  will  be 
seen,  if  tiie  capsular  ligament  has  been  penetrated.  Should  doubt  remain  after  the  first 
poultice,  apply  a  second. 

The  opening  of  the  joint  being  ascertained,  the  first  and  immediate  care  is  to  close  the 
orifice ;  for  the  fluid  which  separated  and  lubricated  the  bones  of  the  knee  being  suffered 
to  flow  out,  they  will  be  brought  into  actual  contact  with  each  other ;  they  will  rub  upon 
each  other ;  the  delicate  membrane  with  which  they  are  covered  will  be  highly  inflamed ; 
the  constitution  will  be  speedily  affected,  and  a  degree  of  fever  will  ensue  that  will 
destroy  the  horse  ;  and  in  the  mean  time,  of  all  the  tortures  that  can  be  inflicted  on  the 
poor  animal,  none  can  equal  that  which  accompanies  inflammation  of  the  membranes 
lining  the  joints. 

The  manner  of  closing  the  orifice  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  veterinary 
surgeon,  who  alone  is  capable  of  properly  treating  such  a  case.  It  may  be  effected  by 
a  compress  enclosing  tlie  whole  of  the  wound,  and  not  to  be  removed  for  many  days ; 
or  it  may  be  attempted  by  the  old  and  generally  successful  method  of  applying  the  hot 
iron  over  the  wound,  and  particularly  over  the  spot  where  the  ligament  appears  to  be 
lacerated.  A  poultice  may  then  be  placed  on  the  part,  and  the  case  treated  as  a 
common  wound.  Should  the  joint-oil  continue  to  flow,  the  iron  may  be  applied  a 
second,  or  even  a  third  time.  By  the  application  of  the  iron,  so  much  swelling  is 
produced  on  the  immediate  puncture,  and  in  the  neighboring  parts,  as  mechanically 
to  close  and  plug  up  the  orifice. 

If,  however,  the  opening  into  the  joint  be  extensive,  and  the  joint-oil  continues  to 
flow,  and  the  horse  is  evidently  suffering  much  pain,  humanity  will  dictate  that  he 
should  to  be  destroyed.  The  case  is  hopeless.  A  high  degree  of  fever  will  ere  long 
carry  the  animal  olf,  or  the  inflammation  will  cause  a  deposite  of  matter  in  the  cavity 
of  the  joint,  which  will  produce  incurable  lameness. 

The  pain  caused  by  the  iron  is  doubtless  great ;  it  is,  however,  necessary,  but  let 
no  reader  of  '  The  Horse'  permit  the  torturing  experiments  of  the  farrier  to  be  tried, 
who  will  frequently  inject  stimulating  fluids,  and  even  oil  of  vitriol,  into  one  of  the  most 
sensible  and  irritable  cavities  in  the  whole  frame. 

A  person  well  acquainted  with  the  anatomy  of  the  part  will  judge  of  the  probability 
of  a  favorable  result,  not  merely  by  the  extent,  but  by  the  situation  of  the  wound.  If 
it  is  low  down  and  opposite  to  the  bottom  row,  a  small  opening  into  the  joint  will  be 
easily  closed ;  a  larger  one  need  not  cause  despair,  because  there  is  little  motion 
between  the  lower  row  and  the  bones  of  the  leg.  If  it  be  high  up,  there  is  more  danger 
because  there  is  more  motion,  If  it  be  situated  opposite  to  the  union  of  the  two  rows, 
the  result  is  most  to  be  dreaded,  because  between  these  is  the  principle  motion  of  the 
joint,  and  that  motion  would  not  only  disunite  and  irritate  the  external  wound,  but 


THE  LEG.  189 

cause  dreadful  friction  between  the  bones  brought  into  actual  contact  with  each  other, 
fhrough  the  loss  of  the  joint-oil. 

When  the  skin  has  been  lacerated,  although  the  wound  may  be  healed,  some  blemish 
will  remain.  The  extent  of  this  blemish  will  depend  on  the  extent  and  nature  of  the 
original  wound,  and  more  especially  on  the  nature  of  the  treatment  which  has  been 
adopted.  Every  caustic  application  will  destroy  more  of  the  skin,  and  leave  a  larger 
marlc.  Should  the  blemish  be  considerable,  a  mild  blister  may  be  applied  over  the  part, 
after  the  wound  has  healed.  It  will  stimulate  the  hair  to  grow  more  rapidly  and  thickly 
round  the  scar,  and  particularly  hair  of  the  natural  color ;  and  by  contracting  the  skin 
it  will  lessen  the  scar  itself.  Many  persons  have  great  faith  in  ointments,  which  are 
said  to  promote  the  growth  of  the  hair.  If  they  have  that  property,  it  must  be  from 
stimulating  the  skin,  in  which  the  roots  of  the  hair  are  embedded.  These  ointments 
must  contain  a  small  portion  of  blistering  matter,  in  the  form  of  turpentine,  or  the 
Spanish  tly.  The  common  application  of  gunpowder  and  lard  may,  by  blackening  the 
part,  conceal  the  blemish,  but  can  have  no  possible  etfect  in  quickening  the  growth  of 
the  hair. 

In  examining  a  horse  for  purchase,  the  knees  are  very  strictly  scrutinized.  A  blemish 
on  them  should  not  induce  us  at  once  to  condemn  the  animal ;  for  a  bad  rider,  or  the 
merest  accident,  may  throw  the  safest  horse.  A  broken  knee,  however,  is  a  suspicious 
circumstance,  and  calls  for  the  most  careful  observation  of  the  make  and  action  of  the 
horse.  If  it  be  accompanied  by  a  thick  and  upright  shoulder,  and  legs  far  under  the 
horse,  and  low  slovenly  action,  he  is  unwise  who  does  not  take  the  hint :  this  faulty 
conformation  has  produced  its  natural  consequence.  But  if  the  shoulder  be  oblique, 
and  the  withers  high,  and  the  fore-arm  strong,  the  good  judge  will  not  reject  the  animal 
because  he  may  have  been  accidentally  thrown. 


The  part  of  the  limb  between  the  knee  and  the  fetlock  consits  of  three  bones — a  large 
one  before,  called  the  cannon  or  shank,  and  two  smaller  or  splint  bones  behind,  (see  N, 
p.  49.)  The  shank-bone  is  rounded  in  front,  and  flattened,  or  even  concave  behind. 
It  is  the  straightest  of  the  long  bones,  as  well  as  the  most  superficially  situated,  for  in 
some  parts  it  is  covered  only  by  the  skin.  The  upper  head  is  flat,  with  straight  depres- 
sions corresponding  with  the  lower  row  of  the  bones  of  the  knee.  The  lower  head  is 
difterently  and  curiously  formed.  It  resembles  a  double  pulley.  There  are  three  eleva- 
tions, the  principal  one  in  the  centre,  and  one  on  each  side ;  and  between  them  are  two 
slight  grooves ;   and  these  so  precisely  correspond  with  deep  depressions  and  slight 

Erominencies  in  the  upper  head  of  the  larger  pastern,  and  are  so  enclosed  and  guarded 
y  the  elevated  edges  of  that  bone,  that  when  the  shank-bone  and  the  pastern  are  fitted 
to  each  other,  they  form  a  perfect  hinge  :  they  admit  of  the  bending  and  extension  of 
the  limb,  but  of  no  lateral  or  side  motion ;  which  is  a  circumstance  of  very  great  im- 
portance in  a  joint  so  situated,  and  having  the  whole  weight  of  the  horse  thrown  upon  it. 
The  smaller  bones  are  placed  behind  the  larger  on  either  side ;  a  slight  projection 
only  of  the  head  of  each  can  be  seen  in  front.  The  heads  of  these  bones  are  enlarged, 
and  receive  part  of  the  weight  conveyed  by  the  lower  row  of  the  bones  of  the  knee. 
They  are  united  to  the  larger  bone  by  the  same  kind  of  substance  which  is  found  in  the 
colt  between  tlie  bone  of  the  elbow  and  the  main  bone  of  the  arm  ;  and  which  is  design- 
ed, like  that,  by  its  great  elasticity,  to  lessen  the  concussion  or  jar  when  the  weight  of 
the  animanl  is  thrown  on  them.  They  reach  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  length 
of  the  shank-bone,  and,  through  their  whole  extent,  are  united  to  it  by  this  substance  ; 
but,  as  in  the  elbow,  from  the  animal  being  worked  too  soon,  or  too  violently,  inflamma- 
tion ensues,  and  bony  matter  is  deposited  in  the  room  of  the  ligamentous  ;  and  a  bony 
union  takes  place  instead  of  the  natural  one.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  ease  of  mo- 
tion is  somewhat  lessened  by  this  substitution  of  bone,  but  other  elastic  principles  are 
probably  called  into  more  powerful  action,  and  the  value  of  the  horse  is  not  perceptibly 
impaired  ;  although  it  is  hard  to  say  what  secret  injury  may  be  done  to  the  neighboring 
joints,  and  the  cause  of  which,  lamness  appearing  at  a  distant  period,  is  not  suspected. 
In  this  process,  however,  mischief  does  not  often  immediately  extend  to  the  neighbor- 
ing parts.  The  disposition  to  deposite  bone  reaches  beyond  the  circumscribed  space 
between  the  larger  and  smaller  bones  of  the  leg ;  and  a  tumour,  first  callous  and  afterwards 
bony,  IS  found,  with  r)art  of  its  base  resting  on  the  line  of  union  between  these  bones. 
This  is  called  a 

SPLINT. 

The  splint  is  invariably  found  on  the  outside  of  the  small  bone,  and  generally  on  the 
inside  of  the  leg,  (c,  p.  198.)  Why  it  should  appear  on  the  outside  of  the  small  bones 
it  is  difiicult  to  explain,  except  that  the  space  between  these  bones  is  occupied  by  an 
important  mechanism,  which  vrill  be  presently  described ;  and,  as  in  the  case  of  abscess. 


190  THE  HORSE. 

a  natural  tendency  was  given  to  them  to  determine  outward,  that  vital  parts  may  not  be 
injured.  The  cause  of  their  almost  exclusive  appeaiance  on  the  inside  of  the  leg  admits 
of  easier  explanation.  The  inner  splint-bone  is  placed  near  the  centre  of  the  weight  of 
the  body  than  tlie  other,  and,  from  the  nature  of  its  connexion  witht  he  bones  of  theknee, 
actually  receives  more  of  the  weight  than  does  the  outer  bone,  and  therefore  is  more 
liable  to  injury,  and  inflammation,  and  this  consequent  deposite  of  bone.  The  inner- 
bone  receives  the  whole  of  the  weight  transmitted  to  one  of  the  small  bones  of  the  knee. 
It  is  the  only  support  of  that  bone.  A  portion  only  of  one  of  the  bones  rests  on  the 
outer  splint-bone,  and  the  weight  is  shared  between  it  and  the  shank.  In  addition  to 
this,  it  is  the  absurd  practice  of  many  smith's  to  raise  the  outer  heel  of  the  shoe  to  an 
extravagant  degree,  which  throws  still  more  of  the  weight  of  the  horse  on  the  inner 
splint-bone.  These  tumours  occassionally  appear  on  other  parts  of  the  shank -bone, 
being  the  consequence  of  the  violent  blows,  or  other  external  injuries. 

When  the  splint  is  forming,  the  horse  is  frequently  lame.  The  periosteum  or  mem- 
brane covering  the  bone  is  painfully  stretched ;  but  when  this  membrane  has  accom- 
modated itself  to  the  tumour  that  extended  it,  the  lameness  subsides  and  altogether 
disappears,  unless  the  splint  be  in  a  situation  in  which  it  interferes  with  the  action  ot 
some  tendon  or  ligament,  or  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  a  joint.  Pressing  upon 
a  ligament  or  tendon,  it  may  cause  inflammation  of  those  substances  ;  or,  being  close  to 
a  jomt,  it  may  interfere  with  its  action.  Splints,  then,  do  not  necessarily  cause  unsound- 
ness, and  may  not  lessen  in  the  slightest  degree  the  action  or  value  of  the  horse.  All 
depends  on  their  situation.  When  we  have  described  the  situation  and  course  of  the 
suspensory  ligaments,  we  shall  be  enabled  to  enter  more  fully  into  this. 

The  treatment  of  splints,  if  it  be  worth  while  to  meddle  with  them,  is  exceedingly 
simple.  The  hair  should  be  closely  shaved  off  round  the  tumour;  a  little  strong  mer- 
curial ointment  rubbed  in  for  two  days;  and  this  should  be  followed  by  an  active 
blister.  If  the  splint  be  of  recent  formation,  it  will  usually  yield  to  this,  or  to  a  second 
blister.  Should  it  resist  these  applications,  it  can  rarely  be  advisable  to  cauterize  the 
part,  unless  the  tumour  interferes  materially  with  the  action  of  the  suspensory  ligament ; 
for  it  not  unfrequently  happens,  that,  although  the  splint  may  have  apparently  resisted 
this  treatment,  it  will  afterwards,  and  at  no  great  distance  of  time,  begin  rapidly  to 
lessen,  and  quite  disappear.  There  is  also  a  natural  process  by  which  the  greater  part 
of  splints  disappear  when  the  horse  gets  old. 

As  for  the  old  remedies,  many  of  them  brutal  enough, — bruising  the  splint  with  a 
hammer,  boring  it  with  a  gimlet,  chipping  it  off"  with  a  mallet,  sawing  it  off,  slitting 
down  the  skin  and  periosteum  over  it,  sweating  it  down  with  hot  oils,  and  passing 
setons  over  it, — the  voice  of  humanity,  and  the  progress  of  science,  will  consign  them 
to  speedy  oblivion. 

The  inside  of  the  leg,  immediately  under  the  knee,  and  extending  to  the  head  of  the 
inner  splint-bone,  is  subject  to  injury  from  what  is  termed  the  speedy  cut.  A  horse  with 
high  action,  and  in  the  fast  trot,  violently  strikes  this  part  either  with  his  hoof  or  the  edge 
of  the  shoe.  Sometimes  bony  enlargement  is  the  result,  at  others  great  heat  and  tender- 
ness ;  and  the  pain  from  the  blow  seems  occasionally  to  be  so  great  that  the  horse  drops 
as  if  he  were  shot.  The  only  remedy  is  to  take  care  that  no  part  of  the  shoe  projects 
beyond  the  foot;  and  to  let  the  inner  side  of  the  shoe,  except  the  country  be  very  deep, 
or  the  horse  used  for  hunting,  have  but  one  nail,  and  that  near  the  toe.  This  part  of  the 
hoof,  being  unfettered  with  nails,  will  expand  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  ground, 
and  contract  when  in  air  and  relieved  from  the  pressure  of  tlie  weight  of  the  body  ;  and, 
although  this  contraction  is  to  no  great  extent,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  carry  the  foot  harm- 
lessly by  the  leg.  Care  should  likewise  be  taken  that  the  shoe  be  of  equal  thickness  at 
the  heel  and  the  toe,  and  that  the  bearing  be  equal  on  both  sides. 

Immediately  under  the  knee  we  find  one  of  those  ligamentous  rings  by  which  the 
tendons  are  so  usefully  bound  down  and  secured ;  but  if  tne  hinder  bone  of  the  knee,  the 
trapezium,  described  at  p.  187,  be  not  sufliciently  prominent,  this  ring  will  confine  the 
flexor  tendons  of  the  foot  too  tightly,  and  the  leg  will  be  very  deficient  in  depth  under 
theknee.  This  is  called  being  tied  in  beloiu  theknee.  {b,  p.  198.)  Every  horseman 
recognizes  it  as  a  most  serious  defect.  It  is  scarcely  compatible,  with  speed,  and  most 
assuredly  not  with  continuance.  Such  a  horse  cannot  be  ridden  far  and  fast  without 
serious  sprain  in  the  back  sinews.  The  reason  is  plain ;  the  pressure  of  the  ring  will 
produce  a  degree  of  friction  inconsistent  with  the  free  action  of  the  tendons ;  more  force 
must,  therefore,  be  exerted  in  every  act  of  progression ;  and,  although  the  muscles  are 
powerful,  and  sufficiently  powerful  for  every  ordinary  purpose,  the  repetition  of  this 
extra  exertion  will  tire  and  strain  them.  A  more  serious  evil,  however,  remains  to  be 
stated.  When  the  back  sinews  or  tendons  are  thus  tied  down,  they  are  placed  in  a  more 
oblique  direction,  and  in  which  the  power  of  the  muscles  is  exerted  with  greater  disad- 
vantage ;  and,  therefore,  both  for  extraordinary,  and  even  ordinary  action,  a  greater 
degi-ee  of  exertion  is  required,  and  fatigue  and  sprain  will  frequently  result.  There  are 
few  more  serious  defects  than  this  tying-in  of  the  tendons  immediately  below  the  knee. 


SPRAIN  OF  THE  BACK-SINEWS.  191 

The  fore-leg  may  be  narrow  in  front,  but  it  must  be  deep  at  the  side,  in  order  to  render 
the  horse  valuable ;  for  then  only  will  the  tendons  have  free  action,  and  the  muscular 
force  be  exerted  in  the  most  advantageous  direction.  The  recollection  of  the  reader  will 
convince  him,  that  there  are  few  good  race-horses  whose  legs  are  not  deep  below  the 
knee.  If  there  are  exceptions,  it  is  because  their  exertion,  although  violent,  is  but  of 
short  duration.  The  race  is  decided  in  a  few  minutes ;  and,  during  that  little  period, 
the  spirit  and  energy  of  the  animal  may  successfully  sti-uggle  with  the  disadvantages  of 
form ;  but  where  great  and  long-continued  exertion  is  required,  as  in  the  hunter  or  the 
hackney,  no  strength  can  long  contend  cigainst  this  palpably  disadvantageous  misappli- 
cation of  muscular  power. 

As  they  descend  tlie  back  part  of  the  leg,  the  tendons  of  the  perforated  and  perforating 
flexor  muscle  should  be  far  and  distinctly  apart  from  the  shank-bone.  There  should  be 
space  free  from  thickening  for  the  finger  and  thumb  on  either  side  to  be  introduced 
between  them  and  the  bone,  and  that  extending  from  the  knee  to  the  fetlock.  In  a  per- 
fect leg — and  towards  its  lower  part,  there  should  be  three  distinct  and  perfect  projections 
visible  to  tJie  eye,  cis  well  as  recognizable  by  the  finger,  the  sides  of  the  shank-bone,  the 
most  forward  of  the  three ;  next,  the  suspensory  ligament ;  and  hindermost  of  all,  the 
flexor  tendons.  When  these  are  not  to  be  distinctly  seen  or  felt,  or  there  is  considerable 
thickening  about  them  and  between  them,  (b.  p.  198)  and  Uie  leg  is  round  instead  of  flat 
and  deep,  there  has  been,  what  is  commonly,  but  improperly  called, 

SPRAIN    OF    THE    BACK-SINEWS. 

These  tendons  are  enclosed  in  a  sheath  of  dense  cellular  substance,  to  confine  them  in 
their  situation,  and  to  defend  them  from  injury.  Between  the  tendon  and  the  sheath 
tliere  is  a  mucous  fluid,  to  prevent  friction ;  but  when  the  horse  has  been  overworked,  or 
put  to  sudden  and  violent  exertion,  the  tendon  presses  upon  the  delicate  membrane  lining 
the  sheath,  and  inflammation  is  produced,  and  a  different  fluid  is  thrown  out,  which  coagu- 
lates, and  adhesions  are  formed  between  the  tendon  and  the  sheath,  and  the  motion  of 
the  limb  is  more  diflicult  and  painful.  At  other  times,  from  violent  or  long  continued 
exertion,  some  of  the  fibres  which  tie  the  tendons  down  are  ruptured.  A  sliglit  injury  of 
tliis  nature  is  called  a  sprain  of  the  back-sinews  or  tendons ;  and  when  it  is  more  serious,  the 
horse  is  said  to  have  broken  down.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  tendon 
can  never  be  sprained,  because  it  is  inelastic  and  incapable  of  extension  ;  and  the  tendon 
or  its  sheath,  are  scarcely  ever  ruptured,  even  in  what  is  called  breaking  down.  The 
first  injury  is  confined  to  inflammation  of  the  sheath,  or  rupture  of  a  few  of  the  attaching 
fibres.  The  inflammation  of  the  part,  however,  is  often  very  great,  the  pain  intense,  and 
the  lameness  excessive.  The  anguish  expressed  at  every  bending  of  the  limb,  and  the 
local  swelling  and  heat,  will  clearly  indicate  the  seat  of  injury. 

la  every  serious  affection  of  this  kind,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  local  inflammation 
does  not  produce  general  disturbance  of  the  system  ;  and,  therefore,  the  horse  should  be 
bled  and  physicked.  The  bleeding  may  be  at  the  toe,  by  which  an  important  local,  as 
well  as  general  effect,  will  be  produced.  The  vessels  of  the  part  wiU  be  relieved,  while 
fever  will  be  prevented.  Let  not  the  bleeding  be  performed  in  the  usual  farrier's  way  of 
first  paring  down  the  sole,  and  then  taking  out  a  piece  of  it  at  the  toe  of  the  frog ;  in 
which  case  a  wound  is  made  often  difficult  to  heal,  and  through  which  fungous  granula- 
tions from  the  sensible  parts  beneath  wfll  obstinately  spring ;  but  after  the  sole  has  been 
well  thinned,  let  a  groove  be  cut  with  the  rounded  head  of  a  small  drawing-knife,  at  the 
junction  of  the  sole  and  the  crust  (see  s  in  the  next  cut  p. 193.)  The  large  vein  at  the 
toe  wiU  thus  be  opened,  or  the  groove  may  be  widened  backward  until  it  be  found.  When 
the  blood  begins  to  appear,  the  vein  may  be  more  fi-eely  opened,  by  a  small  lancet  thrust 
horizontally  under  the  sole,  and  almost  any  quantity  of  blood  may  be  easily  procured. 
The  immersion  of  the  foot  in  warm  water  will  cause  the  blood  to  flow  more  rapidly. 
When  a  sufficient  quantity  has  been  drawn,  a  bit  of  tow  may  be  placed  in  the  groove, 
and  the  shoe  tacked  on.  The  bleeding  will  be  immediately  stopped,  and  tlie  wound  will 
readily  heal. 

As  a  local  application,  let  no  hot  farriers  oil  come  near  the  part,  but  let  the  leg  be  well 
fomented  with  warm  water  two  or  three  times  in  the  day,  and  half  an  hour  at  each  time ; 
and,  between  the  fomentations,  let  the  leg  be  enclosed  in  a  poultice  of  linseed-meal.  Any 
herb  that  pleases  the  owner  may  be  added  to  the  fomentation,  or  vinegar  or,  Goulard's 
extract  to  the  poultice  ;  but  the  beneficial  effect  of  both  depends  simply  on  the  warmth 
of  the  water  and  the  moisture  of  the  poultice.  The  first  object  which  the  surgeon  has  in 
view,  is  to  abate  tlie  inflammation  of  the  part,  and  no  means  are  so  likely  as  tliese  to 
effect  that  purpose.   Every  stimulating  appUcation  will  infallibly  aggravate  the  mischief. 

The  horse  beginning  to  put  his  foot  better  to  the  ground,  and  to  bear  pressure  on  the 
part,  and  the  heat  having  disappeared,  the  object  to  be  accomplished  is  changed  ;  re- 
currence of  the  inflammation  must  be  prevented,  the  enlargement  must  be  got  rid 
of,  and  the  parts  must  be  strengthened.    The  two  latter  purposes  cannot  be  better 


192  THE  HORSE. 

effected  than  by  using  an  elastic  bandage — one  of  thin  flannel  will  be  the  best.  This 
will  sustain  and  support  the  limb,  while  by  few  means  are  the  absorbents  sooner  in- 
duced to  take  up  me  effused  coagulable  matter  of  which  the  swelling  is  composed, 
than  by  moderate  pressure.  If  the  bandage  be  kept  wet  with  vinegeir,  to  each  pint  of 
which  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of  spirit  of  wine  has  been  added,  the  skin  will  be  slightly 
stimulated  and  contracted,  and  the  cold  produced  by  the  constant  evaporation  will  tend 
to  subdue  the  remaining  and  deep-seated  inflammation  This  bandage  should  be  daily 
tightened  in  proportion  as  the  parts  are  capable  of  bearing  increased  pressure,  and  the 
treatment  should  be  persisted  in  for  a  fortnight ;  if,  at  me  expiration  of  that  period, 
there  be  no  swelling,  tenderness,  or  heat,  the  horse  may  gradually  and  very  cautiously, 
be  put  to  his  usual  work. 

Should  there,  however,  remain  the  slightest  lameness  or  considerable  enlargement, 
the  leg  must  be  blistered  ;  and,  indeed,  it  would  seldom  be  bad  practice  to  blister  after 
a  case  of  severe  sprain  ;  for  the  inflammation  lies  deep  in  the  sheath  of  the  tendons, 
and  the  part  once  sprained  long  remains  weak,  and  subject  to  renewed  injury,  not  only 
from  unusual,  but  even  ordinary  exertion.  If  the  blister  be  resorted  to,  time  should  be 
given  for  it  to  produce  its  gradual  and  full  effect,  and  the  horse  should  be  turned  out  for 
one  or  two  months ;  and  here  we  must  be  permitted  to  repeat,  that  a  blister  should 
never  be  used  while  any  heat  or  tenderness  remains  about  the  pai-t,  otherwise  the  shghtest 
injury  may  be,  and  often  is,  converted  into  incurable  lameness. 

Very  severe  sprains,  but  much  oftener  sprains  badly  treated,  may  require  the  appli- 
cation of  the  cautery.  If  from  long  continued  inflammation,  the  structure  of  the  part 
is  materially  altered,  if  the  swelling  is  becoming  callous,  or  the  skin  is  thickened,  and 
prevents  the  free  motion  of  the  limb,  no  stimulus  short  of  the  heated  iron  will  be  suflS- 
cient  to  rouse  the  absorbents  to  remove  tlie  injurious  deposite.  The  principal  use  of 
firing  is  to  rouse  the  absorbents  to  such  increased  action  that  they  shall  take  up  and 
remove  the  disease  thickness  of  the  skin,  and  likewise  the  unnatural  deposit  in  the 
cellular  substance  beneath.  The  firing  should  be  applied  in  straight  lines,  because  the 
skin,  contracting  by  the  application  of  the  cautery,  and  gradually  regaining  its  elastic 
nature,  will  thus  form  the  best  bandage  over  the  weakened  part.  Here,  even  more 
particularly  than  in  the  blister,  time  should  be  given  for  the  full  action  of  the  firing. — 
This  removal  of  diseased  matter  is  a  work  of  slow  progress.  Many  weeks  pas3 
away  before  it  is  perfectly  accomplished ;  and,  after  firing,  the  horse  should  have  at 
least  a  six  months',  and  it  would  be  better  if  he  could  be  given  a  twelve  months'  run 
at  grass.  When  the  animal  has  been  set  to  work  in  a  few  weeks,  and  the  enlargement 
remains,  or  lameness  returns,  the  fault  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  impatience  of  the  owner, 
and  not  to  the  want  of  power  in  the  operation,  or  skill  in  the  operator. 

Farriers  are  apt  to  blis'er  immediately  after  firing.  A  bhster  may  be  useful  six 
weeks  or  two  months  after  firing,  if  lameness  remains  ;  but  can  never  be  wanted  imme- 
diately after  the  severe  operation  of  the  cautery.  If  the  iron  has  been  skilfully  applied, 
subsequent  blistering  inflicts  on  the  animal,  already  sufficiently  tortured,  much  unne- 
cessary and  useless  pain,  and  should  never  be  resorted  to  by  him  who  possesses  the 
slightest  feeling  of  humanity. 

In  examining  a  horse  for  purchase,  the  closest  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  appear- 
ance of  these  flexor  tendons.  If  there  be  any  thickness  of  cellular  substance  around  mem, 
that  horse  has  been  sprained  violently,  or  the  sprain  has  not  been  properly  treated.  This 
thickening  will  probably  fetter  the  motion  of  the  tendon,  and  dispose  the  part  to  the 
recurrence  of  inflammation  and  lameness.  Such  a  horse,  although  at  the  time  pei-fectly 
free  from  lameness,  will  be  regarded  with  suspicion,  and  cannot  fairly  be  considered  as 
sound.  He  is  only  patched  up  for  a  while,  and  will  probably  fail  at  the  close  of  the 
the  first  day's  hard  work. 

WIND   GALLS. 

Approaching  nearer  to  the  fetlock,  we  occasionally  find  considerable  enlsirgements, 
oftener  on  the  nind  leg  than  the  fore  one,  which  are  denominated  wind-galls,  (e,  p.  198.) 
Between  the  tendons  and  other  parts,  and  wherever  the  tendons  are  exposed  to  pressure 
or  friction,  and  particularly  about  their  extremities,  little  bags  or  sacs  aie  placed,  con- 
taining and  suffering  to  ooze  slowly  from  them,  a  mucous  fluid.  From  undue  pressure, 
and  that  most  frequently  caused  by  violent  action  and  straining  of  the  tendons,  these 
little  bags  become  injured  ;  they  take  on  inflammation,  and  they  grow  large  and  hard. 
The  tendons  are  mostly  inserted  into  the  neighbourhood  of  joints,  and  there  is  most 
motion  and  pressure,  and  consequently  these  enlarged  mucous  bags,  {bursce  mvcosce)  are 
oftenest  found  about  the  joints.  There  are  few  horses  perfectly  free  from  them.  When 
they  first  appear,  and  until  the  inflammation  subsides,  they  may  be  accompanied  by 
some  degree  of  lameness ;  but  otherwise,  except  when  they  attain  an  enormous  size, 
they  do  not  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  animal,  or  cause  unsoundness.  The  farriers 
U8ed  to  suppose  that  they  contained  wind — hence  their  names,  wind-galls ;  and  hence 


THE  PASTERNS. 


193 


the  practice  of  opening  them,  by  which  dreadful  inflammation  lias  often  been  produced, 
and  many  a  valuable  horse  destroyed. 

A  slight  wind- irall  will  scarcely  be  subjected  to  treatment :  but  if  these  tumours  are 
numerous  and  large,  and  seem  to'iuipsde  the  motion  of  the  limb,  they  may  be  attacked 
first  by  bandage.  Tiie  roller  should  be  of  danaei,  aatl  soft  pads  should  be  placed  on  each 
of  tile  enlargements,  an  I  bound-down  tightly  upon  them.  The  banJagr  may  be  wetted 
with  the  lotion  recommended  for  sprain  of  the  back-sinews.  The  wiiid-gall  will  often 
diminish  or  disappear  by  this  treatment,  but  will  too  frequently  return  when  the  horse 
is  again  hardly  worked.  A  blister  is  a  more  etfectual  remedy ;  and  firing  still  more 
certain,  if  tlie"  tumours  be  suthciently  large  and  annoying  to  justify  our  having  recourse 
to  measures  so  severe.  In  bad  cases  the  cautery  is  the  only  cure,  for  it  will  not  only 
effect  the  immetUate  absorption  of  tlie  lluid,  and  the  reduction  of  the  swelling,  but,  by 
contracting  the  skin,  will  act  as  a  permanent  bandage,  and  therefore  prevent  the  re-ap- 
pearance of  the  tumour. 

THE    PASTERNS. 

At  the  back  of  the  sliank  just  below  the  knee,  and  in  the  space  between  the  two  splint- 
bones,  are  found  two  extraordinary  and  important  ligaments,  extraordinary  as  being  elas- 
tic, and  important  as  being  admirably  adapted  to  obviate  concussion.  They  have  their 
origin  from  the  head  of  the  shank-bone,  and  also  from  the  heads  of  the  splint-bones;  then 
descending  down  tlie  leg,  they  fill  the  groove  between  the  splint-bones,  but  are  not 
attached  to  either  of  them  ;  a  little  lower  down  they  expand  on  either  side,  and,  ap- 
proaching the  pasterns,  they  divide,  and  ai'e  inserted  into  two  little  bones  found  at  the  back 
of  the  upper  pastern,  one  on  each  side,  called  the  sessainoid  bones.  (See  p.  49,  and  in 
this  cutwhich  represents  the  pastern  and  foot,  sawn  through  the  middle.)  They  form  a 
kind  of  joint  both  with  the  lower  head  of  the  shank-bone,  and  the  upper  pastern-bone, 
to  both  of  which  they  are  united  by  ligaments  (i  and  g,)  but  much  more  closely  tied  to 
the  pastern  than  to  the  shank.  The  flexor  tendons  pass  down  between  them  through  a 
large  mucous  bag  to  relieve  them  from  the  friction  to  which,  in  so  confined  a  situation, 
they  would  be  exposed.  This  ligament  is  continued  overthe  sessamoids,  and  afterwards 
obliquely  forward  over  the  pastern  to  unite  with  the  long  extensor  tendon,  and  down- 
ward to  the  perforated  tendon,  which  it  surrounds  and  fixes  in  its  place,  and  aL-o  to  the 
smaller  pastern  bone. 


iu{(4^^^a.^  ^\  I* 


a  The  shank-bone. 
b  The  upper  and  larger  pastern-bone. 
26 


194  THE  HORSE. 

c  The  sessamoid-bone. 

d  The  lower  or  smaller  pastern-bone. 

e  The  navicular  or  shuttle-bone. 

/■  The  coffin-bone  or  bone  of  the  foot. 

g  The  suspensory  hgament  inserted  into  the  sessamoid-bone. 

h  A  continuation  of  the  suspensory  ligeunent  inserted  into  the  smaller  pastern-bone, 

i  The  small  inelastic  ligament,  tying  down  the  sessamoid  bone  to  the  larger  pastern- 
bone. 

k  A  long  ligament  reaching  from  the  pastern-bone  to  the  knee. 

I  The  extensor  tendon  inserted  into  both  the  pasterns  and  tlie  coffin-bone. 

m  The  tendon  of  the  perforating  flexor  inserted  into  the  coffin-bone,  after  having 
passed  over  the  navicular  bone. 

n  The  seat  of  the  navicular  joint  lameness. 

o  The  inner  or  sensible  frog. 

p  The  cleft  of  the  horny  frog. 

g  A  ligcunent  uniting  tiie  navicular  bone  to  the  smedler  pastern. 

r  A  ligament  uniting  the  navicular  bone  to  the  coffin-bone. 

s  The  sensible  sole,  between  the  coffin-bone  and  the  horny  sole. 

t  The  horny  sole. 

u  The  crust  or  wall  of  the  foot. 

V  The  sensible  laminae  to  which  the  crust  is  attached. 

w  The  coronary  ring  of  the  cmst. 

X  The  covering  of  uie  coronary  ligament  from  which  the  crust  is  secreted. 

z  Place  of  bleeding  at  the  toe.  .      . 

It  will  be  easy  to  perceive,  from  this  description  of  the  situation  of  the  suspensory 
ligament,  why  splints  placed  backward  on  the  leg  are  more  likely  to  produce  lameness 
than  those  which  are  found  on  the  side  of  the  leg.  They  may  interfere  with  the  motion 
of  this  ligament,  or,  if  they  are  large,  may  bruise  and  wound  it. 

The  principal  action  of  these  ligaments  is  with  the  sessamoid  bones,  which  they  seem 
to  suspend  in  their  places,  and  they  are  therefore  called  the  suspensory  ligaments.  The 
pasterns  (see  cut,  p.  193)  are  united  to  the  shank  in  an  oblique  duection,  diflering  in 
degree  in  the  different  breeds  of  horses,  and  in  each  adopted  to  the  purpose  for  which 
that  breed  was  designed.  The  weight  falls  upon  the  pastern  in  the  direction  of  the  shank- 
bone,  and  the  pastern  being  set  on  obliquely,  a  portion  of  the  weight  must  be  communi- 
cated to  the  sessamoids.  Much  jai'  is  saved  by  the  yielding  of  the  pasterns,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  oblique  direction  ;  and  the  concussion  which  would  be  produced  by  that 
portion  of  weight  which  tails  on  the  sessamoid-bones  is  completely  destroyed,  for  there  is 
no  bone  underneath  to  receive  it.  They  are  suspended  by  this  ligament — an  elastic  liga- 
ment, which  gradually  yields  to,  and  is  lengthened  by  the  Ibrce  impressed  upon  it,  and  in 
this  gradual  yielding  and  lengthening,  all  painful  or  dangerous  concussion  is  rendered 
impossible. 

If  the  ligament  lengthens,  the  sessamoid-bones  must  descend  when  the  weight  is 
thrown  on  them,  and  it  would  appear  that  they  do  so.  If  the  thorough-bred  horse  with 
his  long  pasterns  is  carefully  observed  as  he  stands,  the  tuft  at  the  fetlock  will  be  some 
inches  from  the  turf;  but  when  he  is  in  rapid  motion,  and  the  weight  is  thrown  violently 
on  this  joint,  the  tuft  descends  and  sweeps  the  very  ground.  This,  however,  is  the  com- 
bined action  of  the  fetlock  and  pastern-joints,  and  the  sessamoid-bones.  The  sessamoids 
do  not  actually  descend ;  but  they  revolve,  they  partly  turn  over.  The  strong  ligament 
by  which  they  are  attached  to  the  pastern-bone  acts  as  a  hinge,  and  the  projectingpart 
of  the  bone  to  which  the  suspensory  ligament  is  united,  turns  round  with  the  pressure  of 
the  weight ;  and  so  that  part  of  the  bone  becomes  lower.  How  is  it  raised  again  ?  This 
ligament,  strangely  constructed  as  a  ligament,  is  elastic.  It  yields  to  the  force  impressed 
upon  it,  and  lengthens ;  but  as  soon  as  the  foot  is  lifted  from  the  ground,  and  the  weight 
no  longer  presses,  and  the  force  is  removed,  its  elastic  power  is  exerted,  and  it  regains  its 
former  dimensions,  and  the  sessamoid-bone  springs  back  into  its  place,  and  by  that  forci- 
ble return  assists  in  raising  the  limb.* 

*  Mr.  Percivall  very  clearly  describes  this :  '  Furthermore  it  seems  to  us  that  these 
elastic  parts  assist  in  the  elevation  of  the  feet  from  the  ground  in  those  paces  in  which 
they  are  called  into  sudden  and  forcible  action.  The  suspensory  ligament,  by  its  reac 
tion,  instantaneously  after  extension,  aids  the  flexor-muscles  in  bending  the  pastern-joints. 
The  astonishing  activity  and  expedition  displayed  in  the  movements  of  the  race-horse  at 
speed,  seem  to  be  referable,  in  part,  to  the  promptitude  with  which  tlie  suspensory  liga- 
ment can  act  before  the  flexor-muscles  are  duly  prepared ;  the  latter,  we  should  say,  catch 
as  it  were,  and  then  direct  the  limb  first  snatched  from  the  ground  by  the  powers  of  elas- 
ticit)'.' — Percival's  Lectures  on  the  Veterinary  Art,  vol.  i ,  p.  334. 


THE  FETLOCK.  195 

The  length  and  obliquity  of  the  pastern  vary,  we  have  said,  in  the  different  breeds  of 
horses,  and  in  proportion  to  the  length  and  slanting  direction  of  the  pastern  is  the 
sprightliness  of  the  horse  and  the  easiness  of  his  paces.  The  pastern  must  be  long  in 
proportion  to  its  obliquity,  or  the  fetlock  would  be  too  close  to  the  ground,  and,  in 
rapid  action,  would  come  violently  upon  it.  It  is  necessary  that  the  fetlock  should 
be  elevated  a  certain  distance  from  the  ground,  and  this  may  be  effected  either  by 
a  short  and  upright,  or  a  long  and  slanting  pastern.  In  proportion  as  the  pastern  is 
oblique  or  slanting,  two  consequences  will  follow  :  less  weight  will  be  thrown  on  the 
pastern,  and  more  on  the  sessamoid,  and  in  that  proportion,  jar  or  concussion  wiU  be 
prevented  ;  and  the  jar  of  the  weight  which  is  tnrown  on  the  pastern  will  be  lessened 
by  the  very  obliquity  of  the  bones,  agreeably  to  what  we  have  already  stated  of  the 
angular  construction  of  the  limbs. 

Every  advantage  has,  however,  to  a  certain  extent,  its  corresponding  disadvantages . 
In  proportion  to  the  obliquity  or  slanting  of  the  pasterns,  will  be  the  stress  on  the  fet- 
lock-joint, and,  therefore,  the  liability  of  that  joint  to  injuiy  and  strain  ;  and  also  the 
liability  to  '  sprain  of  the  back-sinews,'  from  the  increased  action  and  play  of  the  flexor 
tendons  ;  and  likewise  to  injuries  in  the  pastern  joints,  for  the  ligaments  will  be  weak 
in  proportion  to  their  length.  The  long  and  slanting  pastern  is  an  excellency  in  the 
race-horse,  from  the  springiness  of  action  and  greater  extent  of  stride  by  which  it  is 
accompanied.  A  less  degree  of  it  is  necessary  in  the  hunter  who  is  to  unite  continu- 
ance of  exertion  with  ease  and  pace,  and  who,  in  his  leaps,  requires  almost  as  much 
springiness  as  the  race  horse ;  but  for  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  hackney  a  still  less 
degree  of  obliquity  should  be  found.  There  should  be  sufficient  to  give  pleasantness 
of  going,  but  not  enough  to  endanger  continuance  and  strength.  Experience  among 
horses  will  alone  point  out  the  most  advantageous  direction  of  the  pastern,  for  the 
purpose  required  ;  but  the  sUghtest  observation  will  prove  the  necessity  of  considerable 
variety  in  the  structure  of  this  part.  Let  the  reader  imagine  the  heavy  dray-horse  with 
his  short  and  upright  pasterns,  contending  in  the  race  ;  or  the  race-horse  with  his  long 
and  weak  pastern,  endeavouring  to  dig  his  toe  into  the  ground  to  move  some  heavy 
weight.  The  concussion  is  little  in  a  cart-horse  because  his  movements  are  slow,  and 
therefore  the  upright  and  strong  pastern  is  given  to  him,  which  he  can  force  into  the 
ground,  and  on  which  he  can  throw  the  whole  of  his  immense  weight.  The  oblique 
pastern  is  given  to  the  race-horse,  because  that  alone  is  compatible  with  extent  of  stride 
and  great  speed.  Except  a  horse  for  general  purposes,  and  particularly  for  riding,  be 
very  hardly  used,  a  httle  too  much  obliquity  is  a  far  less  evil  than  a  pastern  too  upright. 
The  upright  pastern  is  unsafe.  The  very  circumstance  which  enables  tlie  dray-horse 
to  throw  himself  into  his  collar,  throws  the  riding  horse  down  ;  and  while  the  jolting  of 
the  upright  pastern  is  an  insufferable  nuisance  to  the  rider,  it  is  injurious  to  the  horse, 
and  produces  many  diseases  in  the  feet  and  legs.  A  riding  horse,  with  upright  pasterns, 
will  soon  begin  to  knuckle  over,  even  with  ordinary  work ;  and  this  will  be  followed  by 
ringbone,  ossification  of  the  cartilages,  and  contracted  feet. 

RUPTURE    OF    THE    SUSPENSORY    LIGAMENT. 

The  suspensory  Hgament  is  sometimes  ruptured  by  extraordinary  exertion.  The 
sessamoids  are  then  let  down,  and  the  fetlock  almost  touches  the  ground.  This  is 
generally  mistaken  for  rupture  of  the  flexor  tendons  ;  but  one  circumstance  will  suffi- 
ciently demonstrate  that  it  is  the  suspensory  ligament  which  is  concerned,  viz.  that  the 
horse  is  able  to  bend  his  foot.  Rupture  of  this  ligament  is  a  bad  and  almost  desperate 
case.  The  horse  is  frequently  lame  for  life,  and  never  becomes  perfectly  sound. — 
Keeping  him  altogether  quiet,  bandaging  the  leg,  and  putting  on  a  high-heeled  shoe, 
will  aftbrd  the  most  probable  means  of  relief. 

THE    FETLOCK. 

The  fetlock-joint  is  a  very  complicated  one,  and  from  the  stress  which  is  laid  on  it, 
and  its  being  the  principle  seat  of  motion  below  the  knee,  it  is  particularly  subject  to 
injury.  There  are  not  many  cases  of  sprain  of  the  back-sinew  which  are  not  accom- 
panied by  inflammation  of  the  ligaments  of  this  joint ;  and  many  supposed  cases  of 
sprain  higher  up  are  simple  afiections  of  the  fetlock.  It  requires  a  great  deal  of  care, 
and  some  experience,  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other.  The  heat  about  the  part, 
and  the  point  at  which  the  horse  least  endures  the  pressure  of  the  finger,  will  be  the 
principal  guides.  An  affection  of  the  fetlock-joint  demands  blistering  more  promptly 
and  severely  than  one  of  the  sheaths  of  the  tendons. 


196 


THE  HORSE. 


GR0GGINE3S. 

The  peculiar  knuckling  over  the  fetlock-joint,  and  tottering  of  tlie  whole  of  the  fore- 
leg, known  by  the  name  of  grogginess  and  which  is  so  otten  seen  in  old  and  over- 
worked horses,  is  seldom  an  atiection  of  either  the  fetlock  or  the  pastern-joints  simply, 
altliough  these  have  their  full  share  in  the  mischief  that  has  been  produced  by  tasking 
the  poor  animal  beyond  his  strength.  Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  fix  on  any  particular 
joint ;  at  others,  it  seems  to  be  traced  to  a  joint  deep  in  the  foot,  where  the  flexor  tendon 
runs  over  the  navicular  bone.  It  seems  oitenest  to  be  a  want  of  power  in  the  ligaments 
of  the  joints  generally,  produced  by  frequent  and  severe* sprains,  or  by  ill-judged  and 
cruel  exertion ;  and,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  admits  of  no  remedy  ;  especially  as  dissec- 
tion often  discovers  ulceration  within  the  joints,  and  of  the  membrane  which  lines  the 
cartilage,  and  even  of  the  cartilage  itself,  which  it  was  impossible  to  reach  or  to  remove. 


The  inside  of  the  fetlock  is  often  bruised  by  the  shoe  or  the  hoof  of  the  opposite  foot. 
Many  expedients  have  been  tried  to  remove  this ;  the  inside  heel  has  been  raised  and 
lowered,  and  the  outside  raised  and  lowered  ;  and  sometimes  one  operation  has  succeed- 
ed, and  sometimes  the  contraiy  ;  and  there  was  no  point  so  involved  in  obscuritj^  or  so 
destitute  of  principles  to  guide  tlie  practitioner.  The  most  successful  remedy,  and  that 
which  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  supercedes  all  otliers,  is  to  put  on  a  shoe,  of  even 
thickness  from  lieel  to  toe ;  to  let  the  bearing  be  perfectly  level ;  and  then  to  drive  but  one 
nail,  and  that  near  the  toe,  in  the  inside  of  the  shoe,  which  is  placed  on  the  foot  by 
which  the  injury  is  done  ;  care  being  taken  that  the  shoe  should  not  extend  beyond  the 
edge  of  the  crust,  and  the  crust  being  rasped  a  little  at  tlie  quarters.  The  principle  on 
which  the  shoe  acts,  has  been  stated  when  we  spoke  of  the  speedy  cut.  There  are 
some  defects,  however,  in  the  natural  form  of  tlie  horse,  which  are  the  cause  of  cutting, 
and  which  no  contrivance  will  remedy ;  as  when  the  legs  are  placed  too  near  eacn 
other,  or  when  the  feet  are  turned  inward  or  out^vard.  A  horse  with  these  defects 
should  be  carefully  examined  at  the  inside  of  the  fetlock,  and  if  there  be  any  sore  or 
callous  places  from  cutting,  there  vsdll  be  sufficient  reason  for  rejecting  tlie  animal. — 
Some  horses  will  cut  wheu  they  are  fatigued,  and  many  colts  will  cut  before  they  arrive 
at  their  full  strength. 


Fig.  I 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  I. 

a  The'upper  pastern. 
b  The  lower  pastern. 
c  The  navicular  bone. 
d  The  coffin-bone. 


Fig.  2. 

a  The  sessamoid-bone. 

b  The  upper  pastern. 

c  The  lower  pastern. 

d  The  navicular  bone. 

€  The  coffin-bone,  with  the  horny  laminae. 


The  upper  pastern  bone  {b,  p.  193,  and  a  in  the  first  figure,  and  b  in  the  second  in  this 
cut,)  receives  the  lower  puUey-like  head  of  the  shank-bone,  and  fonns  a  hinge-joint  ad- 
mitting only  of  bending  and  extension,  but  not  of  side  motion  ;  it  likewise  articulates 
with  the  sessamoid-bones.  Its  lower  head  has  two  rounded  protuberances,  which  are 
received  into  corresponding  depressions  in  the  lower  pastern.     On  either  side,  above  the 

Eastern-joint,  are  roughened  projections  for  the  attachment  of  very  strong  ligaments, 
oth  the  capsular  ligaments,  and  many  cross  hgaments,  which  render  the  joint  between 
the  two  pasterns  sufficiently  secure. 

The  lower  pastern  {d,  p.  193,  and  b  in  the  first  figure,  and  c  in  the  second  in  this  cut,) 
is  a  short  and  thick  bone,  with  its  larger  head  downward.    Its  upper  head  has  two  de- 


RINGBONE. 


197 


pressions  to  receive  the  protuberances  on  tlie  lower  head  of  the  upper  bone,  bearing 
some  resemblance  to  a  pulley,  but  not  so  decidedly  as  the  lower  head  of  the  shank- 
bone.  Its  lower  head  resembles  the  lower  head  of  the  other  pastern,  and  has  two 
prominences,  likewise  somewhat  resembling  a  pulley,  and  by  which  it  articulates 
with  the  coffin-bone  ;  and  a  depression  in  front,  corresponding  witli  a  projection  in  the 
coffin-bone ;  and  also  two  slight  depressions  behind,  receiving  eminences  in  the 
navicular  bone.  Neither  of  these  joints  admit  of  any  lateral  motion.  The  ligaments 
of  tiiis  joint,  which  is  called  the  coffin-joint,  are  like  those  of  the  pastern-joint,  exceed- 
ingly sti'ong,  both  tlie  capsular  and  tlie  cross  ones.  The  tendon  of  the  extensor  muscle  is 
inserted  into  the  fore  paii,  botli  of  the  upper  and  lower  pas- 
tern-bones, as  well  as  into  the  upper  part  of  the  coffin-bone 
(Z,  p.  193  ;)  and  at  the  back  of  tliese  bones  the  suspensory 
ligament  is  expanded  and  inserted,  while  a  portion  of  it 
goes  over  the  fore  part  of  the  upper  pastern  to  reach  the 
extensor  tendon.  These  attachments  in  front  of  the  bones 
are  seen  in  the  accompanying  cut,  in  which  a  represents 
the  lower  part  of  the  shank-bone  :  b  the  sessamoid-bones ; 
c  the  upper  pastern  ;  d  the  lower  pastern  ;  and  e  the  coffin- 
bone  ;  /are  the  branches  of  the  suspensory  ligaments  going 
to  unite  witli  the  extensor  tendon  ;  g  the  long  extensor  ten- 
don ;  h  the  ligaments  connecting  the  two  pastern-bones  to- 
gether ;  and  i  the  lateral  cartilages  of  the  foot.  And  now, 
having  arrived  at  the  foot,  which  is  the  most  complicated 
and  important  part  of  the  frame  of  a  horse,  we  shall  defer 
the  consideration  of  the  coffin  and  navicular  bones  until 
we  have  described  the  hinder  extremities.  We  may,  how- 
ever, observe  that  both  these  joints  are  subject  to  sprain,  and 
particularly  the  coffin-joint. 


SPRAIN    OF    THE    COFFIN-JOINT. 

The  proof  of  this  is  when  the  lameness  is  sudden,  and  the  heat  and  tenderness  are  prin- 
cipally felt  round  the  coronet.  Bleeding  at  the  toe,  physic,  fomentation,  and  blisters  are 
the  usual  means  adopted.  This  lameness  is  not  easily  removed,  even  by  a  blister ;  and 
if  removed,  like  sprains  of  the  fetlock  and  of  the  back-sinews,  it  is  apt  to  return,  and, 
finally,  produce  a  great  deal  of  disorganization  and  mischief  in  the  foot.  This  wrick, 
or  sprain  of  the  coffin-joint,  sometimes  becomes  a  very  serious  affair,  not  being  always 
attended  by  any  external  swelling,  and  being  detected  only  by  heat  round  the  coronet,  the 
seat  of  the  lameness  is  often  overlooked  by  the  groom  and  the  farrier ;  and  the  disease  is 
suffered  to  become  confirmed  before  its  nature  is  discovered.  There  is  no  species  of 
lameness  more  confounded  vdth  affections  of  the  shoulder  than  this,  because  it  is  the 
custom  of  these  ignorant  and  prejudiced  persons  to  trace  every  lameness  to  the  shoulder 
which  is  not  palpably  referable  to  another  pai't. 

From  violent  or  repeated  sprains  of  the  pastern  or  coffin-joints,  or  extension  of  the 
ligaments  attached  to  other  parts  of  the  pastern-bones,  inflammation  takes  place  in  the 

Eeriosteum,  and  bony  matter  is  formed,  which  olten  rapidly  increases,  and  is  recognised 
y  the  name  of 

RINGBONE. 

Ringbone  commences  in  one  of  the  pasterns,  and  usually  about  the  pastern-joint,  but 
it  rapidly  spreads,  and  involves  not  only  the  pastern-bones,  but  the  cartilages  of  the  foot. 
When  tile  first  deposite  is  on  the  lower  pastern,  and  on  both  sides  of  it,  and  pro- 
duced by  violent  inflammation  of  the  ligaments  of  the  joints,  it  is  recognised  by  a  slight 
enlargement,  or  bony  tumour  on  each  side  of  the  foot,  and  just  above  the  coronet.  (See 
/  in  the  following  cut.)  This  is  more  frequent  in  the  hind  foot  than  the  fore,  because, 
from  the  violent  action  of  the  hind  legs  in  propelling  the  horse  forward,  the  pasterns 
are  more  subject  to  ligamentary  injury  behind  than  before  ;  yet  the  lameness  is  not  so 
great,  because  the  disease  is  confined  principally  to  the  ligaments,  and  the  bones  have 
not  been  injured  by  concussion ;  while  from  the  position  of  the  fore  limbs  and  their 
exposure  to  concussion,  there  will  generally  be  in  them  injury  of  the  bones  to  be  added 
to  that  of  the  ligaments.  In  its  early  stage,  and  when  recognised  only  by  a  bony  en- 
largement on  both  sides  of  the  pastern-joint,  or  in  some  few  cases  on  one  side  only,  the 
lameness  is  not  very  considerable,  and  it  is  not  impossible  to  remove  the  disease  by 
active  blistering,  or  by  the  application  of  the  cautery ;  but  there  is  so  much  wear  and 
tear  in  this  part  of  the  animal,  that  the  inflammation  and  disposition  to  the  formation  of 
bone  rapidly  spread.     The  pasterns  first  become  connected  together  by  bone  instead  of 


198 


THE  HORSE. 


ligament,  and  thence  results  what  is  called  an  anchylosed  or  fixed  joint.  Its  motion  is 
lost.  From  this  joint  the  disease  proceeds  to  the  caitilages  of  tlie  foot,  and  to  the  union 
between  the  lower  pastern,  and  the  coffin  and  navicular  bones  ;  and  tiie  motion  of  these 
parts  likewise  is  impeded  or  lost  and  the  whole  of  this  pait  of  the  foot  becomes  one 
mass  of  spongy  bone.  From  this  disposition  to  spread,  (and  at  first  round  the  pastern- 
joint,  which  is  situated  just  above  the  coronet,)  tliis  disease  has  acquired  the  name  of 
ringbone. 

C0T    OF    THE    LEG. 

This  cut  will  show  the  situation  and  appear- 
ance of  tliis  and  some  other  defects  of  the  fore- 
leg, a  will  represent  the  capped  hock  or 
enlargement  of  tlie  joint  of  the  elbow ;  b  the 
tying-in  of  the  leg  below  the  knee  ;  c  the  most 
frequent  situation  of  splint  on  the  side  of  the 
shank-bone,  and  not  producing  lameness  after 
its  first  formation,  because  it  does  not  interfere 
with  the  motion  of  the  Icnee,  or  injure  the  sus- 
pensory ligament,  d  is  the  situation  and  ap- 
pearance of  the  enlargement  accompanying 
sprain  of  the  back-sinews.  This,  however,  is 
an  aggravated  case ;  and  the  sprain  may  be 
great,  and  the  lameness  distiessing,  without  all 
this  swelling,  e  is  the  place  of  wind-gall.  / 
gives  the  appearance  of  ring-bone,  when  it  first 
appeal's  on  the  side  of  the  pastern,  about  the 
joint,  and  when  there  is  naturally  some  promi- 
nence of  bone ;  g  is  the  situation  of  sand- 
crack  in  the  fore-leg ;  h  tlie  situation  of  the  mol- 
lenders. 

Ringbone  is  one  of  the  most  serious  lame- 
nesses with  which  the  horse  can  be  afflicted. 
It  is  unsoundness  when  existing  in  the  slight- 
est degree,  for  the  lateral  enlargement  may 
speedily  extend  ;  and  when  the  bony  deposit 
begins  to  spread,  the  disease  is  incurable. 

The  fore-legs,  when  viewed  in  front,  should 
be  widest  at  the  chest,  and  should  gradually 
approach  to  each  other  as  we  descend  towaids 
the  fetlock.  The  degiee  of  width  must  de- 
pend on  the  pui-pose  for  which  the  horse  is 
wanted.  The  legs  of  a  heavy  draught-horse 
can  scarcely  be  too  far  apart.  His  rounded 
chest  enables  him  to  throw  more  weight  into 
the  collar ;  and  being  seldom,  if  ever  required 
for  speed,  he  wants  not  that  occasionally  in- 
creased expansion  of  chest  which  the  circular 
form  is  not  calculated  to  give.  A  hunter,  a 
hackney,  and  a  coach-horse,  should  have  suffi- 
cient expansion  of  the  chest,  or  the  legs  suffi- 
ciently wide  apart,  to  leave  room  for  the  play 
of  the  lungs  ;  but  deptli  more  than  roundness 
of  chest  is  here  required,  because  the  deep 
chest  admits  of  most  expansion,  when  the 
horse,  in  rapid  action,  and  the  circulation  pro- 

Eortionally  quickened,  needs  more  room  to 
reathe  ;  yet  if  the  breast  be  too  wide,  tliere 
will  be  considerable  weight  thrown  before,  and 
the  horse  will  be  heavy  in  the  hand,  and  un- 

Whether  the  legs  are  near  to  each  other  or 
wide  apart,  they  should  be  straight.  The  el- 
bow should  not  have  the  slightest  inclination 
inward  or  outward.  If  it  inclines  towards  the 
ribs,  its  action  will  be  confined,  and  tlie  leg 
will  be  thrown  outward  when  in  motion,  and 
describe  a  curious  and  awkward  curve ;  and 


THE  HAUNCH.  199 

this  will  give  a  peculiar  rolling  motion,  unpleasant  to  the  rider  and  unsafe  to  the  animal. 
The  toe  will  likewise  be  turned  outward,  which  will  not  only  prevent  the  foot  from 
coming  flat  on  the  ground  in  its  descent,  but  be  usually  accompanied  by  cutting,  even 
more  certainly  than  when  the  toe  turns  inward.  If  the  elbow  is  turned  outward,  tne  toes 
will  necessarily  be  turned  inward,  which  is  a  great  unsightliness,  and  to  a  certain  degree 
injurious.  The  weight  cannot  be  perfectly  distributed  over  the  foot ;  the  bearing  cannot 
be  ti'ue;  there  will  be  undue  pressure  on  the  inner  quarter,  a  tendency  to  unsafeness, 
and  a  disposition  to  splint  and  corn.  The  legs  should  come  down  perpendicularly  from 
the  elbow.  If  they  incline  backward  and  under  the  horse,  there  is  undue  stress  on  the 
extensor  muscles  :  and  the  legs  being  brought  nearer  the  centre  of  gravity,  undue  weight 
is  thrown  forward,  and  the  horse  is  liable  to  knuckle  over  and  become  unsafe  ;  if  the  legs 
have  a  direction  forward,  the  flexor  muscles  are  strained,  and  the  action  of  the  horse  is 
awkward  and  confined.  The  toe  should  be  found  precisely  under  the  point  of  the  shoul- 
der. If  it  be  a  little  more  forward,  tlie  horse  will  probably  be  deficient  in  action  ;  if  it 
be  more  under  the  horse,  unsafeness  will  be  added  to  still  greater  defect  in  going. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
THE    HIND    LEGS. 

THE    HAUNCH. 

In  describing  the  hinder  extremities,  we  must  begin  with  the  bones  of  the  haunch. 
The  haunch(see  O,  p.  49,  and  the  cut,  p.  180)  is  composed  of  three  bones.  The  first  is 
the  ilium,  principally  concerned  in  the  formation  of  the  haunch.  Its  extended  branches 
behind  the  flanks  are  prominent  in  eveiy  horse ;  and  when  they  are  more  than  usually 
wide,  the  animal  is  said  to  be  ragged-hipped.  A  branch  runs  up  to  tlie  spine  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  sacral  vertebrae  E,  and  here  the  haunch-bones  are  firmly  united  with 
the  bones  of  the  spine.  The  ischium,  or  hip-bone,  is  behind  and  below  the  ilium.  Its 
tuberosities  or  prominences  are  seen  under  the  tail,  (cut,  p.  49.)  The  pubis  unites 
with  the  two  former  below  and  behind. 

From  the  loins  to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail,  the  line  should  be  carried  on  almost 
straight,  or  rounded  only  in  a  veiy  slight  degree.  Thus  the  haunch-boues  will  be  most 
oblique,  and  will  produce  a  corresponding  oohquity,  or  slanting  direction  in  the  thigh- 
bone— a  direction  in  which,  as  we  stated  when  describing  the  fore-legs,  the  muscles  act 
with  most  advantage.  This  direction  of  the  haunch  is  characteristic  of  the  thorough- 
bred horse  ;  and,  by  the  degree  in  which  it  is  found,  we  judge  as  much  as  by  anything 
of  the  breeding  of  the  animal.  If  the  bones  at  D  and  E,  p.  49,  took  a  somewhat  arched 
form,  cLS  they  do  in  the  cart-horse,  it  is  evident  that  the  bone  O  must  be  more  upright, 
the  thigh-bone  P  would  likewise  be  more  upright,  the  stifle  Q,  would  not  be  so  far  under 
the  body,  and  the  power  of  the  horse  would  be  considerably  impaired.  The  oblique  di- 
rection of  the  haunch  and  thigh-bones,  produced  by  the  straightness  of  the  line  of  the 
spine,  does  not,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  aflbrd  increased  surface  for  the  attachment  of 
muscles,  but  places  the  muscles  in  a  direction  to  act  with  great  advantage.  It  is  in  the  ad- 
vantageous direction,  quite  as  much  as  in  the  bulk  of  the  muscle,  that  the  strength  of  the 
horse  consists.  It  will  be  seen,  from  our  cuts,  that  the  angles  formed  by  the  fore  and 
hind  extremities  have  dirferent  directions.  One  points  forward,  and  the  other  backward. 
We  should  expect  this ;  for  thus  the  action  of  the  fore-legs  least  interferes  with  the  chest, 
and  that  of  the  hind  legs  with  the  beUy. 

Width  of  haunch  is  a  point  of  great  consequence,  for  that  actually  affords  more  room 
for  the  attachment  of  muscles ;  and  even  tliough  it  should  be  so  great  as  to  subject  the 
horse  to  the  charge  of  being  ragged-hipped,  and  may  somewliat  oitend  the  eye,  it  is  no 
detriment  to  action.  If  the  loins  be  broad,  and  the  horse  be  well  ribbed  home,  the  pro- 
turberances  of  the  ilium  can  scarcely  be  too  far  apart.  Many  a  ragged-hipped  horse 
has  possessed  both  fleetness  and  strength,  but  few  which  were  narrow  across  the  haunch 
could  boast  of  the  latter  quality. 

The  opening  through  the  centi'e  of  these  bones,  which  constitutes  the  passage  through 
which  the  young  animal  is  expelled  from  the  mother,  is  large  in  the  mare,  and  in  every 
quadruped,  because  there  cannot  be,  from  the  form  of  the  animal,  any  danger  of  abor- 
tion from  tiie  weight  of  the  foetus  pressing  on  the  part. 


200  THE  HORSE. 

The  only  parts  of  these  bones  exposed  to  injury  or  fracture  are  the  tuberosities  or  pro 
minences  of  the  haunch.  A  fall  or  blow  may  chip  otF  and  disunite  a  portion  of  them. 
There  are  no  means  of  forcibly  bringing  the  disunited  parts  together,  and  retaining  them 
in  their  natural  position.  Nature,  however,  will  cause  them  to  unite,  yet  generally  at- 
tended by  deformity  and  lameness.  A  charge,  or  very  strong  adhesive  plaister,  across 
the  haunch  may  be  useful,  as  helping,  in  some  slight  degree,  to  support  the  parts,  and 
hold  them  togefiier. 

THE    THIGH. 

In  the  lower  and  fore  part  of  the  hip-bones  is  a  deep  cavity  or  cup  for  the  reception 
of  the  head  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh.*  Although  in  the  action  of  the  hind  legs 
there  cannot  be  the  concussion  to  which  the  fore-legs  are  exposed  (for  the  weight  of  the 
body  is  never  thrown  violently  upon  them,)  yet  in  the  powerful  action  of  these  limbs 
there  is  much  strain  on  the  joints,  and  we  shall  find,  therefore,  that  there  are,  in  all  of 
them,  admirable  provisions  against  injury.  The  head  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh  is 
received  into  a  deep  cup  (the  acetabulum,)  by  which  it  is  surrounded  on  every  side, 
and  dislocation  from  which  would  seem  almost  impossible.  But  the  bony  cup  may 
give  way  ?  No  !  provision  is  made  against  this  :  all  three  of  the  haunch  bones  unite  in 
the  formation  of  this  cup,  and  the  sutures  by  which  these  bones  are  held  together  are  of 
such  a  nature,  that  one  would  think  no  shock,  or  exertion,  or  accident,  could  disunite 
them.  There  is  even  something  more  added  to  make  the  attachment  doubly  sure.  Be- 
sides the  usual  capsular  and  other  ligaments,  a  singularly  strong  one  rises  fiom  the  base 
of  the  cup,  and  is  inserted  into  the  head  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh,  and  would  seem 
to  render  separation  or  dislocation  altogether  impossible :  and  yet  such  is  the  amazing 

[)Ower  of  the  muscles  of  the  hind  limb,  that  with  all  these  attachments,  sprain  of  the 
igaments  of  the  haunch  joint,  or  the  round  bone,  as  horsemen  call  it,  ajid  even  disloca- 
tion of  the  head  of  the  thigh-bone,  are  occasionally  found. 

The  upper  bone  of  the  thigh  we  should  expect  to  be,  from  the  powerful  muscles  that 
are  attached  to  it,  a  very  strong  bone,  and  it  is  both  the  largest  and  strongest  in  the 
frame.  It  is  short  and  thick,  and  exhibits  the  most  singular  prominences,  and  rough- 
nesses, and  hollows,  for  the  insertion  of  the  immense  muscles  which  belong  to  it.  Four 
prominences,  in  particular,  called  by  anatomists  trochanters,  two  on  the  outside,  one  on 
the  inside,  and  one  near  the  head  of  the  bone,  atVord  attachment  to  several  important 
muscles.  The  head  of  the  bone  is  placed  at  right  angles  with  its  body,  by  which  this 
important  advantage  is  gained,  that  the  motion  of  the  thigh-joint  is  principally  limited 
to  that  of  bending  and  extending,  although  it  possesses  some  slight  lateral,  and  even 
some  rotatory  or  round  actio)i.  The  lower  head  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh  is  compli- 
cated in  its  form.  It  consists  of  two  prominences,  which  are  received  into  correspond- 
ing depressions  in  the  next  bone,  and  a  hollow  in  front,  in  wliich  the  bone  of  the  knee 
plays  as  over  a  perfect  pulley. 

A  short  description  of  the  muscles  of  the  hinder  extremities  may  not  be  uninteresting 
to  the  horseman.     The  next  cut  will  give  a  few  of  them. 

The  muscles  of  the  hind  extremity  are  more  powerful  in  action  than  thoseof  any 
other  part  of  the  frame,  therefore  there  is  a  provision  made  to  hold  them  down  in  their 
respective  situations,  and  thus  contribute  to  their  security  and  sti-ength.  When  the  skin 
is  taken  from  the  hind  limb,  we  do  not  at  once  arrive  at  the  muscles,  but  they  are  thick- 
ly covered  by  a  dense,  strong,  tendinous  coat,  which  reaches  over  tlie  whole  of  the 
haunch  and  thigh,  and  only  ceases  to  be  found  at  tlie  hock  where  there  ai-e  no  muscles 
to  be  confined.  If  the  power  of  the  muscles  be  sufficient  to  dislocate  and  fracture  the 
thigh-bone,  they  need  the  support  and  confinement  of  this  tendinous  coat.  When  this 
tendinous  band  is  dissected  ort',  another  is  found  beneath,  which  is  represented  at  a, 
raised  and  turned  back,  larger  than  the  former,  thicker  and  more  muscular.  It  proceeds 
from  the  haunch-bones  to  the  stifle,  upon  the  fore  and  outer  part  of  the  haunch  and 
thigh,  and  is  intended  to  tighten  and  strengthen  the  other. 

Under  the  part  of  this  flat  and  binding  muscle,  which  is  represented  in  our  cut  as 
raised,  is  a  large  round  muscle  proceeding  from  the  ilium,  not  far  from  the  cup  which 
receives  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh,  and  running  straight  down  this  bone,  and  thence 
its  name  rectus,  it  is  inserted  into  the  bone  of  the  stifle.  An  inspection  of  the  cut,  p. 
49,  will  show  that  it  is  so  situated  as  to  be  enabled  to  exert  its  great  power  in  the  most 
tidvantageous  way.     It  is  a  very  prominent  muscle,  and  forms  what  we  may  term  the 

*  This,  although  the  true  thigh-bone,  is  so  concealed  by  thick  muscles,  and  seemingly 
by  the  continuation  of  the  carcass,  that  its  situation  and  shape  are  not  visible  to  the  eye ; 
and  it  is  generally  overlooked  by  horsemen,  who  call  the  next  bone  extending  from  the 
stifle  to  the  hock,  the  thigh :  therefore,  to  render  ourselves  intelligible,  we  term  this  the 
upper  bone  of  the  thigh. 


THE  THIGH.  .  201 

CUT   OF   THE    MUSCLES    OF    THE    INSIDE    OF   THE    THIGH. 


edge  of  the  tliigh  forw'aid.  It 
terminates  in  a  tendon,  which 
is  short  and  very  strong,  and 
which  is,  beibre  its  insertion 
into  the  patella,  united  with 
the  prolongation  of  the  tendi- 
nous substance  at  g,  in  the  cut, 
p  202,  and  also  with  the  tendon 
of  the  muscle  at  i,  in  that  cut, 
and  c,  in  the  following  cut, 
and  which  is  j)roperly  called 
vastus,  from  its  great  bulk. 
Some  have  divided  this  into 
two  muscles,  the  external  and 
internal.  They  proceed,  the 
external  from  the  outer  surface 
of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh ; 
the  internal  from  the  inner 
surface  ;  and  are  inserted  into 
the  upper  part  of  the  bone  of 
the  stifle,  both  on  the  inner 
and  outer  side.  These  mus- 
cles act  at  considerable  me- 
chanical disadvantage  ;  they 
form  a  very  slight  angle,  not 
at  all  approachmg  to  a  right 
angle ;  but  Uiey  are  muscles 
of  immense  size,  and  occupy 
all  the  fore  part  of  the  thigh, 
from  the  stifle  upwards.  They 
are  powerful  extensors  of  the 
thigh,  and  of  the  hinder  leg 
generally,  for  they  are  all  in- 
serted into  the  bone  of  the 
knee,  and  that  is  connected  by 
strong  tendons  with  the  bone 
of  the  true  leg.  We  shall  have 
more  to  say  of  the  action  of 
this  muscle  when  we  have  de- 
cribed  tlie  bone  of  the  knee. 
On  the  inside  of  the  thigh  are  several  other  large  fleshy  muscles,  as  distinct  to  the  eye 
as  these,  and  which  will  be  recognised  after  the  slightest  observation  of  the  thigh  of  the 
living  horse.  First,  we  have  a  long,  narrow,  prominent  muscle,  the  scaioj-ms,  or  tailor's 
muscle,  enabling  him  to  sit  cross-legered,  d,  arising  from  tlie  edge  of  the  haunch-bone, 
about  halfway  down  it,  and  inserted  into  the  inner  and  upjier  part  of  the  lov.er  bone  of 
the  thigh,  for  thus  we  call  this  bone  extending  from  the  stifle  to  the  hock,  and  v^hich  in 
the  human  being  would  be  properly  the  leg.  It  bends  the  leg,  and  turns  it  inward,  not 
useful  in  the  latter  case  in  progression,  but  in  many  of  tlie  natural  actions  of  the  horse. 

Next  comes  a  broad  thin  muscle,  e,  which  cannot  be  mistaken,  occupying  the  greater 
portion  of  the  surface  of  the  inner  jmrt  of  the  tlsigh,  and  particularly  the  prominent  part 
of  it.  It  is  called  the  gracilis,  or  slender  muscle.  It  arises  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
haunch-bone,  and,  in  its  passage  downward,  uniting  with  the  last  muscle,  is  inserted 
with  it  into  the  inner  and  upper  part  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  thigh.  It  also  turns  the 
leg.  If  its  direction  be  considered,  it  acts  with  evident  advantage ;  but  its  insertion  into 
the  bone  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  thigh  is  very  disadvantageous.  It  applies  its  power 
very  close  to  the  joint  or  centre  of  motion,  and  the  weight,  consisting  of  the  whole  limb, 
and  which  may  be  supposed  to  be  concentrated  about  its  middle,  is  far  distant. 

Still,  on  tiie  inside  of  the  thigh,  and  forming  the  posterior  edge  of  the  thigh  inwards, 
and  contributing  much  to  its  bulk,  is  another  of  the  principal  muscles  of  the  thigh,  /, 
proceeding  from  the  first  bones  of  the  tail,  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium,  and  from 
the  tendinous  expansion  which  we  have  described,  and  principally  inserted  into  the 
upper  and  fore  part  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh,  but  a  portion  of  it  going  to  the  head 
of  the  lower  bone.  That  part  which  goes  to  the  upjier  bone  of  the  thigh  acts  with  very 
great  mechanical  advantage  (see  cut,  p.  52,)  and  most  powerfully  bends  tl;e  thigh  on 
the  pelvis,  and  lifts  and  extends  the  limb.  It  is  one  of  the  most  efiectual  ofthe  extensor 
26 


202 


THE  HOUSE. 


muscles.     Considering  the  weight  of  the  hmb  which  it  has  to  raise  and  extend,  it  had 
need  to  possess  great  power.     At  g  is  another  muscle,  concerned  in  the  same  office. 

We  now  turn  to  some  of  the  muscles  which  aie  very  evident  to  the  eye  on  the  outside 
of  the  thigh. 

CUT    OF   THE   MUSCLES    OF    THE    OUTSIDE    OF    THE    THIGH. 


First  is  the  outer  Glutatis,  or  but- 
tock muscle,  d,  being  little  more  than 
a  fleshy  slip  attached  to  the  muscle 
next  to  be  described.  It  arises  as  high 
up  as  the  spine  ^  It  runs  along  the 
back  part  of  the  thigh  in  the  form  of  a 
ridge,  and  is  inserted  into  the  small- 
er outer  prominence  of  the  upper 
bone  of  the  thigh.  Next  is  the  great 
glutcEus  muscle,  arising  from  the  spi- 
nous and  transverse  processes  of  se- 
veral of  the  bones  of  the  loins,  and 
from  the  sacrum,  and  from  the  differ- 
ent edges  of  the  ilium,  and  inserted 
into  the  great  protuberance  of  the 
upper  bone  of  the  thigh  (page  49,) 
behind  and  a  little  above  the  joint 
that  unites  the  thigh  to  the  haunch- 
bone.  It  is  seen  at  c,  in  this  cut; 
constitutes  the  upper  and  outer  part 
of  the  haunch,  and  gives  that  fulness 
and  roundness  to  it,  which  good 
judges  so  much  admire  in  the  quar- 
ters of  the  horse.  It  is  one  of  the 
main  instruments  in  progression. 
When  the  thigh  has  been  brought  for- 
ward under  the  body  by  the  muscles 
already  described,  the  plain  action  of 
these  glutaei  muscles  is  to  extend  the 
haunch,  and  force  or  project  the  body 
onward.  To  effect  this  they  must 
be  very  powerful,  and  therefore  they 
are  so  large,  and  rise  from  such  an 
extensive  surface  ;  and  they  ought 
to  act  at  great  mechanical  advantage, 
and  so,  in  one  sense,  they  do;  spring- 
ing from  the  loins  and  ilium  and  the 
sacrum,  they  act  almost  in  a  right  or 
perpendicular  line  ;  in  that  line  in  which  we  have  seen  that  the  greatest  power  is  gained. 
A  reference  to  the  plate  of  the  skeleton  will  place  this  in  a  strilcing  point  of  view ;  and 
this  advantage  is  the  more  necessary,  because,  as  is  almost  uniformly  the  case,  there  is 
a  corresponding  disadvantage  to  be  overcome.  These  muscles  are  inserted  into  the 
great  trochanter  or  protuberance  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh,  and  that  is  but  a  very 
little  way  removed  from  the  joint  or  centre  of  motion.  The  power  is  close  to  the  centre 
of  motion  ;  the  weight  supposed  to  be  concentrated  in  the  middle  of  the  limb,  is  far  off. 
It  is  more  than  30  times  as  far  as  the  power,  and  this  muscle  must  act  with  a  disadvan- 
tage of  more  than  30  to  1 :  or,  if  the  hinder  extremity,  and  the  weight  of  the  trunk  above 
amount  to  six  hundred  pounds,  the  force  applied,  or  the  power  of  the  muscle,  must  be 
equal  to  30  times  600,  to  18000  pounds.  The  numerous  origins  of  these  muscles,  and  the 
extensive  surfaces  whence  they  arise,  and  their  immense  bulk,  render  them  equal  to  this  ; 
and  then,  as  we  have  demonstrated  with  regard  to  the  flexor  muscles  of  the  arm,  what 
is  lost  in  power  is  gained  in  velocity ;  for  while  this  portion  of  the  upper  thigh  bone 
moves  rapidly  through  a  certain  space,  by  the  powerful  contraction  of  the  glutei  and 
other  muscles,  the  extremity  of  that  bone  moves  through  thirty  times  the  space,  and  the 
extremity  of  the  whole  lijnb  or  the  foot  moves  through  more  than  100  times  that  space, 
and  hence  results,  and  hence  only  could  result  the  speed  of  the  horse. 

Now  comes  another  consideration  ; — in  proportion  as  this  protuberance  behind  and 
above  the  joint  is  lengthened,  so  is  the  shorter  arm  of  the  lever  lengthened,  and  so  is  pow- 
er or  muscular  exertion  spared.  This  protuberance  is  lengthened  in  proportion  to  the 
length  of  the  croup,  and  tlie  depth  of  the  quarters,  and  h€ncc  the  importance  of  this  con- 


THE  ROUND  BONE. 


208 


CUT    OF    THE    HAUNCH    AND    HIND    LEGS 


formation.  We  have  explained  this  as  it  regards  the  depth  of  the  elbow.  It  holds  more 
especially  good  here,  because  these  are  the  parts  with  wliich  the  speed  and  power  of  the 
horse  are  most  concerned.  The  t[uarters  coiiinietice,  by  the  common  consent  of  sporting 
men,  from  about  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  extend  to  the  hock  downward,  and  to  (he  tail 
behind  ;  and  although  little  regarded  by  those  who  are  unaccustomed  to  horses,  and  the 
just  proportions  of  those  parts  understood  but  by  few  who  pretend  to  know'  the  horse, 
the  quarters  are  by  far  the  most  important  points  in  his  frame.  Their  muscularity  will 
indicate  power,  and  the  depth  of  tlie  quarters  the  proper  direction  and  the  advantageous 
action  of  that  power. 

There  is  another  and  smaller  gZi/iffius  muscle  under  that  we  have  last  described,  arising 
likewise  from  the  back  of  the  ilium,  and  inserted  into  the  same  protuberance  of  the 
thigh  bone,  and  assisting  in  the  same  office.  It  is  not  visible  in  our  cut.  There  are  also 
several  other  muscles  proceeding  from  diiferent  parts  of  the  haunch  bones,  and  inserted 
about  the  heads  of  the  upper  thigh  bone,  and  performing  the  same  work  ;  but  there  are 
two  muscles  to  which  we  must  particularly  refer.  The  first  occupies  the  outer  part  of 
the  quarter  behind,  and  is  beautifully  developed  in  the  blood  horse ;  it  is  found  at  e, 
p.  202.  It  arises  high  up  from  the  bones  of  the  spine,  from  others  at  the  root  of  the  tail, 
from  the  protuberances  of  the  ischium  (vide  cut,  p.  49,)  and  from  other  bones  of  the  pel- 
vis.    It  in  fact  consists  of  three  muscles,  but  is  usually  described  as  one  muscle  with 

three  heads.  Triceps  femoirs  (the  three- 
headed  muscle  of  the  thigh.)  It  is  inserted 
into  the  upper  part  of  the  lower  bone  of 
the  thigh,  and  its  office  is  the  same  as  the 
last,  to  draw  back  the  thigh  when  placed 
under  the  trunk,  and  bj-  so  doing  urge  for- 
ward the  body.  Being  inserted  nearly  in  a 
perpendicular  direction,  it  has  great  power, 
but  that  power  is  employed  disadvantageous- 
ly,  on  account  of  being  placed  so  near  the 
joint  or  centre  of  motion. 

The  muscle  at/,  descending  Hkewise  from 
the  sacrum,  and  from  the  first  bones  of  the 
tail,  runs  down  posterior  to  the  last  muscle, 
and  forms  the  hinder  border  of  the  haunch. 
It  is  inserted  into  the  lower  bone  of  the 
thigh,  and  assists  in  performing  the  same 
kind  of  motion.  All  these  muscles  are  par- 
ticularly prominent  in  the  thorough-bred 
horse,  and  are  the  source  of  his  strength  and 
speed ;  and  hence  another  very  important 
point  in  the  horse.  These  muscles,  to  per- 
Ibrm  their  full  action,  should  be  so  developed 
thattlie  horse,  when  the  observer  stands  be- 
hind him,  although  wide  enough  at  the  loins 
iuid  haunch,  should  yet  be  perceptibly, 
wider  at  the  thighs.  The  accompanying  cut, 
containing  one  excellence  above,  and  many 
delects  below,  will  illustrate  our  meaning. 

STRAIN  OF  THE  ROUND  BONE. 

The  joint  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh 
with  the  haunch  is  commonly  called  the 
whirl  or  rmtnd  bone.  It  has  been  stated, 
that  it  has,  in  some  rare  instances,  been  dis- 
located and  fractured  ;  it  is,  however,  much 
oftener  sprained,  but  not  so  often  as  the 
groom  or  famer  imagine.  There  is  nothing 
peculiar  in  the  lameness  to  detect  injury  ot 
this  part,  except  that  frequently  the  horse 
will  drag  his  leg  after  him  on  the  toe.  Inju- 
ry of  the  round  bone,  or  hip  joint,  will  be 
principally  discovered  by  heat  and  tender- 
ness in  the  situation  of  the  joint.  A  part  so 
deeply  seated  is  b'eated  with  difficulty.  Fo- 
mentations should  first  be  used  to  abate  the 
inliammation,  and  after  that  an  active  blister 


204  THE  HORSE. 

should  be  applied.  Strains  of  this  joijit  are  not  always  immediately  relieved,  and  the 
jnuscles  of  the  limb  considerably  waste  ;  and  therefore  it  luay  be  necessary  to  repeat  the 
blister,  while  absolute  rest  should  accompany  every  stage  of  the  treatment.  It  may  even 
be  requisite  to  fire  the  part,  or,  as  a  last  resort,  a  charge  may  be  put  over  the  joint,  and  the 
horse  turned  out  for  two  or  three  months. 

THE    STIFLE. 

The  upper  bone  of  the  thigh  is  united  to  the  lower  by  a  somewhat  complicated  joint. 
It  terminates  by  two  round  prominences  behind,  which  are  received  into  slight  depres- 
sions on  the  upper  surface  of  the  lower  bone  ;  and  in  front  is  a  curious  groove  over 
which  plays  a  small  irregiilar  bone,  the  patella  or  stifle  bone.  The  whole  is  called  by 
farriers  the  stifle  joint.  The  patella  (Q,  p.  49)  answei-s  to  the  kneepan  in  the  human 
subject.  Some  of  the  tendons  of  the  strongest  muscles  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh 
are  inserted  into  it,  and  continued  from  it  over  the  lower  bone.  This  important  joint  is 
hereby  much  strengthened  ;  for  the  proper  ligaments  between  the  upper  and  lower  bones, 
and  these  additional  tendons  and  ligament?  from  the  patella,  must  foim  altogether  a  very 
powerful  union.  The  patella  likewise  answers  another  and  even  more  important  purpose. 
The  tendons  of  some  strong  muscles  are  inserted  into  it.  When  these  muscles  are  not  in 
action,  the  patella  lies  in  the  groove  which  nature  has  contrived  for  it;  but  when  they 
begin  to  contract,  it  starts  from  its  pai'tial  hiding-place,  becomes  prominent  from  the 
joint,  and  alters  the  line  of  direction  in  which  the  muscles  act ;  it  increases  the  angle, 
and  thus  very  materially  increases  the  power  of  the  muscles. 

The  lower  bone  of  the  thigh  is  double  ;  the  larger  portion,  in  front,  extending  from  the 
stifle  to  the  hock,  is  called  the  tibia.  The  smaller  bone,  or  fibula,  behind,  see  R,  p.  49, 
reaches  not  more  than  a  third  of  the  way  down.  It  is  united  to  the  shank  bone,  like  the 
splint  bone,  by  a  cartilaginous  substance  which  soon  is  changed  for  bone.  Of  the  use 
of  these  little  bones  we  cannot  speak. 

The  lower  bone  of  the  thigh  forms  an  angle,  with  the  upper,  the  reverse  of  that  which 
exists  between  the  upper  bone  and  the  pelvis.  The  object  of  this  is  two-fold, — to  obvi- 
ate concussion,  and  to  give  a  direction  to  the  muscles  favorable  to  their  powerful  action ; 
and  in  proportion  to  the  acuteness  of  the  angle,  or  the  degree  in  which  the  stifle  is 
brought  under  the  horse,  will  these  purposes  be  accomplished.  There  is  a  great  deal  of 
difference  in  this  in  different  horses,  and  the  construction  of  this  part  of  the  frame  is  a 
matter  worthy  of  more  regaid  than  is  generally  pedd  to  it. 

This  part  of  the  thigh  should  likewise  be  long.  In  proportion  to  the  length  of  tTie 
muscle  is  the  degree  of  contraction  of  which  it  is  capable  ;  and  in  proportion  to  the  con- 
traction of  the  muscle  is  the  extent  of  motion  in  the  limb ;  but  it  is  still  more  necessary 
that  this  part  of  the  thigh  should  have  plenty  of  muscle,  that  strength  may  be  added  to 
this  extent  or  compass  of  motion.  We  should  not  expect  much  endurance  from  a  horse 
with  a  thin  ai-m  ;  a  horse  with  thin  and  lanky  thighs  cannot  possibly  be  good  for  any- 
thing. In  our  cuts,  p.  201  and  202,  the  principal  muscles  of  this  part  of  the  thigh  are 
delineated.  They  are  usually  somewhat  prominent,  and  may  readily  be  fraced  m  the 
living  animal ;  a  very  brief  notice  of  them  may  not  be  uninteresting. 

We  will  first  take  the  external  ones,  beginning  in  front.  The  continuation  from  g, 
p.  202,  is  the  tendinous  expansion  given  to  bind  and  sti-engthen  these  muscles. 

«  is  a  very  important  muscle;  it  is  the  principal  extensor  muscle  of  the  hind-leg 
{extensor  pedis,  extensor  of  the  foot.)  It  ai-ises  from  the  lower  part  of  the  upper  bone  of 
the  thigh,  and  from  the  upper  part  of  the  lower  bone.  It  is  a  strong,  round,  fleshy 
muscle ;  a  little  before  it  reaches  the  hock  it  will  be  seen  to  assume  a  tendinous  form. 
It  is  covered  and  defended  by  a  sheath  of  its  own  ;  and  the  cut  vdll  show  the  bands  by 
which  it  is  tied  down  in  its  place,  within  which  it  plays.  It  is  seen  continuing  its  course 
on  the  front  of  the  cannon  or  shank  bone.  Having  arrived  at  the  fetlock  joint,  it  begins 
to  expand,  and  is  finally  inserted  into  the  upper  part  of  the  coffin-bone,  or  bone  of  the 
foot,  after  having  given  various  fibres  to  both  the  pasterns.  The  course  of  the  corres- 
ponding tendon  in  the  fore-leg  is  given  in  the  cut,  p.  193,  fig.  I. 

At  m,  p.  202,  is  another  of  the  extensor  muscles,  called  the  peroncRus,  from  a  name 
given  to  the  fibula.  It  arises  from  the  whole  course  of  the  fibula,  and  also  becomes  ten- 
dinous before  it  reaches  the  hock.  About  half  way  down  the  shank  it  is  found  in  the 
same  sheath  with  the  principal  extensor  muscle,  and  is  inserted  with  it  into  the  coflin- 
bone.  The  office  of  the  extensor  muscles  is  to  raise  the  foot  from  tlie  ground,  and  to 
bring  it  forward  under  the  body. 

At  o  is  the  flexor  pedis,  one  of  the  principal  flexor  (bending)  muscles  of  the  foot, 
arising  from  the  upper  part  of  the  tibia.  As  it  approaches  the  hock  it  is  distinguished 
by  its  large  round  tendon,  which  is  seen  to  enter  into  a  groove  at  the  back  of  the  hock. 
It  is  continued  down  the  back  of  the  leg  like  a  similar  muscle  in  the  fore-leg,  is  the  per- 
forating flexor  muscle  of  the  hind-leg,  and  assists  in  bending  the  pastern  and  coffin-joints. 


THOROUGH-PIN.  205 

fc  is  a  verj'-  slender  muscle,  arising  from  the  head  of  the  fibula,  and  proceeding  over  the 
externa]  pai-t  of  the  tliigh,  and,  just  above  the  hock,  uniting  witli  tlie  tendon  of  the  per- 
forating muscle. 

j  is  a  verj'  powerful  muscle,  springing  from  the  head  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh, 
and,  midway  down  the  lower  bone  ot  the  thigh,  ending  in  a  flat  tendon,  which  is  inserted 
into  tlie  point  of  the  hock.  Its  use  is  to  extend  the  hock.  It  is  evidently  most  advan- 
tageously situated  for  powerful  action ;  for  it  acts  almost  at  right  angles,  and  its  ell'ect  is 
increased  in  proportion  to  the  projection  of  the  point  of  tlie  hock, 

We  W'ill  now  turn  to  the  inner  side.     See  cut,  p.  201. 

7/1  gives  a  portion  of  the  muscle  which  we  have  just  described. 

n  an  inside  view  of  tlie  perforating  flexoi'  muscle  of  tlie  loot. 

I  is  the  peronaes. 

0  is  tlie  perforated  flexor  tendon,  having  its  origin  from  near  the  lower  head  of  the 
upper  bone  of  the  thigh ;  becoming  tendinous  as  it  passes  down  tlie  thigh ;  expanding 
over  and  surrounding  the  point  ol  the  hock,  and  assisting  in  extending  it ;  and  then  pur- 
suing its  course  down  the  posterior  pait  of  the  leg,  in  a  manner  so  much  resembling 
that  of  similar  tendons  in  the  fore-leg,  tliat  we  shall  content  ourselves  with  referring  to  a 
description  of  the  perforated  and  perforating  flexor  tendons  at  page  186. 

At  e  is  a  continuation  of  the  gracilis  muscle,  p.  201,  over  the  stifle. 

At  h  is  the  extensor  pedis  already  described,  p.  204,  with  its  tendon. 

At  i  is  a  muscle  used  to  bend  the  hock,  the  ficxor  metatarsi,  or  bender  of  the  leg ; 
arising  from  the  lower  part  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh,  and  inserted  into  the  upper 
part  of  the  shank-bone;  and  also  the  inner  small  splint-bone.  It  is  a  muscle  of  con- 
siderable power,  although  disadvantageously  situated,  both  as  to  its  direction  and  its 
being  inserted  so  near  to  tlie  joint. 

At  k  is  a  short  muscle  extending  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  thigh  bones  (the  popli- 
teeus),  bending  the  stifle  and  turning  the  hmb  inward. 

These  cuts  represent  the  situation  of  some  of  the  principal  blood-vessels  and  nerves 
of  the  hind  extremities. 

In  the  cut  of  the  inside  of  the  thigh,  page  201,  p  represents  the  course  of  tlie  principal 
artery;  q  are  blood-vessels  belonging  to  the  groin;  at  r  is  the  large  cutaneous  vein,  or 
the  vein  immediately  under  the  skin.  The  principal  nen-es  on  tlie  fore-part  of  the  inside 
of  the  thigh  pursue  their  course  at  t,  in  tlie  direction  of  the  cutaneous  vein ;  and  those  of 
the  posterior  part  are  seen  at  s,  and  at  u  are  those  important  ligamentous  bands  at  the 
bending  of  the  hock  which  confine  the  tendons. 

In  the  cut  of  the  outside  of  the  thigh,  page  202,  p  wll  give  the  course  of  the  anterior 
arteries  and  veins;  5  the  course  of  the  principal  nerves,  and  coming  into  sight  below ; 
and  r  the  bands  described  in  the  former  plate. 

Also,  in  the  cut  of  the  outside  of  the  shoulder  and  arm,  p.  182,  the  figures  1,  2,  and  3, 
designate  the  places  of  tlie  principal  artery,  nerve,  and  vein  of  the  leg :  4  gives  the  sub- 
cutaneous vein  running  witnin  the  arm ;  and  5,  the  subcutaneous  vein  of  tlie  side  of  the 
chest. 

In  the  cut  of  the  inside  of  the  arm,  p.  183,  the  lines  above  represent,  in  the  order  fi-om 
the  front,  the  principal  nerves,  arteries,  and  veins  of  the  shoulder  and  arm,  and,  on  the 
muscles,  k  gives  the  principal  subcutaneous  vein  of  the  inside  of  the  arm,  cind  i  the 
artery  by  which  it  is  accompanied. 

The  stifle  joint  is  not  often  subject  to  sprain.  The  heat  and  tenderness  will  guide  to 
the  seat  of  injury.  Occasionally,  dislocation  of  the  patella  has  occurred,  and  the  horse 
drags  the  injured  limb  after  him,  or  rests  it  on  the  fetlock ; — the  aid  of  a  veterinary  sur- 

feon  is  here  requisite.  The  muscles  of  the  inside  of  the  thigh,  generally  have  sometimes 
een  sprained ;  this  may  be  detected  by  diffused  heat,  or  heat  on  the  inside  of  the  tliigh 
above  the  stifle  ; — rest,  fomentations,  bleeding,  and  physic,  will  be  the  proper  means  of 
cure 

THOROUGH-PIN 

We  have  observed  that  there  are  placed  in  the  neighborhood  of  joints,  certain  bags, 
containing  a  mucous  fluid  for  the  purpose  of  lubricating  the  parts,  and  that  these  some- 
times become  inflamed  and  enlarge.  We  have  spoken  of  wind-gaMs  and  their  treat- 
ment. A  similar  enlargement  is  found  above  the  hock,  between  the  tendons  of  the 
flexor  of  the  foot,  and  the  extensor  of  the  hock.  As  from  its  situation  it  must  necessarily 
project  on  both  sides  of  the  hock,  in  the  form  of  a  round  swelling,  it  is  called  a  thorough- 
pin,  a,  p.  203.  It  is  an  indication  of  considerable  work,  but,  except  it  be  of  very  great 
size,  it  is  rarely  attended  by  lameness.  The  mode  of  treatment  must  resemble  that 
recommended  for  wind-galls.  Although  thorough-pin  cannot  be  pronounced  to  be  un- 
soundness, yet  it  behoves  the  buyer  to  examine  well  a  horse  with  thorough-pin,  and  to 
ascertain  whether  undue  work  may  not  have  injured  him  in  other  respects. 


206 


THE  HORSE. 

THE    HOCK. 


We  now  arrive  at  a  very  important  joint,  often  the  evident,  and  much  oftener  the  un- 
suspected seat  of  lameness,  and  the  proper  formation  of  which  is  essentially  connected 
witii  the  excellence  and  value  of  the  horse.     We  shall  describe  it  a  little  at  length. 


The  inferior  head  of  the 
tibia  is  formed  into  two  deep 
grooves,  with  three  sharpened 
ritlges,  one  separating  the 
grooves,  and  tlie  other  two 
lorming  the  sides  of  tliem. 
It  is  seen  at  a  in  the  cut. 
It  rests  upon  a  very  singu- 
lar bone,  b,  called  the  as- 
tragalus (shaped  like  the  die 
or  dice  used  by  the  ancients), 
which  has  two  ciicular  risings 
or  projections,  and  with  a  de- 
pression between  them,  an- 
swering exactly  to  tlie  irregu- 
larities of  the  tibia,  and  these 
are  received  and  morticed  into 
each  other.  At  the  posterior 
part  its  convex  surface  is  re- 
ceived into  a  concavity  near 
the  base  of  another  bone,  and 
with  which  it  is  united  by  very 
strong  ligaments.  This  bone 
c,  is  called  the  os  calcis,  or 
bone  of  the  heel,  and  it  pro- 
jects upwards,  flattened  at  its 
sides,  and  receives,  strongly 
implanted  into  it,  the  tendons 
of  powerful  muscles.  These 
bones  rest  on  two  others,  the 
OS  cuboides,  d,  (cube -formed) 
behind,  and  the  larger  cunei- 
form or  wedge-shaped  bone  e, 
in  front.  The  larger  wedged- 
shaped  bone  is  supported  by 
two  smaller  ones  /,  and  these 
two  smaller  ones  and  the 
cube-bone  by  the  upper  heads 
of  the  shank-bone  g,  and  the 
splint-bones  A.  The  cube-bone 
is  placed  on  the  external 
splint-bone,  and  the  cannon 
bone ;  the  small  wedge-bone 
principally  on  the  inner  splint- 
bone,  not  seen  in  the  cut ;  and 
the  middle  wedge  bone  rests 
on  the  shank-bone  only,  g. 
These  bones  are  all  connected 
together  by  very  strong  ligaments,  which  prevent  dislocation,  but  allow  a  slight  degree  of 
motion  among  them,  and  the  surfaces  which  are  opposed  to  each  other  are  thicldy  cover- 
ed by  elastic  ccutilage. 

Considering  the  situation  and  action  of  this  joint,  the  weight  and  stress  thrown  upon 
it  must  be  exceedingly  great,  and  it  must  be  liable  to  much  injury  in  rapid  and  powerful 
motion.  What  are  the  provisions  to  prevent  injury  ?  The  grooved  or  pulley-like  heads 
of  the  tibia,  and  the  astragedus,  received  deeply  into  one  another,  and  confined  by  power- 
ful ligaments,  admit  freely  of  hinge-like  motion,  but  of  no  side  motion,  to  which  the 
joint  might  be  exposed  in  rapid  action,  or  an  uneven  surface.  The  slightest  inspection 
of  the  cut  will  show  that  the  stress  or  weight  thrown  by  the  tibia  a  on  the  astragalus  b, 
does  not  descend  perpendicularly,  but  in  a  slanting  direction,  by  which  a  great  deal  of 
concussion  is  avoided,  or  more  readily  diffused  among  the  different  bones ;  and  the  joint 
consisting  of  six  bones,  each  of  them  covered  with  elastic  cartilage,  and  each  admitting 


CURB.  207 

of  a  certain  degree  of  motion,  tliis  diminished  concussion  is  diffused  among  Uiem  all, 
and  thereby  neutralized  and  rendered  harmless.  Each  of  these  bones  is  covered  not 
only  by  cartilage,  but  by  a  membrane  secreting  the  synovia  or  oily  fluid  of  which  we 
have  spoken  in  other  joints  ;  so  that  these  bones  are  formed  into  so  many  distinct  joints, 
separated  from  each  other,  and  therefore  guarded  from  injury,  yet  united  by  various  liga- 
ments, possessing  altogether  sufficient  motion,  yet  bound  together  so  strongly  as  to  defy 
dislocauon.  When,  however,  we  consider  the  work  which  this  joint  has  to  perform,  and 
the  thoughtlessness  and  cruelty  witli  which  that  work  is  often  exacted,  we  shall  not  won- 
•  der_ii"  tliis  negjessarily  complicated  mechanism  is  sometimes  deranged.  The  hock  is, 
frdfflts  com'phiated  structure  and  its  work,  tlie  principal  seat  of  lameness  behind.  Nine- 
tenths  of  the  lamenesses  that  occur  in  the  hind-leg  are  to  be  traced  to  this  joint,  and 
when,  after  careful  examination,  we  are  unable  to  find  any  other  seat  of  lameness,  we 
shall  usually  be  justified  in  afRi'ming  that  tlae  hock  is  afiected. 

ENLARGMENT    OF    THE    HOCK. 

Fu'st,  there  is  inflammation,  or  sprain  of  the  hock-joint  generally,  arising  principally 
from  sudden  violent  concussion  ;  from  check  at  speed  ;  or  from  over- weight ;  and  attended 
with  enlargement  of  the  whole  joint,  and  great  tenderness  and  lameness.  This,  how- 
ever, like  other  diffused  inflammations,  is  not  so  untractable  as  intense  inflammations  of 
a  more  circumscribed  nature  ;  and  by  rest  and  fomentation,  or  perchance  firing,  the  limb 
recover  its  action,  and  the  horse  becomes  fit  for  ordinary  work.  The  swelling,  how- 
ever, does  not  always  subside.  Enlargement,  spread  over  the  whole  of  the  hock-joint, 
remains.  A  horse  with  an  enlarged  hock  must  always  be  regai'ded  with  suspicion,  and 
is  in  truth  unsound.  The  parts,  altered  in  structure,  are  to  a  certain  degree  weakened. 
The  horse  may  discharge  his  usual  work  through  life,  without  return  of  lameness,  but  if 
one  of  those  emergencies  should  occur  when  all  his  energies  require  to  be  exerted,  the 
disorganised  and  weakened  part  vsdll  fail.  The  purchase,  tlierefore,  of  a  horse  with 
enlarged  hock  will  depend  on  circumstances.  If  he  has  other  excellencies,  he  will  not 
be  uniformily  rejected ;  for  he  may  be  ridden  or  driven  moderately  for  many  a  year 
without  inconvenience,  yet  one  extra  hard  day's  work  may  lame  him  for  ever. 


There  are  oftener  injuries  of  particular  parts  of  the  hock-joint.  We  have  had  occasion 
frequently  to  describe  the  ring-like  ligaments,  which,  in  the  neighborhood  of  joints,  so 
usefully  tie  down  the  tendons.  From  sudden  or  over  exertion  these  ligaments  may  be 
extended,  and  inflammation,  swelling,  and  lameness  may  ensue ;  or  the  sheaths  of  the 
tendons  in  the  neighborhood  of  joints,  from  their  extent  of  motion  in  these  situations, 
may  be  susceptible  of  injury.  Curb  is  an  aflection  of  this  kind.  It  is  an  enlargement 
at  the  back  of  the  hock,  about  three  or  four  inches  below  the  point  of  the  hock.  It  is 
represented  at  d,  p.  203,  and  it  is  either  a  strain  in  the  ring-like  ligament  which  binds 
the  tendons  down  in  their  place,  or  in  the  sheath  of  the  tendons  ;  oftener,  we  are  inchned 
to  think,  of  the  Ugament  than  of  the  sheath.  Any  sudden  action  of  the  limb  of  more 
than  usual  violence  may  produce  it,  and  therefore  horses  axe  found  to  '  throw  out  curbs  ' 
after  a  hardly  contested  race,  an  extraordinary  leap,  a  severe  gallop  over  heavy  giound, 
or  a  sudden  check  in  the  gallop.  Young  horses  are  particularly  liable  to  it,  and  hoi-ses 
that  are  cow-hocked  (vide  cut,  p.  203),  or  whose  hocks  and  legs  resemble  those  of  tJie 
cow,  the  hocks  being  turned  inwai'd,  and  the  legs  forming  a  considerable  angle  outwaids. 
This  is  intelligible  enough ;  for  in  hocks  so  formed,  tlie  amiular  ligament  must  be  con- 
tinually on  the  stretch  to  confine  the  tendon. 

Curbs  are  generally  accompanied  by  considerable  lameness  at  their  first  appearance, 
but  the  sweUing  is  not  cdways  great ;  indeed,  it  sometimes  presents  so  gi-aduai  a  curve, 
that  it  is  scarcely  perceivable  when  we  stand  behind  the  horse,  and  both  the  horseman 
and  tlie  veterinary  surgeon  have  overlooked  it.  It  is  best  detected  by  observing  the  leg 
side  way. 

The  first  object  in  attempting  the  cure  is  to  abate  inflammation,  and  this  will  be  most 
readily  accomplished  by  cold  evaporating  lotions,  frequently  applied  to  the  part.  Equal 
portions  of  spirit  of  wine,  water,  and  vinegar,  will  arfbrd  an  excellent  application.  It 
will  be  almost  impossible  to  keep  a  bandage  on.  If  the  heat  and  lameness  are  considera- 
ble, it  will  be  prudent  to  phj'sic  the  horse,  and  to  bleed  from  the  subcutaneous  vein, 
whose  course  is  represented  at  r  page  201.  Whether  the  injury  be  of  the  annular  liga- 
ment, or  the  sheath  of  the  tendon,  more  active  means  will  be  necessary  to  perfect  the 
cure.  Either  a  liquid  blister  should  be  rubbed  on  the  part,  consisting  of  a  vinous  or  tur- 
pentine tincture  of  cantliarides,  and  this  daily  applied  until  some  considerable  swelling 
talies  place,  which  should  be  allowed  to  subside,  and  tlien  the  liniment  again  resorted  to; 
or,  what  is  the  preferable  plan,  the  hair  should  be  cut  oflf,  and  the  oait  blistered  as  soon 


208  THE  HORSE. 

as  the  heat  has  been  subdued.  The  blister  should  be  repeated  until  the  horse  goes 
sound,  and  the  swelling  has  disappeared.  In  severe  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  fire, 
but  we  cannot  recommend  the  indiscriminate  recourse  to  the  hot  iron  in  every  case  of 
curb,  and  we  would  uniformly  give  a  fair  trial  to  milder  measures.  If  the  iron  be  used, 
the  strokes  should  be  in  straight  lines. 

There  are  few  complaints  in  which  absolute  jmd  long-continued  rest  is  more  requisite 
than  in  curb.     An  injury  so  serious  leaves  tlie  parts  very  materially  weakened,  and,  if 
the  horse  be  soon  put  to  work  again,  the  lameness  will  frequently  return.     No  horse 
that  has  had  curbs  should  be  put  even  to  ordinary  work  in  less  thzin  a  month  afte^  Jhe  • 
apparent  cure,  and  even  then  he  should  very  gradually  resume  his  former  habits. 

A  horse  vdth  a  curb  is  manifestly  unsound.  A  horse  vdth  the  vestige  of  curb  we 
should  regard  with  much  suspicion,  or  generally  condemn  as  unsound ;  for  although  the 
neighboring  parts  may  have  accommodated  themselves  to  the  sUght  enlargement  that 
remains,  they  are  not  in  their  natural  situation,  and  have  lost  a  portion  of  their  natural 
strength  :  some  latent  disposition  to  relapse  may  continue,  which  extraordinary  exertion 
may  rouse  to  action ;  and,  beside  this,  it  should  be  remembered,  that  curb  is  an  heridi- 
fcuy  complaint,  and  that  there  may  be  some  constitutional  weakness  of  these  parts. 

BOG-SPAVIN. 

The  hock  is  plentifully  furnished  with  mucous  bags,  to  lubricate  the  different  portions 
of  this  complicated  joint.  Some  of  these  are  found  on  the  inside  of  the  joint,  which 
could  not  be  represented  in  our  cut,  page  203.  From  over-exertion  of  the  joint  they 
become  inflamed,  and  considerably  enlarged.  They  are  wind-galls  of  the  hock.  The 
subcutaneous  vein  passes  over  the  inside  of  the  hock,  and  over  some  of  these  enlarged 
bags,  and  is  compressed  between  the  skin  and  tlie  enlaorged  bag ;  and,  consequently,  the 
passage  of  the  blood  through  it  is  partially  stopped.  The  blood,  however,  continues  to 
be  returned  from  the  leg  and  foot,  and  being  thus  arrested  in  its  course,  a  portion  of  the 
vein  below  the  impediment,  and  between  it  and  the  next  valve,  is  distended,  and  causes 
the  soft  tumour  on  the  inside  of  the  hock,  called  the  bog  or  blood  spavin.  This  is  a  very 
serious  disease,  attended  with  no  great,  but  often  permanent  lameness,  and  a  disease  too 
apt  to  return,  when  the  enlargement  has  subsided  under  medical  treatment.  It  must  be 
considered  as  decided  unsoundness.  In  a  horse  for  slow  draught,  it  is  scarcely  worth 
while  even  to  attack  it.  In  a  horse  destined  to  more  rapid  action,  the  probabihty  of  a 
relapse  should  not  be  forgotten,  when  the  chances  of  success,  and  the  expenses  of  treat- 
ment are  calculated. 

The  disease  (the  enlarged  mucous  capsule)  lies  deep,  and  is  with  difficulty  operated 
upon.  Uniform  pressure  wiU  sometimes  cause  tiie  absorption  of  the  fluid  contained  in 
cysts  or  bags  like  these,  but  in  a  joint  of  such  extensive  motion  as  the  hock,  it  is  difficult, 
or  almost  impossible,  to  confine  the  pressure  on  the  precise  spot  where  it  is  required ; 
and  could  it  be  made  to  bear  on  the  enlarged  bag,  it  would  hkewise  press  on  the  vein, 
and  to  a  greater  degree  hinder  the  passage  of  the  blood,  and  increase  the  dilatation  below 
the  obstruction.  The  old  and  absurd  method  of  passing  a  ligature  above  and  below  the 
enlarged  portion  of  the  vein,  and  then  dissecting  out  the  tumour,  is  not,  in  the  advanced 
stage  of  veterinary  science,  practised  by  any  surgeon  who  has  a  regard  to  his  repu- 
tation. The  only  method  of  relief  which  holds  out  any  promise  even  of  temporary  suc- 
cess, is  by  exciting  a  great  deal  of  inflammation  on  the  skin,  and  thus  rousing  the  deeper 
seated  absorbents  to  carry  away  the  fluid  effused  in  tlie  enlarged  bag.  Repeated  blisters 
then  will  afford  the  fairest  prospect  of  removing  the  tumour,  or  firing  may  be  tried ;  but 
in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  disease  will  bid  defiance  to  aU  our  means,  or  will  return, 
and  baffle  our  hopes  when  we  had  seemed  to  have  been  accomphshing  our  object.  A 
horse  with  bog-spavin  will  do  very  well  for  ordinary  work.  He  may  draw  in  a  cart,  or 
trot  fairly  in  a  lighter  carriage,  with  little  detriment  to  his  utility,  but  he  vnll  never  do 
for  rapid  or  hai'd  work,  and  it  is  vain  to  attempt  to  make  him. 

BOXE-SPAVIN. 

A  still  more  formidable  disease  ranks  under  the  name  of  spavin,  and  is  an  affection  of 
the  bones  of  the  hock-joint.  We  have  observed  that  the  bones  of  the  leg,  the  shank-bone 
g,  page  206,  and  the  two  littie  splint-bones  behind,  h,  support  the  lower  layer  of  the 
bones  of  the  hock.  The  cube  bone,  d,  rests  principally  on  tiie  shank-bone,  and  in  a 
ehght  degree  on  the  outer  splint-bone.  The  middle  wedge-bone,  /,  rests  entirely  upon 
the  shank-bone,  and  the  smeiller  wedge  (not  seen  in  the  cut)  rests  in  a  very  slight  degree 
on  the  shank -bone,  but  principally  or  almost  entirely  on  the  inner  splint-bone.  Then 
the  splint-bones  sustain  a  very  unequal  degree  of  concussion  and  weight.  Not  only  is 
the  inner  one  placed  more  under  the  body,  and  nearer  the  centre  of  gravity,  but  it  has 
almost  the  whole  of  the  weight  and  concussion  communicated  to  the  Uttle  wedge -bone 


THE  CURB.  209 

carried  on  to  it.  It  is  not,  therefore,  to  be  wondered  at,  that  in  the  violent  action  of  this 
Joint  in  galloping,  leaping,  heavy  draught,  and  especially  in  young  horses,  and  before 
tlie  limbs  have  become  properly  knir,  Uie  inner  sphiit-bone,  or  its  ligaments,  or  tlie  sub- 
stance which  connects  it  with  the  shank-bone,  should  suh'er  material  injury.  The  smith 
increases  the  tendency  to  this,  by  his  injudicious  management  of  the  leet.  It  is  a  com- 
mon notion,  tliat  cutting,  and  wounds  in  the  .feet,  from  one  loot  b-eading  on  the  other. 


are  prevented  by  putting  on  a  shoe  witli  a  calkin  on  the  outer  heel,  that  is,  the  extremity 
of  the  heel  of  the  shoe  being  bent,  and  thus  the  outer  heel  considerably  raised  irom  the 
sual  to  see  whole  teams  of  horses,  and  thai  all  tlie  year  round,  with 
nd  foot  considerably  raised  above  the  otlier.  This  untqnal  bearing, 
weight,  cannot  lail  of  being  injurious  ;  it  will  place  an  unequal 
3  ofthe  joints,  and  particularly  of  the  hock -joint,  and  increase  the 


gi-ound.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see  whole  teams  of  horses,  and  thai  all  tlie  year  round,  with 
Qie  outer  heel  of  tlie  hind  foot  considerably  raised  above  the  otlier.  This  untqnal  bearing, 
or  distribution  ofthe 
strain  on  the  hgaments 
tendency  to  spavin. 

The  weight  and  concussion  which  are  thus  thrown  on  the  inner  splint-bone  produce, 
in  the  first  place,  intlaraniation  of  the  cartilaginous  substance  which  unites  it  to  the 
shank-bone.  The  consequence  of  tliis  is,  that  the  cartilage  is  absorbed,  and  bone  depos- 
ited;— the  union  between  tlie  splint-bone  and  the  shank  becomes  bony  instead  of  cai-til- 
agiuous  ; — tlie  degree  of  elastic  action  between  them  is  destroyed,  and  there  is  tormed  a 
splint  of  the  hiiid-leg.  This  is  uniformly  on  the  inside  of  the  hind-leg,  because  the 
gi-eater  weight  and  concussion  are  thrown  on  the  inner  splint-bones.  As  in  the  fore-leg. 
the  disposition  to  form  bony  matter  having  commenced,  and  the  cause  which  produced 
it  continuing  to  act,  bone  continues  to  be  deposited,  and  it  appears  gencrediy  in  the  form 
of  a  tmnour,  where  tlie  head  of  the  splint-bone  is  united  with  the  shank,  and  in  front  of 
that  union.  It  is  seen  at  c,  p.  203.  This  is  called  bone-spavin.  Inflammation  of  the 
ligaments  of  any  of  tlie  small  bones  of  the  hock,  proceeding  to  bony  tumour,  would 
equally  class  under  tlie  name  of  spavin,  but,  with  very  few  exceptions,  the  disease  com- 
mences on  tlie  precise  spot  we  have  described. 

When  spavin  is  forming  there  is  always  lameness,  and  that  frequently  to  a  very  great 
degree ;  but  when  the  membrane  ofthe  bone  has  accommodated  itself  to  the  tumour  that 
extended  it,  the  lameness  subsides,  or  disappears,  or  depends  upon  the  degree  in  which 
the  bony  deposit  interferes  witli  the  motion  of  the  joint.  We  olten  see  horses  with  ex- 
ceedingly large  spavins,  that  are  only  slightly  lame,  or  that  merely  have  a  stillness  in 
their  gait  at  nrst  starting,  and  that  gradually  goes  off  after  a  httle  motion  ;  and  we  meet 
with  others  with  the  bony  tumour  comparatively  small,  yet  the  lameness  so  great  as  to 
destroy  the  usefulness  of  the  horse.  There  is  always  this  peculiarity  in  the  lameness  of 
spavin,  that  it  abates,  and  sometimes  disappears,  on  exercise  ;  and  therefore,  a  horse, 
with  regard  to  which  there  is  any  suspicion  of  spavin,  should  be  examined,  when  it  first 
in  the  morning  is  taken  from  the  stable. 

If  tlie  spavin  continues  to  increase,  the  bony  deposit  first  spreads  over  the  lower  wedge- 
bones,  /,  p.  206,  tor  these  are  nearest  to  its  original  seat.  They  are  capable  of  slight 
motion,  and  share  in  every  action  of  the  joint,  but  their  principal  design  was  to  obviate 
concussion.  The  chief  motion  ofthe  joint,  and  that  compared  with  which  the  motion  of 
the  others  is  scarcely  to  be  regarded,  is  confined  to  the  tibia  a,  and  tlie  astragalus  6,  and 
therefore,  stiflhess  ratlier  than  lameness  may  accompany  spavin,  even  when  it  is  begin- 
ning to  atfect  the  small  bones  of  the  joint.  Hence,  too,  we  see  the  advantage  of  tlicse 
bones  having  each  its  sepai-ate  ligaments  and  membranes,  and  constituting  so  many 
joints,  since  injurj'  may  happen  to  some  of  them,  without  the  etiect  being  propagated  to 
tlie  rest.  When  the  bony  deposit  continues  to  enlarge,  and  takes  in  tlie  second  layer 
of  bones,  the  larger  wedge  bones  e,  and  even  spreads  to  the  cube  bones  on  the  other  side, 
even  then  the  lameness  may  not  be  excessive,  because  these  two  are  joints,  or  pails  of 
the  joint,  in  which  the  motion  is  small ;  but  when  it  extends  to  the  union  ofthe  tibia  a, 
and  the  astragalus  b ;  when  the  joint,  in  which  is  the  chief  motion  of  the  hock,  is 
attacked,  the  lameness  is  indeed  foniiidable,  and  the  horse  becomes  nearly  or  quite  useless, 
A  recollection  of  the  situation  of  the  dilierent  bones  ofthe  hock  may,  in  some  measure, 
guide  the  purchaser  as  to  the  probable  value  and  use  of  the  spavined  horse ;  but  he 
must  not  depend  on  this,  for  deep-seated  deposits  of  bone,  which  the  eye  cannot  reach, 
may  interfere  more  with  the  actionof  the  joint,  than  anyoutwaid  enlargement,  however 
great. 

Spavined  horses  are  generally  capable  of  slow  work.  They  are  equal  to  the  greater 
part  of  the  work  of  the  tarm,  and  therefore,  they  will  not  be  always  rejected  by  the  small 
farmer,  and  may  generally  be  procured  at  httle  price.  These  horses  are  not  only  capa- 
ble of  agricultural  work,  but  tliey  generally  improve  under  it ;  they  become  less  lame, 
and  even  the  bony  tumour  to  a  certain  degi-ee  diminishes.  There  is  sufficient  moderate 
motion  and  friction  of  the  limb  to  rouse  the  absorbents  to  action,  and  cause  them  to  take 
up  a  portion  of  the  bony  matter  thrown  out,  but  not  enough  to  renew  or  prolong  inflam- 
mation. We  cannot  say  that  the  plough  alibrds  a  aire  for  spavin,  but  we  have  seen 
many  instances  in  which  the  spavined  horse  has  veiy  materially  improved  at  it. 


210  THE  HORSE. 

For  fast  work,  and  for  work  that  must  be  regularly  performed,  they  are  not  so  well 
calculated  ;  for  this  lameness  behind  produces  great  difhculty  in  rising  up,  and  the  con- 
sciousness that  he  will  not  be  able  to  rise  without  painful  ettbrt,  prevents  the  horse  from 
lying  down  at  all ;  and  a  horse  that  cannot  rest  well  cannot  long  travel  fai-  and  fast.  This 
is  well  known  to  postmasters.  A  foundered  horse  may  do  his  work,  for  as  soon  as  he 
has  satisfied  his  appetite  he  is  down ;  but  the  horse  that  will  seldom  or  never  lie  down, 
must  be  speedily*  worn  out. 

Our  cut  shows  at  e,  the  natural  situation  of  spavin,  but  there  is  sometimes  an  expan- 
sion of  the  heads  of  the  bones  of  the  leg,  tliat  looks  very  much  like  it,  and  has  been  mis- 
talten  for  it.  Both  hocks  should  be  examined,  for  it  is  rare  that  there  will  be  an  unnatu- 
ral growth  of  bone  of  precisely  the  same  form  and  appearauce  in  both ;  and  if  there  be  a 
natural  projection,  or  breadth  of  the  heads  of  the  bones,  all  the  other  joints  will  present 
the  same  bold  character. 

The  ti-eatment  of  spavin  is  simple  enough,  but  not  always  effectual.  The  owner  of 
the  horse  will  neither  consult  his  own  interest,  nor  the  dictates  of  humanity,  if  he  suffers 
the  chissel  and  mallet,  or  the  gimblet,  or  the  pointed  irou,  or  airsenic  to  be  used ;  yet 
measures  of  considerable  seventy  must  be  resorted  to.  Repeated  blisters  will  usually 
cause  either  the  absoi-ption  of  tlie  bony  deposite,  or  the  abatement  or  removal  of  the  in- 
flammation of  the  ligaments.     As  a  last  resort,  however,  the  hot  iron  may  be  applied. 

We  have  thus  presented  our  readers  with  a  fearful  list  of  diseases  belonging  to  the 
hock,  but  our  cateJogue  is  not  completed.  It  is  well  known  that  the  horse  is  frequently 
subject  to  lameness  behind,  when  no  ostensible  cause  for  it  can  be  found,  and  there  is  no 
extei'nal  heat  or  enlargement  to  indicate  its  seat.  Farriers  and  grooms  pronounce  these 
to  be  affections  of  the  stifle,  or  round  bone ;  or  if  tlie  gait  of  the  horse  and  peculiar  stiff- 
ness of  motion  point  out  the  hock  as  the  afiected  part,  yet  the  joint  may  be  of  its  natural 
size,  and  neither  heat  nor  tenderness  can  be  discovered.  The  groom  has  here  a  method 
of  unravelling  the  mystery:  he  says  that  it  is  the  beginning  of  spavin  ;  but  months  and 
years  pass  away,  and  tlie  spavin  does  not  appear,  and  tlie  horse  is  at  length  destroyed  as 
incurably  lame.  Horsemen  are  indebted  to  Mr.  W.  J.  Goodwin  for  the  discovery  of  the 
seat  of  frequent  lameness  behind.  Our  cut  represents  two  layers  of  small  bones  on  tlie 
inside  of  the  hock ;  the  larger  wedge-like  bone  e  above ;  and  the  middle  /,  and  the 
smaller  one  below,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  almost  the  whole  of  the  weight  of  the  horse, 
communicated  by  the  tibia  a,  is  thrown  upon  these  bones.  The  cube-bone  d  does  little 
more  than  support  the  point  of  the  hock  c.  It  is  then  easy  to  suppose  that,  in  the  con- 
cussion of  hard  work  or  rapid  travelling,  these  bones,  or  the  delicate  and  sensible  mem- 
branes in  which  they  are  wrapped,  may  be  severely  injured.  Repeated  dissections  of 
horses  that  have  been  incurably  lame  behind,  without  any  thing  external  to  point  out  the 
place  or  cause  of  lameness,  have  shown  that  inflammation  of  the  membranes  lining  these 
joints,  and  secreting  the  fluid  that  lubricates  them,  has  taken  place ;  and  has  been  accom- 
panied by  all  the  pain  of  joint  disease,  and  evils  corresponding  to  those  which  we  have 
described,  when  treating  of  broken  knees,  and  the  consequent  inflammation  of  the  mem- 
brane and  internal  part  of  the  joint.  Indeed,  so  clearly  is  this  now  established,  that 
when,  after  careful  and  repeated  examination  by  a  competent  person,  no  seat  or  cause 
of  lameness  can  be  discovered,  we  shall  be  right  nineteen  times  out  of  twenty,  in  decid- 
ing that  it  is  disease  in  this  portion  of  the  hock.  No  enlargement,  no  heat,  will  indicate 
its  existence,  but  when  it  has  been  long  established,  and  ossified  matter  has  been  thrown 
out  between  these  bones,  it  will,  like  the  true  spavin,  spread,  and  appear  either  on  the 
inside  of  the  hock,  or  surrounding  the  whole  of  the  joint. 

In  these  cases,  then,  of  mysterious  lameness,  and  when,  after  the  removal  of  the  shoe, 
and  the  most  patient  search,  we  have  failed  in  discovering  a  cause  of  lameness  else- 
where, we  shall  be  justified  in  considering  this  as  the  affected  part,  and  treating  it 
accordingly :  and  as  the  injury  is  deep,  and  in  the  very  centre  of  the  joint,  we  must 
adopt  severe  measures  in  order  to  reach  it.  We  must  blister  immediately,  and  repeat  the 
blister,  and  enjoin  perfect  quietude  and  rest;  but  here,  as  in  the  bone-spavin,  and  oftener 
than  in  that  disease,  all  our  appliances  and  means  may  be  fruitless.  Our  only  hope  lies 
in  an  early  attempt  to  combat  the  evil ;  and  in  all  these  obscure  cases,  he  is  unjust  to 
himself  who  does  not  speedily  have  recourse  to  their  advice,  to  whom  science  and 
practice  have  given  a  facility  in  detecting  latent  disease. 

THE    POINT    OF    THE    HOCK. 

If  the  reader  has  not  forgotten  what  we  have  said  concerning  the  projection  of  the 
elbow,  he  will  be  convinced  that  the  form  of  the  hock  is  materially  connected  with  the 
value  of  tlie  horse.  The  most  powerful  of  the  flexor  or  bending  muscles  are  inserted 
into  the  point  of  the  hock,  or  the  extremity  of  the  os  calcis  c ;  and  in  proportion  to  the 
projection  of  the  hock,  or,  in  other  words,  the  length  of  this  bone,  will  two  purposes  be 


COW-HOCKS.  211 

effected.  The  line  of  direction  will  be  more  advantageous,  for  it  will  be  nearer  to  a  per- 
pendicular; and  the  arm  of  the  lever  to  which  the  powder  is  applied  will  be  lengthened, 
and  mechanical  advantage  will  be  gained  to  an  almost  incredible  extent.  Suppose  this 
bone  of  the  hock  to  be  tliree  inches  in  length ;  the  joint  formed  by  the  tibia  and  the 
astragalus  is  evidently  the  centre  of  motion ;  and  the  weight,  concentered  about  the 
middle  of  the  shank,  is  the  obstacle  to  be  overcome.  If  the  weight  be  four  times  as  fai- 
from  the  centre  of  motion  as  the  power,  a  force  equal  to  four  tunes  the  weight  would 
raise  it.  It  is,  however,  here  to  be  remembered,  that  it  is  not  merely  the  weight  of  the 
leg  which  is  to  be  raised,  but  the  weight  of  the  horse,  for  the  time  resting  upon  the 
leg,  and  that  weight  to  be  propelled  or  driven  forward.  At  what  shall  we  calculate  this .' 
We  may  fairly  suppose  that  the  muscles  whose  tendons  are  inserted  into  the  point  oi'  the 
hock  exert  an  energy  equal  to  40()01bs.  Let  us  further  suppose,  that  an  inch  is  added 
to  the  point  of  the  hock,  which  will  be  an  addition  of  one-third  to  its  length  :  a  muscu- 
lar power  of  less  than  SOOOlbs.  will  now  effect  the  same  purpose.  The  slightest  length- 
ening, therefore,  of  the  point  of  the  hock  will  make  an  exceedingly  great  ditierence  in 
the  muscular  energy  by  which  the  joint  is  moved ;  and  a  difference  that  will  wonder- 
fully tell  in  a  long  day's  work.  On  this  account,  the  depth  of  the  hock,  or  the  length  of 
the  bone  of  which  we  are  speaking,  is  a  point  of  the  greatest  importance. 

There  is,  however,  a  limit  to  this.  In  proportion  to  the  length  of  this  bone  must  be 
the  space  which  it  passes  over  in  order  sufficiently  to  bend  the  limb  ;  and  in  that  pro- 
portion must  be  the  conti-action  of  the  muscle  ;  and  consequently  the  length  of  the  mus- 
cle ;  that  it  may  be  enabled  thus  to  contract ;  and,  therefore,  if  this  bone  were  inordinately 
lengthened,  there  would  require  a  depth  of  quarter  which  would  amount  to  deformity. 
A  hock  of  tliis  disadvantageous  length  is,  how^ever,  rarely  or  never  met  with,  and  itis  re- 
ceived among  the  golden  rules  in  judging  of  the  horse,  that  this  bone  of  the  hock  cannot 
be  too  long. 

CAPPED   HOCK. 

The  point  of  the  hock  is  sometimes  swelled.  A  soft  fluctuating  tumour  appears  on  it. 
This  is  an  enlargement  of  one  of  those  mucous  bags  of  which  we  have  spoken,  and  which 
surrounds  the  insertion  of  the  tendons  into  the  point  of  the  hock.  It  is  seldom  accom- 
panied by  lameness,  but  yet  it  is  a  serious  business.  It  is  usually  produced  by  blows, 
and,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  by  the  injury  which  the  horse  inflicts  upon  himself  by 
kicking;  therefore  a  horse  with  a  capped  hock  is  properly  regarded  with  a  very  suspi- 
cious eye.  The  whole  of  the  hook  should  be  most  carefuOy  examined,  in  order  to  dis- 
cover whether  there  are  other  marks  of  violence,  and  the  previous  history  of  the  animal 
should,  if  possible,  be  obtained.  Generally  the  kieldng  is  in  harness,  but  some  horses 
have  the  habit  of  kicking  in  the  stall ;  itis  possible,  however,  that  lying  on  a  thin  bed, 
or  on  no  bed,  may  bruise  the  hock  and  produce  the  swelling,  or  it  may  even  result  from 
sprain  of  the  hock ;  but  we  repeat  that  it  is  far  oftener  the  consequence  of  external  vio- 
lence. 

Here  again  itis  exceedingly  difficult  to  apply  a  bandage  ;  and  puncturingthe  tumour, 
or  passing  a  seton  through  it,  would  be  a  most  injudicious  and  dangerous  practice.  Blis- 
ters, repeated  as  long  as  may  be  necessaiy,  are  the  proper  means  to  be  employed.  Some- 
times the  tumour  will  disappear  of  itself,  but  at  others  it  will  attain  a  very  large  size,  or 
will  assume  a  callous  structure  that  will  bid  defiance  to  all  the  means  we  can  employ. 

MALLENDERS  AND  SALLENDERS. 

In  the  inside  of  the  hock,  or  a  little  below  it,  as  well  as  at  the  bend  of  the  knee,  (see 
h,  p.  197,)  there  is  sometimes  a  scurfy  eruption  called  mallenders  in  the  fore  leg,  and 
SALLENDERS  in  the  hind  leg,  They  seldom  produce  lameness,  but  if  no  means  are 
taken  to  get  rid  of  them,  a  discharge  proceeds  from  them  which  it  is  afterwards  difficult 
to  stop  ;  and  certainly  they  have  an  unsightly  appearance,  and  generally  argue  bad  stable 
management.  A  diuretic  ball  should  be  occasionally  given,  and  an  ointment,  composed 
of  one  part  of  sugar  of  lead,  two  of  tar,  and  six  of  lard,  rubbed  over  the  part.  Snould 
this  fail,  the  weak  mercurial  ointment  should  be  used. 

COW-HOCKS. 

The  line  of  direction  of  the  legs  beneath  the  hocks  should  not  be  disregarded.  The 
leg  should  descend  perpendicularly  to  the  fetlock.  The  weight  and  stress  will  thus  be 
equally  diffused,  not  only  over  the  whole  of  the  hock,  but  also  the  pasterns  and  the  foot. 
Some  horses,  however,  have  their  hocks  closer  than  natural  to  each  other,  and  the  legs 
take  a  divergent  direction  outward,  and  the  toes  likewise  are  turned  outward.  These 
horses  are  said  to  be  cat  or  cow- hocked.    They  are  generally  supposed  to  possess  consid- 


212  THE  HORSE, 

erable  speed,  and  we  believe  that  they  do  ;  and  we  thus  account  for  it.  The  cow-hocked 
horse  has  his  legs  not  onl}^  turned  more  outward,  but  bent  more  under  him,  and  this  in- 
creases the  distance  between  the  point  of  the  hock  and  the  tendons  of  the  perforating 
muscle ;  see  b,  cut  p.  262.  It  increases  the  space  which  is  usually  occupied  by  tho- 
rough-pin, a,  in  the  same  page.  Then  the  point  of  the  hock,  moved  by  the  action  of  the 
muscles,  is  enabled  to  describe  a  greater  portion  of  a  circle  ;  and  in  proportion  to  the  in- 
creased space  passed  over  by  the  point  of  the  hock,  will  the  space  passed  over  by  the 
bmb  beneath  beincreased,  and  so  the  stride  of  the  horse  maybe  lengthened,  and  thus  far 
his  speed  may  be  increased.  But  this  advantage  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  many 
evils.  This  increased  contraction  of  the  muscles  is  an  expenditure  of  animal  power, 
and,  as  we  have  already  stated,  the  weight  and  the  concussion  being  so  unequally  distrib- 
uted by  this  formation  of  the  limbs,  some  part  must  be  overstrained  and  overworked, 
and  injuiy  must  ensue.  On  this  account  it  is,  that  the  cow-hocked  horse  is  more  subject 
than  others  to  thorough-pin  and  spavin  ;  and  is  so  disposed  to  curbs,  that  these  hocks  are 
denominated  by  horsemen  curby  hocks.  The  mischief  extends  even  farther  than  this. 
Such  a  horse  is  peculiarly  liable  to  windgall,  sprain  of  the  fetlock,  cutting,  and  knuck- 

^i"?-    ..... 

A  slight  inclination  to  this  form  in  a  strong  powerful  horse  may  not  be  very  objectiona- 
ble, but  a  horse  decidedly  cow-hocked  should  never  be  selected. 

STRING-HALT. 

Before  we  quit  the  hock,  we  must  notice  a  peculiar  involuntary  twitching  of  the  hind 
leg,  or  convulsive  action  of  the  muscles  by  which  it  is  bent,  and  which  is  termed  string- 
halt.  This  is  evidently  an  affection  of  some  of  the  nerves  which  communicate  motion 
to  these  muscles.  It  is  an  irregular  action  of  nervous  energy ;  but  what  particular  fibril 
is  affected,  or  what  muscle  is  chiefly  spasmed,  has  never  been  ascertained.  It  is  princi- 
pally observed  when  the  horse  first  comes  from  the  stable,  and  gradually  ceases  after 
he  has  been  exercised  a  while.  It  is  unpleasant  to  the  rider,  but  it  cannot  be  denomi- 
nated unsoundness ;  on  the  contrary,  common  opinion  has  given  to  the  horse  with  string- 
halt  a  more  than  usual  share  of  strength  and  endurance  ;  and  if  it  be  an  excess  of  ner- 
vous energy,  although  irregularly  exerted,  we  shall  find  no  difficulty  in  associating  it  with 
general  powerful  muscular  action.  However  this  may  be,  the  precise  nature  ot  the  de- 
lect has  never  been  determined,  nor  has  any  cure  for  it  been  discovered. 

the  hind  leg. 

The  construction  of  the  hind  leg,  and  the  injuries  to  which  it  is  subject,  are  so  similar 
to  those  of  the  fore  leg,  that  we  shall  content  ourselves  with  referring  to  our  description 
of  them  given  at  page  187,  only  observing  that  the  shank  bone  is  longer  than  that  of  the 
fore  leg ;  the  outer  splint  bone  is  considerably  larger  than  the  inner  one,  and  the  pasterns 
are  longer  than  those  of  the  fore  leg,  and  less  oblique. 

On  the  back  part  of  the  leg  (/,  page  203,)  are  some  excrescences,  called  by  farriers 
KAT-TAiLS,  from  the  appearance  they  give  the  hair.  They  will  generally  yield  to  the 
mild  mercurial  ointment,  but  in  very  bad  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove  them 
with  a  knife. 

Before  we  quit  the  legs,  we  must  notice  two  frequent  and  very  troublesome  diseases. 
The  first  is 

SWELLED   LEGS. 

The  fore  legs  are  sometimes  subject  to  considerable  enlargement,  but  much  oftener 
the  hind  ones.  Occasionally  when  the  horse  does  not  seem  to  labor  under  any  other 
disease,  and  sometimes  from  an  apparent  shifting  of  inflammation  from  other  parts,  (in- 
flammation of  the  lungs  or  the  eye  not  unfrequently  thus  changes  its  seat,)  and  the  hind 
legs  suddenly  swell  to  an  enormous  degree  from  the  hock,  and  almost  from  the  stifle  to 
the  fetlock,  attended  by  heat,  and  extreme  tenderness  of  the  skin,  and  excessive  and 
very  peculiar  lameness.  The  pulse  likewise  becomes  quick  and  hard,  and  the  horse 
evidently  labors  under  considerable  fever.  It  is  acute  inflammation  of  the  cellular  sub- 
stance of  the  legs,  and  that  most  sudden  in  its  attack,  most  violent  in  its  degree,  and 
therefore  attended  by  the  pouring  out  of  a  great  deal  of  fluid,  in  this  cellular  substance. 
It  occurs  in  young  horses,  and  in  those  which  are  over-fed  and  little  exercised,  without 

Erevious  inflammation  in  any  other  part.     Fomentation,  diuretics,  or  physic,  or,  if  there 
3  much  fever,  a  moderate  bleeding,  will  often  relieve  the  distention  abnost  as  suddenly 
as  it  appeared. 

The  kind  of  swelled  legs,  most  frequent  of  occurrence,  and  most  troublesome,  is  of  a 
different  nature,  or  rather  it  is  so  various  in  its  kind  and  causes,  and  consequences  and 


mode  of  treatment,  th?' 
will  guide  us  to  a  rip"' 
or  coinparalive  deb^ 
healtli,  and  witV 
cise,  will  h?' 
of  fluid  to  ' 
spirat'^ 
ties 


-f  evaporation,  which  is 

with  which  the  heels 

that  inflammation. 

totest  conducted 

-f  filth  is  suf- 

'sually 

'CU- 


GREASE.  215 

physic  is  indicated,  and  in  what  states  of  the  constitution  or  disease  we  may  be  content 
with  diuretics.  If  the  horse  be  strong,  and  full  of  flesh  and  fat,  physic  should  always 
precede,  and  sometimes  supersede  the  diuretics ;  in  cases  of  much  debihty,  diuretics 
with  aromatics  or  tonics  will  be  preferable. 

The  feeding  will  hkewise  vary  with  the  case,  but  with  these  rules,  which  admit  of  no 
exception,  that  green  meat  should  be  given,  and  more  especially  carrots,  when  they  are 
not  too  expensive,  and  mashes,  if  the  norse  will  eat  them,  and  nevei  the  full  allowance 
of  corn. 

Walking  exercise  should  be  resorted  to  as  soon  as  the  horse  is  able  to  bear  it,  and  this 
by  degrees  may  be  increased  to  a  gentle  trot. 

From  bad  stable  management  at  first,  and  neglect  during  the  disease,  a  yet  worse  kind 
of  grease  is  occasionally  found.  The  ulceration  extends  over  the  skin  of  the  heel  and 
the  fetlock,  and  a  fungus  springs  from  the  surface  of  both,  highly  sensible,  bleeding  at 
the  slightest  touch,  and  interspersed  with  scabs.  By  degrees,  portions  of  the  fungus  be- 
gin to  be  covered  with  a  horny  substance,  protruding  in  the  form  of  knobs,  and  collected 
together  in  bunches.  These  ai'e  known  by  tlie  name  of  grapes.  A  stinking  and  very 
peculiar  discharge  proceeds  from  nearly  the  whole  of  the  unnatural  substance.  The 
horse  evidently  suffers  much  and  is  gradually  worn  down  by  tlie  disease.  The  assistance 
of  a  veterinary  surgeon  is  here  indispensable. 

Some  horses  are  more  subject  to  grease  than  others,  particularly  draught  horses,  both 
heavy  and  light,  but  particularly  the  former,  and  if  they  have  no  degree  of  blood  in  them. 
It  was  the  experience  of  this  which  partly  contributed  to  the  gradual  change  of  coach 
and  other  draught  horses  to  those  of  a  lighter  breed.  It  may,  however,  be  affirmed,  with- 
out danger  of  error,  that,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  grease  arises  from  mismanage- 
ment and  neglect ;  and  tlie  farmer  and  tlie  horse-proprietor  would  not  be  unjust  to  their 
servants,  and  would  materially  promote  their  own  interest,  if  tliey  exacted  a  fine  for 
every  case  of  grease  that  occuiTed  in  tlieir  stable. 

Every  thing  that  has  a  tendency  to  excite  inflammation  in  the  sldn  of  the  heel  is  a 
cause  of  grease.  Therefore,  want  of  exercise,  for  the  reasons  which  we  have  stated 
when  treating  of  swelled  legs,  is  a  frecjuent  cause ;  the  fluid  which  accumulates  about 
the  extremities,  and  is  unable  to  return,  is  a  source  of  irritation  by  its  continued  pressure. 
When  high  feeding  is  added  to  irregular  or  deficient  exercise,  this  disease  is  evidently" 
still  more  likely  to  be  produced.  Want  of  cleanliness  in  a  stable  is  a  fruitful  source  of 
this  complaint.  When  the  heels  are  embedded  in  filth  tliey  are  weakened  by  the  constant 
moisture  surrounding  them,  and  irritated  by  the  acrimony  of  the  dung  and  the  urine,  and 
little  prepared  to  endure  the  evaporation  and  cold  to  which  they  are  exposed  when  the 
horse  is  taken  out  of  the  stable.  We  believe,  however,  that  the  absurd  practice  of  wash- 
ing the  feet  and  legs  of  horses  when  they  come  from  their  work,  and  either  carelessly 
sponging  them  down  afterwards,  or  leaving  them  to  dry  as  they  may,  is  by  far  the  most 
common  origin  of  grease. 

When  the  horse  is  warmed  by  his  work,  and  the  heels  share  in  the  warmth,  the  mo- 
mentary cold  of  washing  may  not  be  injurious  if  the  animal  be  immediately  rubbed  dry; 
yet  even  this  would  be  better  avoided  :  but  to  wash  out  the  heels,  and  leave  them  par- 
tially dry,  or  perfectly  wet,  and  suffering  from  the  extreme  cold  which  is  produced  by 
evaporation  from  a  wetted  surface,  is  the  most  absurd,  dangerous,  and  injurious  practice 
that  can  be  imagined.  It  is  worse  when  the  post-horse  or  the  plough-horse  is  plunged 
up  to  his  belly  in  the  river  or  pond,  immediately  after  his  work.  The  owner  is  little 
aware  how  many  cases  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  and  bowels,  and  feet,  and  heels, 
follow.  It  would,  therefore,  be  an  excellent  rule  never  to  wash  the  heels  of  these  horses. 
After  they  have  been  suffered  to  stand  for  twenty  minutes  in  the  stable,  during  which 
time  the  horse-keeper  or  the  carter  may  be  employed  in  taking  care  of  the  harness,  or 
carriage,  or  beginning  to  dress  the  horse,  the  greater  part  of  the  dirt  which  had  collected 
about  the  heels  may  be  got  rid  of  with  a  dry  brush ;  and  the  rest  will  disappear  a  quarter 
of  an  hour  afterwards  under  the  operation  of  a  second  brushing.  The  trouble  will  not 
be  greater,  and  the  heels  will  not  Tie  chilled  and  subject  to  inflammation. 

There  has  been  some  dispute  as  to  the  propriety  of  cutting  the  hair  fiom  the  heels. 
Custom  has  very  properly  retained  the  hair  on  our  farm-horses.  Nature  would  not  have 
given  it  had  it  not  been  useful.  It  guards  the  heel  from  being  injured  by  the  inequalities 
of  the  ploughed  field;  it  prevents  the  dirt  in  which  the  heels  are  constantly  enveloped, 
from  reaching  and  caking  on  and  irritating  the  skin ;  it  hinders  the  usual  moisture  which 
is  mixed  with  the  clay  and  mould  from  reaching  the  skin,  and  it  preserves  an  equal  tem- 
perature in  the  parts.  If,  however,  the  hair  be  suffered  to  remain  on  the  heels  of  our 
farm-horses,  there  is  greater  necessity  for  brushing  and  hand  rubbing  the  heels,  and  never 
washing  them ;  for  the  water  used  in  washing  wiU  readily  penetrate  through  the  hair, 
and  it  will  be  absolutely  impossible  to  get  rid  of  it  again.  Indeed,  we  would  neglect  the 
heels  altogether,  or  let,  as  many  careless  carters  do,  the  dirt  accumulate  from  month  to 


216  THE  HORSE, 

month,  rather  than  wash  them.    This  would,  indeed,  be  idle  and  injurious  treatment, 
but  it  would  be  by  far  the  lesser  evil. 

Fashion  and  utility  have  removed  the  hair  from  the  heels  of  our  hackneys  and  car- 
riage-horses. In  the  usual  state  of  our  roads  this  defence  is  not  wanted,  or,  rather,  the 
hair  would  be  a  perfect  nuisance.  The  hand-rubbing  or  dry  brushing  will  be  an  easy 
process ;  or  if  the  neels  must  be  washed,  let  them  be  carefully  and  thoroughly  dried.  We 
close  this  part  of  our  treatise  by  repeating  that  grease  is  the  child  of  negligence  and  mis- 
management. It  is  driven  from  our  cavalry,  and  it  will  be  tlie  fault  of  the  gentleman 
and  the  farmer  if  it  be  not  speedily  banished  from  every  stable. 


CHAPTER    XV. 
THE   FOOT. 


The  foot  is  composed  of  the  horny  box  which  covers  the  extremities  of  the  horse,  and 
the  contents  of  that  box.  We  will  first  consider  the  hoof,  or  box,  which  is  composed  of 
the  crust  or  wall,  the  bars,  the  sole,  and  the  horny  frog. 


THK    CRUST   OR   WALL   OF    THE    HOOF. 


The  crust,  or  wall,  is  that  portion  which  is  seen  when  the  foot  is  placed  on  the  ground, 
and  reaches  from  the  termination  of  the  hair  to  the  ground.  It  is  deepest  in  front,  where 
it  is  called  the  toe  (see  cut,  p.  198) ;  shallower  at  tne  sides,  which  are  denominated  the 
quarters ;  and  of  least  extent  behind,  where  it  is  termed  the  heel.  It  is  placed  flat  on 
the  ground,  but  ascends  obliquely  backward,  and  possesses  different  degrees  of  obliquity 
in  different  feet.  In  a  sound  hoof,  the  proper  degree  of  slanting  is  calculated  at  forty- 
five  degrees,  or  the  fourth  part  of  a  semicircle.  When  it  is  more  oblique,  or  the  crust  is 
said  to  have  "  fallen  in,"  it  indicates  undue  flatness  of  the  sole,  or,  if  the  obliquity  be 
very  much  increased,  pumiced,  or  convex  sole.  If  it  be  more  upright  than  the  angle  we 
have  mentioned,  it  shows  a  contracted  foot,  and  a  sole  too  concave ;  so  that  there  is  no 
necessity  to  take  up  the  foot  in  order  to  ascertain  either  of  these  states  of  it.  It  is  also 
of  importance  to  observe  whether  the  depth  of  the  crust  appears  rapidly  or  slowly  to 
decrease  fi-om  the  front  of  the  heel.  If  the  decrease  be  Uttle,  and  even  at  the  heel  the 
crust  is  high  and  deep,  it  indicates  a  foot  liable  to  contraction,  and  sand-crack,  and  thrush 
and  inflammation,  and  the  pastern  is  upright,  and  the  paces  of  the  horse  are  not  pleasant. 
If  the  crust  diminish  rapidly  in  depth,  and  the  heels  are  low,  this  is  accompanied  by  too 
great  slanting  of  the  pastern,  and  disposition  to  sprain  of  the  back  sinew ;  the  foot  itself 
IS  liable  to  be  weak  and  flat  and  bruised,  and  there  is  likewise  more  tendency  to  that 
frequent  but  obscure  lameness  of  which  we  shall  have  occasion  to  treat,  termed  the  "na- 
vicular-joint  disease."  The  foot  has  spread  out  too  much  at  the  side,  instead  of  growing 
upward,  and  therefore  it  is  too  much  exposed. 

The  crust  in  front  is  rather  more  than  half  an  inch  in  tliickness,  and  becomes  graduall}' 
thinner  towards  the  quarters  and  heels.  If,  therefore,  there  be  but  half  an  inch  for  nail- 
hold  at  the  toe,  and  not  so  much  at  the  quarters,  we  need  not  wonder  if  horses  are 
occsisionally  wounded  in  shoeing,  and  especially  when  some  of  them  are  so  unmanagea- 
ble while  undergoing  that  process. 

While  the  crust  gets  thinner  towards  both  quarters,  it  is  thinner  at  the  inner  quarter 
than  it  is  at  the  outer,  because  more  weight  is  thrown  upon  it  than  upon  the  outer.  It 
is  more  under  the  horse ;  it  is  under  the  inner  splint-bone,  on  which  so  much  more  of  the 
weight  rests  than  on  the  outer,  and,  being  thinner,  it  is  able  to  expand  more ;  its  elas- 
ticity is  called  more  into  play,  and  concussion  and  injury  are  avoided.  When  the  expan- 
sion of  the  quarters  is  prevented  by  their  being  nailed  to  an  unbending  shoe,  the  inner 
quarter  suffers  most.  Corns  are  oftenest  found  there  ;  contraction  begins  there ;  sand- 
crack  is  seated  there.  Nature  meant  that  this  should  be  the  most  yielding  part,  in  order 
to  obviate  concussion,  because  on  it  the  weight  was  principally  thrown,  and -therefore 
when  its  power  of  yielding  is  taken  away  it  must  be  the  first  to  suffer. 

A  careful  observer  will  likewise  perceive  that  the  inner  quarter  is  a  little  higher  than 
the  outer.  While  it  is  thin  to  yield  to  the  shock,  its  increased  surface  gives  it  sufficient 
strength. 


THE  CRUST  OF   THE  HOOF.  217 

On'  account  of  its  thinness,  and  the  additional  weight  which  it  bears,  the  inner  heel 
wears  away  quicker  than  the  outer ;  a  circumstance  that  should  never  be  forgotten  by 
the  smith.  His  object  is  to  give  a  plain  and  level  bearing  to  the  whole  of  the  crust.  To 
accomplish  this,  it  will  be  often  scarcely  necessary  to  remove  anything  from  the  inner 
heel  for  it  is  already  removed  by  the  wear  of  the  foot.  If  he  forgets  this,  as  he  too  often 
seems  to  do,  and  takes  otf  with  his  knife  or  his  buttress  an  equal  portion  all  round,  he 
leaves  the  inner  and  weaker  quarter  lower  than  the  outer ;  he  tlirows  an  uneven  bear- 
ing upon  it ;  and  produces  corns  and  sand-cracks  and  splints,  which  a  little  care  and 
common  sense  might  have  avoided.  The  crust  does  not  vary  much 
in  tiiickness,  (^ec  a,  page  193,  and  b  in  the  accompanying  cut,)  un- 
til near  the  top,  at  the  coronet,  or  union  of  the  horn  of  the  foot  with 
the  slcins  of  the  pasterns  where  {w,  page  193)  it  rapidly  gets  thin. 
Itisina  manner  scooped  and  hollowed  out.  It  likewise  changes 
its  colour  and  its  corisistence,  and  seems  almost  like  a  continuation 
of  the  skin,  but  easily  separable  from  it  by  maceration,  or  disease. 
Tliis  thin  part  is  called  the  coronary  ling,  x,  p.  193  ;  and  it  receives 
within  it,  or  covers  a  thickened  and  bulbous  prolongation  of  the  skin, 
called  the  coronary  ligament,  (see  b  in  the  accompanying  cut.)  This 
requires  a  better  name,  for  it  has  not  a  portion  ol  ligamentous  struc- 
ture in  it.  This  prolongation  of  the  skin  is  thicldy  supplied  with  blood-vessels.  It  is 
almost  a  mesh  of  blood-vessels  connected  together  by  fibrous  texture,  and  many  of  these 
vessels  are  employed  in  secreting  or  forming  the  crust  or  wall  of  the  foot.  Nature  has 
enabled  the  sensible  laminae  of  the  coffin  bone  c,  which  will  be  described  presently,  to 
secrete  some  horn,  in  order  to  afford  an  immediate  defence  for  itself  when  the  crust  is 
wounded  or  taken  a'way.  Of  this  we  have  proof,  when  in  sand-crack  or  quittor,  we  are 
compelled  to  remove  a  portion  of  the  crust.  A  pellicle  of  horn,  or  of  firm  hard  substance 
resembling  it,  soon  covers  the  wound ;  but  the  crust  is  principally  formed  from  this  coronarjr 
ligament.  Hence  it  is,  that  in  sand-crack,  quittor,  and  other  diseases  in  which  strips  of 
the  crust  are  destroyed,  it  is  so  long  in  being  renewed,  or  growing  doicn.  It  must  pro- 
ceed from  the  coronary  ligament,  and  so  gradually  creep  down  the  foot  with  the  natural 
gi-owth  or  lengthening  of  the  horn,  of  which,  as  in  the  human  nail,  a  supply  is  slowly 
given  to  answer  to  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  part. 

Below  the  coronary  ligament  is  a  thin  strip  of  horny  matter,  which  has  been  traced 
from  the  frog,  and  has  been  supposed  by  some  to  be  connected  with  the  support  or  action 
of  the  frog,  but  which  is  evidently  intended  to  add  to  the  security  of  the  part  on  which  it 
is  found,  and  to  bind  together  those  various  substances  which  are  collected  at  the  coro- 
net. It  resembles,  more  than  anything  else,  the  strip  of  skin  which  surrounds  the  root 
of  the  human  nail,  and  which  is  placed  tliere  to  strengthen  the  union  of  the  nail  with 
the  substance  from  which  it  proceeds. 

The  crust  is  composed  of  numerous  fibres  running  at  tlie  toe  in  a  straight  direction 
from  the  coronet  to  the  ground,  but  at  the  quai'ters,  taking  an  oblique  direction  from  the 
heel  forwards.  This  construction  is  best  calculated  to  enable  tlie  foot  to  expand  when  it 
comes  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  by  that  expansion,  permitting  the  gradual  descent 
of  the  bones  of  the  foot,  and  obviating  much  concussion.  The  crust  is  thinner  at  the 
quarters  and  towards  the  heels,  because  those  are  the  parts  at  which  tlie  principal  expan- 
sion must  take  place.  These  fibres  are  held  together  by  a  glutinous  substance,  but  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  permit  a  slight  degree  of  separation,  or  to  bestow  the  power  of  ex- 
pansion on  the  foot ;  and  when  recently  separated  from  the  foot,  it  is  an  exceedingly 
elastic  substance,  and  very  tough,  that  it  may  not  chip  and  break  with  the  violence  to 
which  it  is  often  exposed. 

In  the  absurd  method  of  stable  management,  to  which  we  shall  have  occasion  again 
and  again  to  refer,  it  sometimes  loses  much  of  this  toughness,  and  becomes  brittle  and 
liable  to  chip  and  break.  Inflammation  of  the  internal  part  of  the  foot,  by  the  increased 
heat  which  is  produced,  will  cause  brittleness  of  the  hoof;  deficiency  of  moisture  and 
neglect  of  stopping  will  produce  the  same  effect.  Many  hoi^es  are  peculiarly  liable  to 
bristle  hoofs  during  the  summer;  this  is  a  very  serious  defect,  and  in  some  cases  so  much 
of  the  hoof  is  gradually  broken  away,  that  there  is  no  hold  left  lor  the  nails.  A  mixture 
of  one  part  of  oil  of  tar,  and  two  of  common  fish  oil,  well  rubbed  into  the  crust  and  the 
hoof,  will  restore  the  natural  pliancy  and  toughness  of  the  horn,  and  very  much  contri- 
bute to  the  quickness  of  its  growth. 

The  wa^l  of  the  hoof  should  be  smooth  and  level ;  protuberances  or  rings  round  the 
crust  indicate  that  the  horse  has  had  fever  in  the  feet ;  and  that  to  such  a  degree  as  to 
produce  an  unequal  growth  of  horn,  and  probably  to  leave  some  injurious  consequences 
m  the  internal  part  of  tlie  foot.  If  there  be  a  depression  or  hollow  in  the  front  of  the 
foot,  it  betrays  a  sinking  of  the  coffin  bone,  or  a  flat  or  pumiced  sole  ;  if  the  hollow  be  at 
the  quarters,  it  is  the  worst  system  of  bad  contraction. 

The  color  of  the  hoof  is  a  matter  of  some  consequence.     There  is  a  common  and,  we 
believe,  a  well-founded  prejudice  against  white  feet,  and  especially  whiteness  of  the 
28 


218 


THE  HORSE. 


near  foot.    White  horn  is  said  to  be  weaker  than  that  of  the  usual  dark  color:  the  sole 
is  almost  uniformly  flat,  and  the  quarters  are  weak. 

a  The  external  crust  seen 
at  the  tjuarter. 

b  The  coronary  ring. 

c  The  little  horny  plates 
lining  the  crust 

d  The    same    continued 
over  the  bars. 

e  e  The  two  concave  sur- 
faces of  the  inside  of  the 
horny  frog. 

/  That  which  extemdly 
is  the  cleft  of  the  frog. 

g  The  bars. 

h  The  rounded  part  of  the 
J*        T^MBP*"^    \^  *^  heels,  belonging  to  the  frc^. 

The  inside  of  the  crust  is  covered  by  numerous  thin  horny  leaves,  extending  all  round 
it,  and  reaching  from  the  coronary  ring  to  the  toe.  They  are  about  five  hundred  in  num- 
ber, broadest  at  their  base,  and  terminating  in  the  most  delicate  expansion  of  horn. 
They  very  much  resemble  the  inner  surface  of  a  mushroom.  In  front  they  run  in  a 
direction  from  the  coronet  to  the  toe,  and  towards  the  quarters  they  are  more  slanting 
from  behind  forward.  They  correspond  with  similar  cartilaginous  and  fleshy  leaves  on 
the  surface  of  the  coffin-bone,  called,  from  their  construction,  sensible  laminae,  or  lamella 
(little  leaves  that  have  feeling),  and  the  one  being  received  within  the  other,  they  form 
together  a  most  elastic  body,  by  which  the  whole  weight  of  the  horse  is  supported. 

THE    BAKS. 


a  a  The  frog. 
6  The  sole. 
c  c  The  bars. 
d  d  The  crust 

At  the  back  part  of  the  foot,  the  wall  of  the  hoof,  instead  of  being  continued  round, 
and  forming  a  circle,  is  suddenly  bent  in,  as  in  the  accompanying  cut,  where  d  represents 
the  base  of  the  crust,  and  c  this  inflexion  or  bending  of  it.  The  cut  will  show  that  we 
do  not  refer  to  that  bend,  which  forms  the  cleft  of  the  frog,  but  to  a  more  sudden  one, 
constituting  the  commencement  of  the  bars.  The  bars  are,  in  fact,  a  continuation  of 
the  crust,  forming  an  acute  angle,  and  meeting  at  a  point  at  the  toe  of  the  frog  a :  and 
the  inside  of  the  bars,  like  the  inside  of  the  crust  (see  the  preceding  cut),  presents  a 
continuance  of  the  horny  leaves  which  we  have  just  described,  showing  tliat  it  is  a  part 
of  the  same  substance,  and  helping  to  discharge  the  same  office. 

It  needs  only  the  slightest  consideration  of  the  cut,  or  of  the  natural  hoof,  to  show 
the  importance  of  the  bars.  The  arch  which  they  form  on  either  side,  between  the 
frog  and  the  quarters,  is  admirably  contrived,  both  to  admit  of,  and  to  limit  to  its  proper 
extent,  the  expansion  of  the  loot.  When  the  foot  is  placed  on  the  ground,  and 
the  weight  of  tha  animal  is  thrown  on  the  little  leaves,  of  which  we  have  just 
spoken,  we  can  imagine  these  arches  shortening  and  widening,  in  order  to  admit 
of  the  expansion  of  the  quarters  ;  and  we  can  see  again  the  bow  returning  to  its  natural 
curve,  and  powerfully  assisting  the  foot  in  regaining  its  usual  form.  We  can  also  per- 
ceive what  protection  these  bars  must  form  against  the  contraction,  or  wiring  in  of 
the  quarters.  If  they  are  taken  away,  there  will  be  nothing  to  resist  the  falling  of 
the  quarters  wlien  the  foot  is  exposed  to  any  disease  or  bad  management  which  would 


THE  FROG.  219 

induce  it  to  contract.  A^ain,  we  see  the  security  which  they  afford  to  the  frog  a ;  and 
the  effectual  protection  which  they  give  against  the  pressure  of  the  lateral  or  side  parts 
of  the  foot.  Then  appears  the  necessity  of  sparinsj  and  leaving  them  prominent  when 
the  foot  is  pareil  for  slioeing.  It  is  the  custom  with  too  many  smiths  to  cut  them  per- 
fectly away.  Tliey  imagine  tliat  that  gives  a  more  open  appearance  to  the  heels  ot  the 
horse — a  seeming  width,  which  may  impose  upon  the  unwary.  Horses  s'nod  for  the  pur- 
pose of  sale  have  usually  the  bars  removed  with  this  view ;  and  the  smiths  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  metropolis  and  large  towns,  shoeing  for  dealers,  too  often  habitually 
pursue,  with  regard  to  all  their  customers,  the  injurious  practice  of  removing  the 
bai-9.  The  horny  frog,  deprived  of  its  guard,  will  speedily  contract,  and  become 
elevated  and  thrushy  ;  and  the  whole  of  the  heel,  deprived  of  the  power  of  resilience  or 
re-action,  which  the  curve  between  the  bar  c  and  the  crust  d  affords,  will  speedidly  fail 
in.  Therefore,  when  treating  of  shoeing,  we  shall  lay  it  down  as  a  golden  rule,  that 
the  bai'S  should  be  left  prominent,  and  we  shall  show  why  it  is  of  essential  importance 
that  the  shoe  should  rest  on  the  angle  formed  by  the  crust  and  the  bar. 

THE    FROG. 

In  the  space  between  the  bars,  and  accurately  filling  it,  is  the  frog.  It  is  a  triangu- 
lar portion  of  horn,  projecting  from  the  sole,  almost  on  a  level  with  the  cnist,  and  cover- 
ing and  defending  a  soft  and  elastic  substance  called  the  sensible  frog.  It  is  wide  at  the 
heels,  and  there  extending  above  a  portion  of  the  crust;  narrowing  rapidly  when  it  be- 
gins to  be  confined  between  the  bars,  and  terminating  at  a  point  at  somewhat  more  than 
half  the  distance  from  the  heel  to  the  toe.  It  consists  of  two  rounded  or  projecting  sur- 
faces, with  a  fissure  or  cleft  between  them,  reaching  half  way  down  the  frog,  and  the 
two  portions  again  uniting  to  form  the  point  or  toe  of  the  frog.  The  frog  is  firmly  united 
to  the  sole,  but  is  perfectly  distinct  from  it.  It  is  of  a  different  nature,  being  softer, 
and  far  more  elastic ;  and  it  is  secreted  from  a  different  surface,  for  it  is  thrown  out  from 
the  substance  which  it  covers.  Without  entering  into  many  of  the  questions  which  have 
been  agitated,  with  far  too  much  warmth  among  veterinaiians,  as  to  the  uses  of  the  frog, 
it  is  sufficient  to  refer  to  our  cut,  and  consider  the  form  and  situation  of  this  part.  It 
very  much  resembles  a  wedge  with  the  sharp  point  forwards ;  and  it  is  placed  towards 
the  back  part  of  the  foot.  The  foot  is  seldom  put  flush  and  flat  upon  the  gi'ound,  but 
in  a  direction  downwards,  yet  somewhat  forwards  ;  then  the  frog  evidently  gives  safety 
to  the  tread  of  the  animal,  for  it,  in  a  manner,  ploughs  itself  into  the  ground,  and  prevents 
the  horse  from  slipping.  This  is  of  considerable  consequence,  when  we  remember  some 
of  the  paces  of  the  horse,  in  which  his  heels  evidently  come  first  to  the  ground,  and  in 
which  the  danger  from  slipping  would  be  very  great.  We  need  only  i-efer  to  the  gallop 
of  speed  as  illustrative  of  this. 

The  frog  being  placed  at,  and  filling  the  hinder  part  of  the  foot,  discharges  a  part  of  the 
duty  sustained  by  the  crust;  for  it  supports  the  weight  of  the  animal.  It  assists,  like- 
wise, and  that  to  a  material  degree,  in  the  expansion  of  the  foot.  It  is  formed  internally 
of  two  prominences  on  the  sides  (see  a,  p.  218),  and  a  cleft  in  the  centre,  presenting  two 
concavities  with  a  sharp  projection  in  the  middle,  and  a  gradually  rounded  one  on  each 
side.  It  is  also  composed  of  a  substance  peculiarly  flexible  and  elastic.  What  can  be 
so  well  adapted  for  the  expansion  of  the  foot,  when  a  portion  of  the  weight  of  the  body 
is  thrown  on  it  ?  How  easily  wiU  these  irregular  surfaces  yield,  and  spread  out,  and  how 
readily  return  again  to  their  natural  state  ?  In  this  view,  therefore,  the  horny  frog  is  a 
powerful  agent  in  opening  the  foot;  and  the  diminution  of  the  substance  of  the  frog,  and 
its  elevation  above  the  ground,  are  both  the  cause  and  the  consequence  of  conti-action  : 
the  cause,  as  being  able  no  longer  powerfully  to  act  in  expanding  the  heels ;  and  the 
consequence,  as  obeying  a  law  of  nature,  by  which  that  which  no  longer  discharges  its 
natural  function  is  gradually  removed.  It  is,  however,  the  cover  and  defence  of  the  in- 
ternal and  sensible  frog,  at  which  we  are  not  yet  arrived,  and  therefore  we  are  at  present 
unable  to  develop  its  full  use  ;  but  we  have  said  enough  to  show  the  absurdity  of  the 
common  practice  of  unsparingly  cutting  it  away.  To  discharge,  in  any  degree,  some  of 
the  offices  which  we  have  assigned  to  it,  and  fully  to  discharge  even  one  of  them,  it  must 
come  in  occasional  contact  with  the  ground.  In  the  unshod  horse  it  is  constantly  so  : 
but  the  additonal  support  given  by  the  shoes,  and  more  especially  the  hard  roads  over 
which  the  horse  is  now  compelled  to  travel,  render  this  complete  exposure  of  the  frog  to 
the  ground,  not  only  unnecessary,  but  injurious.  Being  of  so  much  softer  consistence 
than  the  rest  of  the  foot,  it  would  be  speedily  worn  away :  occasional  pressure,  however, 
or  contact  with  the  ground,  it  must  have. 

The  rough  and  detached  parts  should  be  cut  off  at  each  shoeing,  and  the  substance  of 
the  fro^  itself,  so  as  to  bring  it  just  above  or  within  the  level  of  the  shoe.  It  will  then, 
in  the  descent  of  the  sole,  when  the  weight  of  the  horse  is  thrown  upon  it  in  the  putting 
down  of  the  foot,  descend  likewise,  and  pressing  upon  the  ground,  do  its  duty ;  while  it 


22©  THE  HORSE. 

will  be  defended  from  the  wear,  and  bruise,  and  injury  which  it  would  receive  if  it  came 
upon  the  ground  with  the  first  and  full  shock  of  the  weight.  This  will  be  the  proper 
guide  to  the  smith  in  operating,  and  to  the  proprietor  in  the  directions  which  he  gives; 
and  the  latter  should  often  look  to  this,  for  it  is  a  point  of  veiy  great  moment.  A  few 
smiths  carry'  the  notion  of  frog  pressure  to  an  absurb  extent,  and  leave  the  frog  beyond 
the  level  of  the  sole, — a  practice  which  is  dangerous  in  the  horse  of  slow  draught,  and 
destructive  to  the  hackney  or  the  hunter ;  but  the  majority  of  them  err  in  a  contrary  way, 
and,  catting  off  too  much  of  the  frog,  lift  it  above  the  ground,  and  destroy  its  principal 
use.     It  should  be  left  just  above,  or  within  the  level  of  tiie  shoe, 

THE    SOLE. 

This  is  the  under  concave  and  elastic  surface  of  the  foot  (see  b,  p.  218,)  extending  from 
the  crust  to  the  bars  and  frog.  It  is  not  so  thick  as  the  crust,  because,  notwithstanding 
its  situation,  it  has  not  so  much  weight  or  stress  thrown  on  it  as  there  is  on  the  crust ; 
and  because  it  was  intended  to  expand,  in  order  to  prevent  concussion,  when,  by  the 
descent  of  the  bone  of  the  foot,  the  weight  was  tlirown  upon  it.  It  is  not  so  brittle  as  the 
crust,  anditis  more  elastic  than  it.  It  is  thickest  at  the  toe  (see  t,  p.  193,)  because  the 
first  and  principal  stress  is  thrown  on  that  part.  The  cofHn  bone/  is  driven  forward  and 
downward  in  that  direction.  It  is  likewise  thicker  where  it  unites  with  the  crust  tlian 
it  is  towai'ds  the  centre,  for  a  similar  and  evident  reason,  because  there  the  weight  is  first 
and  principally  thrown. 

In  a  state  of  nature  it  is,  to  a  certain  degree,  hollow.  The  reason  of  tliis  is  plain.  It 
is  intended  to  descend  or  yield  with  the  weight  of  the  horse,  and  by  that  gradual  descent 
or  yielding  most  materially  lessen  the  shock  which  would  result  from  the  sudden  action 
of  tlie  weight  of  the  animal  in  rapid  and  violent  action ;  and  this  descent  can  only  be 

fiven  by  a  hollow  sole.  A  flat  sole,  already  pressing  upon  the  ground,  could  not  be 
rought  lower ;  nor  could  the  functions  of  the  frog  be  then  discharged  ;  nor  would  the 
foot  nave  so  secure  a  hold.  Then  if  the  sole  be  naturally  hollow,  and  hollow  because  it 
must  defend,  the  smith  must  not  interfere  with  this  important  action.  When  the  foot 
will  bear  it,  he  must  pare  out  sufficient  of  ihe  horn  to  preserve  the  proper  concavity,  a 
small  portion  at  the  toe  and  near  the  crust,  and  cutting  deeper  towards  the  centre ;  and 
he  must  put  on  a  shoe  which  shall  not  prevent  the  descent  of  the  sole  ;  which  not  only  shall 
not  press  upon  it,  but  shall  leave  sufficient  room  between  it  and  the  sole  to  admit  of  this 
descent.  If  the  sole  is  pressed  upon  by  the  coffin-bone,  by  the  lengthening  of  the  elastic 
leaves,  and  the  shoe  will  not  permit  its  descent,  the  sensible  part  between  the  coffin-bone 
and  the  horn  will  necessarily  be  bruised,  and  inflammation  and  lameness  will  ensue.  It 
is  from  this  cause,  that  if  a  stone  insinuates  itself  between  the  shoe  and  the  sole,  it  pro- 
duces so  much  lameness.  Of  the  too  great  concavity  of  the  sole,  or  the  want  of  con- 
cavity, we  shall  treat  when  we  arrive  at  the  diseases  of  the  foot. 

THE    COFFIN-BONE. 

We  proceed  to  the  interior  part  of  the  foot.  The  lower  pastern,  a  small  poi-tion  of 
which  (see  d,  p.  193)  is  contained  in  the  horny  box,  has  been  already  described.  Be- 
neath it,  and  altogether  inclosed  in  the  hoof  is  the  coffin-bone,  or  proper  bone  of  the  foot, 
(see  /,  p.  193,  and  rf,fig.  1,  p.  196).  It  is  fitted  to,  and  fills  the  fore  pai-t  of  the  hoof, 
occupying  about  half  of  it.  It  is  of  a  light  and  spongy  structure  (see  a,  fig.  1,  p.  196,) 
and  filled  with  numerous  holes.  Through  these  pass  the  blood-vessels  of  the  foot,  which 
•  are  necessarily  numerous,  considering  the  important  and  various  secretions  tliere  carry- 
ing on,  and  the  circulation  through  the  foot  it  is  plain  could  not  possibly  be  kept  up, 
if  these  vessels  did  not  run  through  the  substance  of  the  bone.  The  holes  about  the  body 
of  the  coffin-bone  convey  the  blood  to  the  little  leaves  with  which  it  is  covered ;  those 
near  the  lower  part  go  to  the  sole.  Considering  the  manner  in  which  this  bone  is  in- 
closed in  the  horny  box,  and  yet  the  important  surfaces  around  and  below  it  which  are  to 
be  nourished  with  blood,  the  circulation  which  is  thus  carried  on  within  the  very  body  of 
the  bone  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  provisions  of  nature  that  is  to  be  found  in  the  whole 
of  the  frame.  No  inconvenience  can  arise  from  occasional  or  constant  pressure,  but  the 
bone  allows  free  passage  to  the  blood,  and  protects  it  from  every  possible  obstruction. 

The  fore-part  of  the  coffin-bone  is  not  only  thus  perforated,  but  it  is  curiously  roughen- 
ed (or  the  attachment  of  the  numerous  little  leaves  about  to  be  described.  On  its  upper 
surface  it  presents  a  concavity  for  the  head  of  the  lower  pastern,  p.  196.  In  front,  imme- 
diately above  d,  is  a  striking  prominence,  into  which  is  inserted  the  extensor  tendon  of 
the  foot.  At  the  back  e,  p.  193  it  is  sloped  for  articulation  vrith  the  navicular  bone,  and 
more  underneath,  is  a  depression  for  the  reception  of  the  perforating  flexor  tendon,  m, 
continued  down  the  leg,  passing  over  the  navicular  bone  at  n,  and  at  length  inserted  into 
this  bone.    On  either  sid!e,  as  seen  p.  197,  are  projections  called  the  wings,  or  heels  of  the 


..^i^fi^r^ 


THE  NAVICULAR-BONE.  221 

coffin-bone,  and  at  the  bottom  it  is  hollowed  to  answer  to  the  convexity  of  the  internal 
part  of  the  sole. 

That  which  deserves  most  attention  in  the  coffin-bone  is  the  production  of  numerous 
little  leaves  round  its  front  and  sides.  They  are  prolongations  of  the  thick  and  elastic 
membrane  covering  the  coffin-bone,  and  consist  of  cartilaj^inous,  fleshy  plates,  proceeding 
from  it,  running  down  the  coffin-bone,  and  corresponding  with,  and  received  between 
the  horny  leaves  that  line  the  inside  of  the  crust.  The  liorny  little  leaves  are  secreted 
from,  or  produced  by  the  fleshy,  and  being,  as  we  have  stated,  five  hundred  in  number, 
their  union  witli  each  other  is  so  strong,  that  no  violence  can  separate  them.  While 
the  animal  is  at  rest,  the  whole  weight  of  the  horse  is  supported  by  them,  and  not  by  the 
sole.  This  extraordinary  fact  has  been  put  to  the  test  of  experiment.  The  sole,  bars, 
and  frog  were  removed  from  the  foot  of  ahorse,  and  yet  as  he  stood,  the  coffin-bone  did 
not  protrude,  or  in  the  slightest  degree  descend ;  but  when  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
foot  descends  is  added  to  the  weight  of  the  horse,  these  little  leaves,  horny  and  fleshy, 
gradually  lengthen,  and  surfer  the  bones  to  press  upon  the  sole.  The  sole  then  descends, 
and  in  descending,  expands ;  and  so,  by  an  admirable  naechanism,  the  violent  shock 
which  would  be  produced  by  the  pressure  of  such  a  weight  as  that  of  the  horse,  and  the 
velocity  with  which  it  descends,  is  lessened  or  destroyed,  and  the  complicated  apparatus 
of  the  foot  remains  uninjured.  When  the  foot  is  again  lifted,  and  the  weight  which 
pressed  upon  it  is  removed,  the  principal  of  elasticity  is  called  into  exercise,  and  by  it 
the  sole  resumes  its  concavity,  and  the  horny  frog  its  folded  state  ;  tlie  quarters  return  to 
their  former  situation ;  the  little  leaves  regain  their  former  length,  and  eveiy  thing  is 
prepai'ed  for  a  repetition  of  action. 

THE    SENSIBLE    SOLE. 

Between  the  coffin-bone  and  the  horny  sole  is  situated  the  sensible  sole  s,  p.  193, 
formed  above  of  a  substance  of  a  ligamentous  or  tendinous  nature,  and  below  of  a 
cuticular  or  skin-Uke  substance,  plentifully  supplied  with  blood-vessels.  It  was  placed 
between  the  coffin-bone  and  the  sole,  by  its  yielding  nature,  to  assist  in  preventing  con- 
cussion, and  also  to  form  a  supply  of  horn  for  the  sole.  It  extends  beyond  the  coffin- 
bone,  but  not  at  cdl  under  the  frog ;  leaving  a  space  for  the  frog,  it  proceeds  over  the 
bars,  and  there  is  covered  with  some  laminae,  to  unite  with  those  which  we  have 
described,  page  218,  as  found  in  the  bars.  It  is  here  likewise  thicker,  and  more  elastic, 
and  by  its  elasticity  is  evidently  assisting  in  obviating  concussion.  It  is  supplied  with 
nervous  fibres,  and  is  highly  sensible,  as  the  slightest  experience  in  horses  will  evince. 
The  lameness  which  ensues  from  the  pressure  of  a  stone  or  of  the  shoe  on  the  sole  is 
caused  by  inflammation  of  the  sensible  sole.  Corns  result  from  bruise  and  inflammation 
of  the  sensible  sole,  between  the  crust  and  tlie  bar. 

THE  SENSIBLE    FROG. 

The  coffin-bone  does  not  occupy  more  than  one  half  of  the  hoof.  The  posterior  part 
is  filled  by  a  soft  mass,  partly  ligamentous,  and  partly  tendinous  (o,  page  193).  Its 
shape  below  corresponds  with  the  cavities  of  the  horny  frog ;  in  front  it  is  attached  to  the 
inferior  pai-t  of  the  coffin-bone ;  and  farther  back  it  adheres  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
cartilages  of  the  heels,  where  they  begin  to  form  the  rounded  protuberances  which  con- 
stitute the  heel  of  tlie  foot.  It  occupies  the  whole  of  the  back  part  of  the  foot,  above 
the  horny  frog,  and  between  the  cartilages.  Running  immediately  above  the  frog,  and 
along  the  greater  part  of  it,  we  find  the  perforans  flexor  tendon,  which  passes  over  the 
navicular  bone  e,  p.  193,  and  is  inserted  into  the  heel  of  tlie  coffin-bone. 

THE    NAVICULAR-BONE. 

This  navicular  bone  is  placed  behind  and  below  the  lower  pastern-bone  and  behind 
and  above  the  heel  of  the  coffin-bone,  e,  p.  193,  so  that  it  forms  a  joint  with  both  bones, 
and  answers  a  very  important  office  in  strengthening  the  union  between  these  parts ;  in 
receiving  a  portion  of  the  weight  which  is  thrown  on  the  lower  pastern ;  and  in  enabling 
the  flexor  tendon  to  act  with  more  advantage.  Supposing  that  this  tendon  were  inserted 
into  the  coffin-bone,  without  the  intervention  of  the  navicular-bone,  it  would  act  in  a 
very  disadvantageous  way,  in  bending  the  pastern,  for  it  is  inserted  near  the  end 
of  the  coffin-bone,  and  the  weight,  concentrated  about  the  middle  of  the  bone,  is  far 
off,  and  requires  a  power  to  raise  it  proportionate  to  the  distance  between  the  weight, 
and  the  power,  from  the  centre  of  motion,  which  is  here  the  place  where  the  ten- 
don passes  over  the  end  of  the  coffin-bone :  but  when  the  navicular  bone  is  inter- 
posed, the  centre  of  motion  becomes  the  posterior  edge  of  that  bone,  where  it  is  in  con- 
tact with  the  tendon,  and  then  it  will  be  seen  that  the  distance  of  the  power  from  the 


222  THE  HORSE. 

centre  of  motion  is  nearly  or  quite  the  same  as  the  weight,  and  very  CTeat  expenditure 
of  muscular  power  will  be  saved.  In  the  one  case,  the  power  must  be  at  least  double 
the  weight,  in  the  other  they  -will  be  nearly  equal ;  and  also  the  angle  at  which  the  ten- 
don is  mserted,  is,  like  the  angle  produced  by  the  introduction  of  the  knee-bone,  con- 
siderably more  advantageous.  We  ai-e  inclined  to  believe  that  this  is  the  principal  use 
of  the  navicular  bone,  but  at  the  same  time  we  are  aware  of  the  benefit  which  accnies 
(see  p.  193)  from  a  portion  of  the  weight  being  taken  from  the  coffin-bone,  and  thrown  on 
the  navicular  bone,  and  from  it  on  the  tendon,  and  the  tendon  resting  on  the  elastic  frog 
underneath.  The  navicular  bons  is  sometimes,  but  inaccurately,  said  to  descend  with 
the  motion  of  the  foot.  It  does  not  do  that ;  it  cannot;  for  it  is  connected  both  with  the 
pastern  and  coffin-bones,  by  inelastic  ligaments.  When,  however,  the  horny  bulb  with  its 
tuft  of  hair,  at  the  back  of  an  oblique  fetlock,  descends  in  the  rapid  gallop,  and  almost 
touches  the  ground,  the  navicular  bone,  being  as  it  were  a  part  of  the  pastern,  must  de- 
scend with  it ;  but  with  this  exception,  both  in  the  extending  and  the  bending  of  the 
pastern,  the  navicular  bone  turns  or  rolls  upon  the  other  bones,  rather  than  descends,  or 
ascends,  and  with  this  remarkable  advantage,  that  when  the  pastern  is  extended  (see 
p.  193),  the  navicular  bone  is  placed  in  that  situation  which  enables  the  flexor  tender  to 
act  with  greatest  advantage,  in  agam  bending  the  foot. 

THE    CARTILAGES    OF    THE    FOOT. 

There  is  a  groove  extending  along  the  upper  part  of  the  coffin-bone,  and  on  either 
side,  except  at  the  protuberance  which  receives  the  extensor  tendon  d,  p.  196,  occupied 
by  cartilage,  which,  like  the  crust,  is  convex  outwards,  and  concave  inwards,  and  which 
extends  to  the  very  posterior  part  of  the  foot ;  rising  about  the  quarters,  half  an  inch  or 
more  above  the  hoof,  and,  diminishing  in  height  forward  and  backward.  These  car- 
tilages occupy  a  greater  portion  of  the  foot  than  does  the  coffin-bone,  as  will  be  seen  in 
the  cut,  p.  197,  vmere  they  are  represented  as  extending  far  behind  the  coffin-bone.  They 
ai-e  held  in  their  situation  not  merely  by  this  groove,  but  by  other  connexions  with  the 
coffin-bone,  the  navicular-bone,  and  the  flexor  tendon,  and  are  thus  perfectly  secured. 

Below  are  other  cartilages  connected  with  the  underhedges  of  the  former,  and  on  either 
side  of  the  frog. 

Between  these  cartilages  is  the  sensible  frog,  filling  up  the  whole  of  the  space,  and 
answering  several  important  purposes,  being  an  elastic  bed  on  which  the  navicular-bone, 
and  the  tendon  (see  page  193),  can  play  with  security,  and  without  concussion  or  shock 
— by  which  all  concussion  communicated  to  the  cartilages  of  the  foot  is  destroyed — and 
by  which  these  cartilages  are  kept  asunder,  and  the  expansion  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
foot  preserved.  As  the  descent  of  the  sole  increases  the  width  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
foot,  so  tlie  elevation  of  the  frog,  a  portion  of  it  being  pressed  upward  and  outward  by 
the  action  of  the  navicular-bone  and  tendon,  causes  the  expansion  of  its  upper  part.  Pi-e- 
cisely  as  the  strong  muscle  peculiar  to  quadrupeds  at  the  back  of  the  eye  (see  page  70), 
being  forcibly  contracted,  presses  upon  the  fatty  matter  in  which  the  eye  is  imbedded, 
which  may  be  misplaced,  but  cannot  be  squeezed  into  less  compass,  and  which,  being 
forced  towards  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye,  drives  before  it  that  important  and  beautiful 
mechanism,  the  haw,  so  the  elastic  and  yielding  substance  the  frog,  being  pressed  upon 
by  the  navicular-bone  and  the  tendon,  and  the  pastern,  and  refusing  to  be  condensed  into 
less  compass  forces  itself  out,  on  each  side  of  them,  and  expands  the  lateral  cartilages, 
and  which  again,  by  their  inherent  elasticity,  recur  to  their  form  situation,  when  the  frog 
no  longer  presses  them  outward.  It  appears,  that  by  a  different  mechanism,  but  botB 
equally  admirable,  and  referable  to  the  same  principle,  viz.  that  of  elasticih^,  the  expan- 
sion, of  the  upper  and  lower  portions  of  the  hoof  are  effected,  the  one  by  the  descent  of 
the  sole,  the  other  by  the  compression  and  rising  of  the  frog. 

It  is  this  expansion  upward,  which  contributes  principally  to  the  preservation  of  the 
usefulness  of  the  horse,  when  our  destructive  methods  of  shoeing  are  so  calculated  to 
destroy  the  expansion  beneath.  In  draught  horses,  from  the  long  continued  as  well  as 
violent  pressure  on  the  frog,  and  from  the  frog  on  the  cartilage,  inflammation  is  occasion- 
ally produced,  which  terminates  in  the  cartilages  being  changed  into  bony  matter. 


INFAMMATION  OF  THE  FOOT,  OR  ACUTE  FOUNDER. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
THE    DISEASES    OF   THE    FOOT. 


Of  these,  we  have  a  long  list  to  lay  before  our  readers,  but  that  will  not  be  wondered 
at  by  those  who  have  duly  considered  the  complicated  structure  of  the  foot,  the  duty  it 
has  to  perform,  and  the  injuries  to  which  it  is  exposed.  We  begin  with  that  which  is  the 
cause  of  many  other  disecises  of  the  foot,  and  connected  with  almost  all. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  FOOT,  OR  ACUTE  FOUNDER. 

The  sensible  lamellae,  or  fleshy  plates  on  the  front  and  sides  of  the  coflin-bone,  being 
replete  with  blood-vessels,  are,  like  eveiy  other  vascular  part,  liable  to  inflammation, 
from  its  usual  causes,  and  particularly  from  the  violence  with  which,  in  rapid  and  long- 
continued  action,  they  are  lengthened  and  strained.  When  in  a  severely  contested  race  they 
have  been  stretched  to  the  utmost ;  while,  at  the  fuUest  stride  of  the  horse,  his  weight 
was  thrown  on  them  with  destructive  force  ;  or,  when  the  feet  have  been  battered  and 
bruised  in  a  hard  day's  journey,  no  one  will  wonder  if  inflammation  of  the  over- worked 
parts  should  ensue,  and  the  occuiTence  of  it  may  probably  be  produced  and  the  disease 
aggravated  by  the  too  prevalent  absurd  mode  of  treating  the  animal.  If  a  horse  that  has 
been  ridden  or  driven  hard  be  suffered  to  stand  in  the  cold,  or  if  his  feet  be  washed  and 
not  speedily  dried,  he  is  very  likely  to  have  "  fever  in  the  feet."  There  is  no  more  fruit- 
ful source  of  inflammation  in  the  human  being,  or  the  brute,  than  these  sudden  changes 
of  temperature.  This  has  been  explained  as  it  regards  grease,  but  it  bears  more  imme- 
diately on  the  point  now  under  consideration.  The  danger  is  not  confined  to  change  from 
heat  to  cold  ;  a  sudden  transition  from  cold  to  heat  is  as  injurious,  and  tlierefore  it  is 
that  so  many  horses,  after  having  been  ridden  far  in  the  frost  and  snow,  and  placed  im- 
mediately in  a  hot  stable,  and  littered  up  to  the  knees,  are  attacked  by  tliis  complaint. 
The  feet  and  the  lungs  are  the  organs  oftenest  attacked,  because  they  have  previously 
suffered  most  by  our  mismanagement,  and  are  most  disposed  to  take  on  disease.  What- 
ever would  cause  shght  inflammation  of  other  parts,  or  trifling  general  derangement,  will 
produce  all  its  mischief  on  these  organs. 

Sometimes  there  is  a  sudden  change  of  inflammation  from  one  organ  to  another.  A 
horse  shall  have  labored  for  several  days  under  evident  inflammation  of  the  lungs ; — all 
at  once  that  will  subside,  and  the  inflammation  wiU  appear  in  the  feet,  or  inflammation 
of  the  feet  may  foUow  similar  affections  in  the  bowels  or  the  eyes. 

To  the  attentive  observer  the  symptoms  are  clearly  marked,  and  yet  there  is  no  dis- 
ease so  often  overlooked  by  the  groom  and  the  carter,  and  even  by  the  veterinary  sur- 
geon. The  earliest  symptoms  of  fever  in  the  feet  are  fidgetiness,  frequent  shifting  of  the 
fore-legs,  but  no  pawing,  much  less  any  attempts  to  reach  the  belly  with  the  hind-feet. 
The  pulse  will  soon  be  quickened,  the  flanks  heaving,  the  nostrils  red,  and  the  horse,  by 
his  anxious  countenance,  and  perhaps  by  moaning,  indicating  great  pain.  Presently,  he 
will  look  about  his  litter,  as  if  preparing  to  lie  down,  but  he  does  not  do  it  immediately  ; 
he  continues  to  shift  firom  foot  to  foot ;  ne  is  afraid  to  draw  his  feet  sufficiently  under  hira 
for  the  purpose  of  lying  down  ;  but  at  length  he  drops.  The  circumstance  of  his  lying 
down  at  an  early  period  of  the  disease  will  sufficiently  distinguish  inflammation  of  the 
feet  from  tliat  of  the  lungs,  in  which  the  horse  obstinately  persists  in  standing  until  he 
drops  from  mere  exhaustion  :  and  his  quietness  when  down  will  distinguish  it  from  cholic 
or  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  in  both  of  which  the  horse  is  frequently  up  and  down, 
and  roUing  and  kicking  when  down.  When  the  grievance  is  in  the  feet  the  horse  expe- 
riences so  much  relief,  from  getting  rid  of  the  weight  painfully  distending  the  inflamed 
and  highly  sensible  little  plates,  that  he  is  glad  to  lie  as  long  as  he  can.  He  will  like- 
wise, as  clearly  as  in  inflammation  of  the  lungs  or  bowels,  point  out  the  seat  of  disease 
by  looking  at  the  part ;  his  muzzle  will  sometimes  rest  on  the  feet  or  the  affected  foot. 
He  must  be  inattentive  who  is  not  aware  what  all  this  indicates. 

If  the  feet  be  now  examined,  they  will  be  evidently  hot;  the  horse  will  express  pain 
if  they  are  slightly  rapped  with  a  hammer,  and  the  artery  at  the  pastern  will  throb  vio- 
lently. No  great  time  will' now  pass,  if  the  disease  be  suffered  to  pursue  its  course,  be- 
fore he  will  be  perfectly  unable  to  rise  ;  or,  if  he  is  forced  to  get  up,  and  one  foot  be  lift- 
ed, he  will  stand  with  difficulty  on  the  other,  or  perhaps  drop  at  once  from  intensity  of 
pain. 


224  THE  HORSE 

The  treatment  will  resemble  that  of  other  inflammations,  with  such  differences  as  the 
situation  of  the  disease  may  suggest.  Bleeding  is  indispensable  ;  and  that  to  its  fullest 
extent.  If  the  disease  be  confined  to  the  fore-feet  four  quarts  of  blood  should  be  taken 
as  soon  as  possible  from  the  toe  of  each,  at  the  situation  pointed  out,  fig.  2.  173,  and  in 
the  manner  already  described  ;  poultices  of  linseed  meaJ,  made  very  soft,  should  cover 
the  whole  of  the  foot  and  the  pastern,  and  be  frequently  renewed,  which  will  promote 
evaporation  from  the  neighboring  parts,  and  possibly  through  the  pores  of  the  hoof,  and 
by  softening  and  suppling  the  hoof,  will  relieve  its  painful  pressure  on  the  swelled  and 
tender  parts  beneath.  More  fully  to  accomplish  this  last  purpose,  the  shoe  should  be  re- 
moved, the  sole  pared  as  thin  as  possible,  and  the  crust  and  particularly  the  quarters 
well  rasped.  All  this  must  be  done  gently,  and  with  a  great  deal  of  patience,  for  the 
poor  animal  can  scarcely  bear  his  foot  to  be  meddled  with.  There  is  doubt  as  to  the 
propriety  of  administering  physic.  The  horse  may  find  it  diflicult  or  impossible  to  rise, 
in  which  case  much  inconvenience  will  ensue  from  the  operation  of  physic ;  or  there 
may  be  danger,  from  the  intense  character  which  fever  in  the  feet  often  assumes,  of  pro- 
ducing a  change  of  inflammation  to  tlie  bowels  or  lungs,  in  which  the  irritation  of  physic 
would  probably  be  fatal.  Sedative  and  cooling  medicines  should  be  diligently  adminis- 
tered, consisting  of  digitalis,  nitre  and  emetic  tartar,  in  the  proportions  already  recom- 
mended. 

If  no  amendment  be  observed,  three  quarts  of  blood  should  be  taken  from  each  foot  on 
the  following  day,  and  in  extreme  cases  a  third  bleeding  of  two  quarts  may  be  justifiable, 
and,  instead  of  the  poultice,  cloths  kept  wet  with  water  in  which  nitre  has  been  dissolved 
immediately  before,  and  in  the  proportion  of  an  ounce  of  nitre  to  a  pound  of  water,  may 
be  wrapped  round  the  feet.  About  the  third  day  a  blister  may  be  tried,  taking  in  the 
whole  of  the  pastern  and  the  coronet ;  but  a  cradle  must  previously  be  put  on  the  neck 
of  the  horse,  and  the  feet  must  be  covered  after  the  blister,  or  they  will  probably  be  sadly 
blemished.  The  horse  should  be  kept  on  mash  diet,  unless  green  meat  can  be  procured 
for  him ;  and  even  that  should  not  be  given  too  liberally,  nor  should  he,  in  the  slightest 
degree,  be  coaxed  to  eat.  When  he  appears  to  be  recovering,  his  getting  on  his  feet 
should  not  be  hurried.  It  should  be  left  perfectly  to  his  own  discretion ;  nor  should  even 
walking  exercise  be  permitted  until  he  stands  firm  on  his  feet ;  when,  if  the  season  will 
permit,  two  months'  run  at  grass  will  be  very  seviceable. 

It  is  not,  however,  always,  or  often,  that  inflammation  of  the  feet  is  thus  easily  sub- 
dued ;  and  if  it  be  subdued,  it  sometimes  leaves  after  it  some  fearful  consequences.  The 
loss  of  the  hoof  is  not  an  unfrequent  one.  About  six  or  seven  days  from  the  first  at- 
tack, a  slight  separation  will  begin  to  appear  between  the  coronet  and  the  hoof.  This 
should  be  carefully  remarked,  for  the  separated  horn  will  never  again  unite  with  the  parts 
beneath,  but  the  disunion  will  extend,  and  the  hoof  will  be  lost.  It  is  true  that  a  new 
hoof  will  be  formed,  but  it  will  be  smaller  in  size  and  weaker  than  the  first,  and  will 
rarely  stand  hard  work.  \^Tien  this  separation  is  observed,  it  will  be  a  matter  of  calcu- 
lation with  the  proprietor  of  the  horse  whether  he  will  suffer  the  medical  treatment  to 
proceed. 

PUMICED    FEET. 

The  sensible  and  horny  little  plates  which  were  elongated  and  partially  separated  du- 
ring the  intensity  of  the  inflammation  will  not  always  perfectly  unite  again,  or  will  have 
lost  much  of  their  elasticity,  and  the  coflin-bone,  no  longer  fully  supported  by  them, 
presses  upon  the  sole,  and  the  sole  becomes  flattened,  or  even  convex,  or  projecting,  by 
this  unnatural  weight,  and  the  horse  acquires  a  pumiced  foot.  This  will  also  happen 
when  the  animal  is  used  too  soon  after  an  attack  of  inflammation  of  the  feet,  and  before 
the  little  plates  have  regained  sufficient  strength  to  support  the  weight  of  the  horse,  or 
to  contract  again  by  their  elastic  power  when  they  have  yielded  to  the  weight.  When 
the  coffin-bone  is  thus  thrown  on  the  sole,  and  renders  it  pumiced,  the  crust  at  the  fi-ont 
of  the  hoof  will  "fullin,"  leaving  a  kind  of  hollow  about  the  middle  of  it. 

Pumiced  feet,  especially  in  horses  with  large  wide  feet,  are  produced  not  unfrequently 
without  this  acute  inflammation.  Undue  work,  and  especially  much  battering  of  the 
feet  on  the  pavement,  will  extend  and  sprain  these  little  plates  so  much,  that  they  will 
not  have  the  power  to  contract,  and  thus  the  coffin-bone  will  be  thrown  backward  on  the 
sole.  A  veiy  important  law  of  nature  will  unfortunately  soon  be  active  here ;  when 
pressure  is  applied  to  any  part,  the  absorbents  become  busy  in  removing  that  part ;  so, 
when  the  coffin-bone  begins  to  press  upon  the  sole,  the  sole  becomes  thin  from  the  in- 
creased wear  and  tear  to  which  it  is  subjected  from  contact  with  the  ground,  and  also  be- 
cause these  absorbents  are  rapidly  taking  it  away. 

This  is  one  of  the  diseases  of  the  feet  for  which  there  is  no  cure.  No  skill  is  compe- 
tent to  effect  a  re-union  between  the  separated  fleshy  and  horny  leaves,  or  to  restore  to 
them  the  strength  and  elasticity  of  which  they  have  been  deprived,  or  to  take  up  that 
hard  horny  substance  which  very  speedily  fills  the  space  between  the  crust  and  the  re- 


CONTRACTION.  226 

ceding  coffin-bone.  Some  efforts  have  been  made  to  palliate  the  disease,  but  they  have 
been  only  to  a  very  slight  extent  successl'ul.  If  horses,  on  the  first  appearance  of  flat 
foot,  were  turned  out  in  a  dry  place,  or  put  into  a  box  for  two  or  three  months,  sufficient 
stress  would  not  be  thrown  on  tlie  leaves  to  increase  the  evil,  and  time  might  be  given 
for  the  growth  of  horn  enough  in  the  sole  to  support  the  coffin-bone  ;  yet  we  much  doubt 
whether  these  horses  would  ever  be  useful  even  for  ordinary  pui-poses.  The  slowest 
work  required  of  them  would  drive  the  coffin-bone  on  the  sole,  and  gradually  the  pro- 
jection would  re-appear,  for  no  power,  and  no  length  of  time  can  again  unite  the  sepa- 
rated leaves  of  the  coffin-bone  and  the  hoof.  All  that  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  pallia- 
tion is  by  shoeing.  Nothing  must  press  on  the  projecting  and  pumiced  pait.  If  the  pro- 
jection De  not  great  a  thick  bar  shoe  is  the  best  thing  that  can  be  applied,  but  should  the 
sole  have  much  descended,  a  shoe  with  a  very  wide  web,  bevelled  otf  so  as  not  to  press 
on  the  part,  may  be  used.  These  means  of  relief,  however,  are  only  temporary  the  dis- 
ease will  proceed ;  and  at  no  great  distance  of  time,  the  horse  will  be  useless. 

CHRONIC    FOUNDER. 

This  is  a  name  conveniently  contrived  to  express  those  alterations  of  the  foot,  and  the 
gradual  lameness  which  either  shoeing  or  mismanagement  occasions.  It  is  often  a  mere 
cloak  for  our  ignorance  of  these  subjects.  The  diseases  of  the  foot  and  their  remedies 
are  very  imperfectly  understood  even  by  the  most  skilful  practitioners. 

We  may,  perhaps,  most  conveniently  divide  the  slow  and  fatal  progress  from  sound- 
ness to  incurable  lameness  into  two  classes — that  which  is  accompanied  by  contraction, 
and  that  which  exhibits  little  or  no  alteration  in  tlie  external  appearance  of  the  foot. 

CONTRACTION. 

Our  cut,  p.  218,  will  give  us  a  fair  idea  of  the  young  healthy  foot,  approaching  nearly 
to  a  circle,  and  of  which  the  quarters  form  the  widest  part,  and  the  inner  quarter  (this  is 
the  near  foot)  rather  wider  than  the  outer.  This  shape  is  not  long  preserved  in  many 
horses,  but  the  foot  increases  in  length,  and  narrows  in  the  quarters,  and  paiticularly  at 
the  heel,  and  the  frog  is  diminished  in  width,  and  the  sole  becomes  more  concave,  and 
the  heels  higher,  and  lameness,  or  at  least  a  shortened  and  feeling  action,  ensues. 

Here  we  must  premise  that  there  is  a  great  deal  more  horror  of  contracted  heels  than 
there  is  any  occasion  for.  Many  persons  reject  a  horse  at  once  if  tlie  quarters  are  wiring 
in;  but  the  fact  is,  that  although  tnis  is  an  unnatural  form  of  the  hoof,  it  is  slow  of  growth, 
and  nature  kindly  makes  that  provision  for  the  slowly  altered  form  of  the  hoo^  which 
she  does  in  similar  cases  ;  she  accommodates  the  parts  to  the  change  of  form.  As  the 
hoof  draws  in,  the  parts  beneath,  and  paiiicularly  the  coffin-bone  and  the  heels  of  the 
coffin-bone,  diminish  ;  or,  after  all,  as  it  is  more  a  change  of  form  than  of  capacity,  as  the 
foot  lengthens' in  proportion  as  it  narrows,  so  the  coffin-bone  lengthens,  and  is  as  per- 
fectly adjusted  as  before  to  the  box  in  which  it  is  placed  ;  and  its  little  leaves  are  in  as 
intimate  and  perfect  union  with  those  of  the  crust  as  before  the  hoof  had  begun  to  change. 
On  this  account  it  is  that  many  horses  with  veiy  contracted  feet  are  perfectly  sound,  and 
no  horse  should  be  rejected  merely  because  he  has  contracted  feet.  He  should  undoubt- 
edly be  examined  more  carefully,  and  with  considerable  suspicion  ;  but  if  he  has  good  ac- 
tion, and  is  otherwise  unexceptionable,  there  is  no  reason  thatythe  ])urchase  should  be  set 
aside.  For  our  own  parts,  we  had  rather  have  a  horse  with  contracted  feet,  if  he  went 
sound,  than  another  with  open  but  weak  heels.  We  should  expect  from  him  much  more 
work,  and  we  should  not  be  disappointed. 

We  must  also  protest  against  the  opinion  that  contraction  is  the  necessary  consequence 
of  shoeing.     There  can  be  no  doubt  that  an  inflexible  iron  ring  being  nailed  to  the  foot 

Erevents,  to  a  very  considerable  degree,  the  descent  of  the  sole  and  the  expansion  of  the 
eels  below ;  and  it  is  likewise  probable,  that  when  the  expansion  of  the  heels  is  pre- 
vented they  will  often  begin  to  contract.  But  here  again,  nature,  cut  off  from  one  re- 
source, finds  others.  If  one  of  the  jugular  veins  be  lost,  the  blood  finds  its  way  by  other 
channels,  and  the  horse  does  not  appear  to  suffer  in  the  slightest  degree ;  and  so  if  the 
expansion  of  the  heels  below  is  diminished,  that  of  the  cartilages  above  is  made  more 
use  of.  If  tlie  coffin-bone  has  net  so  much  descent  downward,  it  probably  acquires  one 
backward,  and  the  functions  of  the  foot  are  usefully  if  not  perfectly  performed.  The 
plain  proof  of  this  is,  that  although  there  are  many  horses  that  are  injured  or  ruined  by 
bad  shoeing,  there  are  others,  and  they  are  a  numerous  class,  who  suffer  not  at  all  from 
good  shoeing,  and  scarcely  even  from  bad.  Except  it  be  from  accident,  how  seldom  is 
the  farmer's  noree  lame  ;  and  it  might  even  be  further  asked,  how  seldom  is  his  foot  much 
contracted  ?  Some  gentlemen  who  are  careful  of  their  horses  have  driven  them  twenty 
years,  and  principally  over  the  rough  pavement  of  towns,  without  a  day's  lameness. 
Shoeing  may  be  a  necessaiy  evil,  but  it  is  not  the  evil  which  some  speculative  persons 
29 


226  THE  HORSE. 

have  supposed  it  to  be ;  and  the  undoubted  fact  is,  that  when  the  horse  is  put  to  real 
hard  work,  and  when  the  injury  produced  by  shoeing  in  destroying  the  expansibility  of 
the  foot  would  most  of  all  show  itself,  the  foot  lasts  a  great  deal  longer  than  the  leg ;  nay, 
horsemen  will  tell  us  tliat  one  pair  of  good  feet  is  worth  two  pair  of  legs. 

Having  thus  premised  that  contraction  is  not  necessarily  accompanied  by  lameness, 
and  that  shoeing,  with  all  its  evils,  does  not  necessarily  injure  the  foot,  we  proceed  to 
consider  those  cases  of  contraction,  too  numerous,  which  ai'ethe  consequence  of  our  sta- 
ble management,  and  which  do  cripple  and  ruin  tlie  horse.  We  are  not  aware  of  any- 
thing in  the  appearance  of  the  feet  which  would  enable  us  to  decide  when  contraction 
is  or  is  not  destiuctive  to  the  usefulness  of  the  animal ;  his  manner  of  going,  and  his  ca- 
pability for  work,  must  be  our  guides.  Lameness  usually  accompanies  the  beginning 
of  contraction ;  it  is  the  invariable  attendant  on  rapid  contraction,  but  it  does  not  edways 
exist  when  the  winng  in  is  slow  or  of  long  standing. 

A  very  excellent  writer,  particularly  when  treating  of  the  foot  of  the  horse,  Mr.  Blaine, 
has  given  us  a  long  and  correct  list  of  the  causes  of  injurious  contraction,  and  most  of 
them  are,  fortunately,  under  the  control  of  the  owner  of  the  animal.  He  places  at  the 
head  of  them,  neglect  of  paring.  The  hoof  is  continually  growing,  the  crust  is  length- 
ening, and  the  sole  is  thickening.  This  is  a  provision  for  tlie  wear  and  tear  of  the  foot  in 
an  unshod  state  ;  but  when  the  foot  is  protected  by  a  shoe,  and  none  of  the  horn  can  be 
worn  away  by  coming  in  contact  with  the  gi-ound,  the  growth  of  horn  continues  ;  the 
hoof  gets  high,  and  the  sole  gets  thick ;  and  in  consequence  of  this,  the  descent  of  the 
sole  and  the  expansion  of  the  heels  are  prevented,  and  contraction  is  the  result.  The 
smith  might  lessen,  if  not  prevent  the  evil,  by  carefully  thinning  the  sole  and  lowering 
the  heels  at  each  shoeing  ;  but  the  first  of  these  is  a  matter  of  considerable  labor,  and 
the  second  could  not  be  done  effectually  without  being  accompanied  by  the  first,  and 
therefore  they  are  both  neglected.  The  prejudice  of  many  owners  of  horses  assists  in 
increasing  the  evil.  They  imagine  that  a  great  deal  of  mischief  is  done  by  cutting  away 
the  foot.  Mischief  may  be  the  result  of  injudicious  cutting,  when  the  bars  are  destroyed 
and  the  frog  is  elevated  from  the  ground  ;  but  more  evil  results  from  the  unyielding  thick- 
ness of  horn  impairing  the  elastic  and  expansive  principle  of  the  foot.  If  gentlemen 
would  stand  by,  and  see  that  the  sole  is  properly  tlunned,  and  the  heels  lowered,  and  oc- 
casionally, perhaps,  give  the  workman  a  trifling  gratuity  for  his  increased  labor,  they 
would  be  repaid  in  the  comfort  and  usefulness  of  me  horse. 

Ill-judged  economy  is  another  source  of  this  disease.  If  the  shoes  of  one  veterinary 
surgeon  will,  with  ordinary  work,  last  a  little  more  than  three  weeks,  while  another  con- 
trives to  make  his  last  six,  he  is  supposed  to  be  the  better  workman  and  the  more  honest 
man,  and  gets  the  greater  part  of  the  custom ;  and  his  shoe-is  suffered  to  remain  on  during 
the  whole  time,  to  the  manifest  injury  of  the  feet,  and  that  injury  materially  increased,  by 
the  greater  thickness  and  weight  of  these  shoes,  and  the  tightness  with  which  they  are 
fastened  on,  the  nails  being  necessarily  placed  nearer  to  the  quarters,  and  possibly  £Ui  ad- 
ditional nail  or  two  used  in  the  fastening,  and  these  applied  at  the  quarters.  There  is 
no  rule  which  admits  of  so  little  exception, — that  once  in  about  every  three  weeks  the 
growth  of  horn  which  the  natural  wear  of  the  foot  cannot  get  rid  of,  should  be  pared 
away — the  toe  should  be  shortened — the  sole  should  be  thinned,  and  the  heels  lowered. 
Every  one  who  has  carefully  observed  the  shape  of  the  horse's  foot,  must  have  seen, 
that  in  proportion  to  its  height  or  neglected  growth,  it  contracts  and  closes  upon  the  foot 
round  the  coronet.  A  low-heeled  horse  may  have  other  serious  defects,  of  which  it  will 
be  our  duty  to  speak,  but  he  has  seldom  a  contracted  foot. 

Another  source  of  contraction  i?  the  want  of  natural  moisture.  The  unshod  colt  has 
seldom  contracted  feet,  nor  does  the  horse  at  grass  acquire  them,  because  the  hoof  is  kept 
cool  and  damp  by  occasionzd  rain  and  by  the  regular  dew.  It  is  thus  rendered  supple, 
and  its  elasticity  is  preserved,  and  the  expansive  power  of  the  foot  is  uninjured.  The 
hoof  of  the  stabled  horse  sometimes  has  not  one  drop  of  moisture  on  it  for  several  days. 
The  effect  of  this,  in  causing  the  horn  to  shrink,  is  sufficiently  evident.  Hence  the  pro- 
priety of  stopping  the  feet.  The  intelligent  and  careful  groom  will  not  omit  it  a  single 
night.  Cow-dung,  with  a  small  portion  of  clay  to  give  it  consistence,  is  a  common  and 
very  good  stopping  ;  a  better  one  is  a  piece  of  thicK  felt  cut  to  the  shape  of  the  sole  and 
soaked  in  water;  this  may  be  procured,  ready  prepared  for  use,  at  any  saddler's.  The 
common  stopping  of  tar  and  grease  is  peculiarly  objectionable,  closing  the  pores  of  the 
feet,  and  ultimately  increcising  the  diyness  and  brittleness  which  it  was  designed  to 
remedy. 

The  usual  management  of  the  farmer's  horse,  which  is  often  turned  out  after  his  daily 
task  is  exacted,  or  at  least  whose  work  returns  with  the  day,  and  is  generally  performed 
where  the  feet  are  exposed  to  moisture,  is  an  excellent  preventive  against  contraction. 
Some  intelligent  persons  have  complained  much  of  the  influence  of  litter.  If  the  horse 
stand  many  hours  in  the  day  with  his  foot  embedded  in  straw,  it  is  supposed  that  the  hoof 
must  be  unnaturally  heated ;  and  it  is  said  that  the  horn  will  curl  and  contract  under  the 


CONTRACTION.  227 

influence  of  heat.  It  is  seldom,  however,  that  the  foot  is  so  siirrounded  by  the  litter, 
that  its  heat  will  be  sufficiently  increased  to  produce  this  effect  on  the  thick  horn.  The 
heels,  sometimes  embedded  in  straw,  and  then  receiving  the  current  of  cold  air  which 
blows  in  from  the  door,  may  suffer,  and  grease  may  result,  bat  the  foot  is  not  sutficicntly 
long  or  deeply  covered  by  the  litter  to  produce  a  temperature  hi;5h  enough  to  warp  the 
hoof.  We  confess,  therefore,  that  we  are  not  the  disciples  of  those  v/ho  would,  during 
the  day,  remove  all  litter  from  under  the  horse ;  we  do  not  like  the  naked  and  uncomfort- 
able appearance  of  the  stable  ;  cind  we  cannot  forget  the  difference  in  our  own  feelings, 
whether  we  stand  for  an  hour  or  two  on  the  hard  stones,  or  a  soft  carpet,  and  especially 
whether  we  beat  our  feet  upon  the  one  or  the  other.  We  are  disposed  to  say  that  hu- 
manity and  a  proper  care  of  the  foot  of  the  horse  should  induce  us  to  keep  some  litter 
imder  him  during  the  day;  but  his  feet  need  not  sink  so  deeply  in  it  that  their  tempera- 
ture should  be  much  affected. 

Thrushes  are  much  oftener  the  consequence  than  the  cause  of  contraction.  The  horny 
frog,  yielding  to  the  pressure  of  the  contracted  quarters,  is  diminished  in  size,  and  the 
lower  portion  of  the  fleshy  fro^:  becomes  imprisoned,  irritated,  and  inflamed,  and  pus  or 
matter  is  discharged  at  the  cleft ;  yet  there  are  many  heels  in  the  last  stage  of  contrac- 
tion, which  are  not  thrushy.  On  the  other  hand,  thrush  never  long  existed,  accompanied 
by  much  discharge,  without  producing  a  disposition  to  contraction  ;  therefore,  thrush 
may  be  considered  as  both  the  cause  and  consequence  of  contraction. 

The  removal  of  the  bai's  takes  away  a  main  impediment  to  contraction.  Their  use  in 
assisting  the  expansion  of  the  foot  has  been  already  stated,  and  should  a  disposition  to 
contraction  be  produced  by  any  other  cause,  the  cutting  away  of  the  bars  would  hasten 
and  aggravate  the  evil ;  but  the  loss  of  the  bar  would  not  of  itself  produce  contraction. 

The  contraction,  however,  which  is  connected  with  permanent  lameness,  although  in- 
creased by  the  circumstances  which  we  have  mentioned,  usually  derives  its  origin  from 
a  different  source,  and  from  one  which  acts  violently  and  suddenly.  Inflammation  of  the 
little  plates  covering  the  coffin-bone  is  the  most  usual  cause  ;  and  a  degree  of  inflamma- 
tion not  sufficiently  intense  to  be  characterised  as  acute  founder,  but  quickly  leading  to 
sad  results,  may  and  does  spring  from  causes  almost  unsuspected.  There  is  one  fact  to 
which  we  have  alluded,  and  that  cannot  be  doubted,  that  contraction  is  exceedingly  rai-e 
in  the  agricultural  horse,  but  frequently  occurs  in  the  stable  of  the  gentleman  and  the 
coach  proprietor ;  it  is  rare,  where  the  horse  is  seemingly  neglected  and  badly  shod ;  and 
frequent,  where  every  care  is  taken  of  the  animal,  and  the  shoes  are  unexceptionable 
and  skillfuly  applied.  Something  may  depend  upon  the  breed.  Blood  horses  are  par- 
ticularly liable  to  contraction ; — not  only  is  the  foot  naturally  small,  but  it  is  disposed  to 
become  narrower  at  the  heels.  The  broad,  flat  foot  of  the  cart-horse  is  subject  to  dis- 
eases enough,  but  contraction  is  seldom  one  of  the  number.  In  horses  of  equal  blood, 
not  a  little  seems  to  depend  upon  the  color,  and  the  dark  chestnut  is  proverbially  prone  to 
contraction. 

There  is,  however,  something  in  the  management  or  use  of  the  horse  that  lies  at  the 
root  of  the  evil,  and  that  is  not  difficult  to  discover  or  to  understand.  The  over-feeding 
of  many  horses  disposes  them  to  inflammation,  and  with  this  disposition  they  are  suffered 
to  stand  inactive  in  the  stable  for  one,  or  two,  or  three  days  ;  the  exquisitely  sensible 
little  plates  ai-e  scarcely  elongated ;  they  are  becoming  unused  to  exertion  ;  they  are  di- 
minishing from  lack  of  use.  The  horse  is  then  taken  from  the  stable,  and,  without  pre- 
paration, is  galloped  over  the  stones,  or  is  ridden  far  and  fast  on  the  road  or  in  the  field.  Is 
it  to  be  wondered  at,  if  the  sudden  concussion  of  the  whole  foot  and  the  violent  elonga- 
tion of  the  little  plates  should  produce  sufficient  pain  and  inflammation  to  interfere  with 
the  function,  and  alter  the  structure  of  various  parts  of  the  foot  ?  From  the  alteration  of 
structure  or  partial  separation  between  the  external  and  internal  portions  of  the  foot,  the 
expansion  oi  the  quarters  becomes  limited,  or  ceases,  and  in  consequence  of  this,  the 
crust  becomes  contracted  and  falls  in. 

Whatever  be  the  cause  of  that  rapid  contraction  or  narrowing  of  the  heels  which  is 
accompanied  by  severe  lameness,  tne  symptoms  may  be  easily  distinguished.  While 
standing  in  the  stable,  the  horse  will  point  with,  or  place  forward  the  contracted  foot,  or, 
if  both  feet  be  affected,  he  will  alternately  place  one  before  the  other;  when  he  is  taken 
out  of  the  stable,  he  will  not,  perhaps,  ejdiibit  the  decided  lameness  which  characterizes 
sprain  of  the  flexor  tendon,  or  some  diseases  of  the  foot ;  but  his  step  will  be  peculiarly 
short  and  quick,  and  the  feet  will  be  placed  gently  and  tesiderly  on  the  ground,  and 
scarcely  lifted  from  it  in  the  walk  or  the  trot.  It  would  seem  as  if  the  slightest  irregu- 
larity of  surface  would  throw  the  animal  down,  and  so  it  threatens  to  do,  lor  he  is  con- 
stantly tripping  and  stumbling.  If  the  fore-feet  are  carefully  observed,  one  or  both  of 
them  will  be  narrowed  across  the  quarters  and  towards  the  heels.  In  a  few  cases,  the 
whole  of  the  foot  appears  to  be  contracted  and  shrunk  ;  but  in  the  majority  of  instances, 
while  the  heels  are  narrower,  the  foot  is  longer.  The  contraction  appears  sometimes  in 
both  heels  ;  at  other^^times  in  the  inner  heel  only,  or,  if  both  be  affected,  tlie  inner  one 


228  THE  HORSE. 

i8  tuired  in  the  most ;  either  eenerally  from  the  coronet  to  the  base  of  the  foot,  or,  in  some 
instances,  only  or  principally  at  the  coronet ;  oftener  near  the  base  of  the  foot ;  but  in 
most  cases  the  hollow  is  greatest  about  mid-way  between  the  coronet  and  the  bottom  of 
the  foot.  This  irregularity  of  contraction,  and  uncertainty  as  to  the  place  of  it,  prove  that 
it  is  some  internal  disorganization,  the  seat  of  which  varies  with  the  portion  of  the  at- 
tachment between  the  hoof  and  the  foot  which  was  principally  strained  or  injured.  In 
every  recent  case  the  conti'acted  part  will  be  hotter  than  the  rest  of  the  foot,  and  the  sole 
will,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  be  unnaturally  concave,  and  that  sometimes  to  a  very  great 
degree. 

Of  the  treatment  of  contraction  attended  with  lameness  we  have  very  little  to  say  that 
will  be  satisfactory  ;  numberless  have  been  the  mechanical  contrivances  to  oppose  the 
progress  of  contraction,  or  to  force  back  the  foot  to  its  original  shape,  and  many  of  them 
nave  enjoyed  considerable  but  short-lived  reputation.  A  clip  was  placed  at  the  inside 
of  each  heel  of  the  shoes,  which,  resting  on  the  bars,  was  intended  to  afford  an  insur- 
mountable obstacle  to  the  further  wiring  in  of  the  foot,  while  the  heels  of  the  shoe  were 
bevelled  outward  to  give  the  foot  a  tendency  to  expand  The  foot,  however,  continued 
to  wire  in,  until  the  dip  was  imbedded  in  the  horn,  and  worse  lameness  was  produced. 

A  shoe  jointed  at  the  toe,  and  with  a  screw  adapted  to  the  heels,  was  contrived,  by 
which  when  softened  by  poulticing,  or  immersion  in  warm  water,  the  quarters  were  to  be 
irresistibly  widened.  They  were  wulened  by  the  daily  and  cautious  use  of  the  screw 
until  the  foot 'seemed  to  assume  its  natural  form,  and  the  inventor  began  to  exult  in 
having  discovered  a  cure  for  contraction  ;  but  no  sooner  was  the  common  shoe  again  ap- 
plied and  the  horse  returned  to  his  work,  than  the  heels  began  again  to  narrow,  and  the 
foot  became  as  contracted  as  ever.  Common  sense  would  nave  foretold  that  such  must 
have  been  the  result  of  this  expansive  process  ;  for  the  heel  could  have  been  only  thus 
forced  asunder,  at  the  expense  of  partial  or  total  separation  from  the  interior  portions  of 
the  foot  with  which  tliey  were  in  contact. 

The  contracted  heel  can  rarely  or  never  permanently  expand,  for  this  plain  reason, 
that  although  we  have  power  over  the  crust,  we  cannot  make  the  lengthened  and  nar- 
rowed coffin-bone  resume  its  natural  shape,  or  restore  the  portion  of  the  frog  which  has 
been  absorbed. 

If  the  action  of  tlie  horse  be  not  materially  impaired,  it  is  better  to  let  the  contraction 
alone,  be  it  as  great  as  it  will.  If  the  contraction  has  evidently  produced  considerable 
lameness,  then  the  owner  of  the  horse  will  calculate  between  his  value  if  cured,  the  ex- 
pense of  the  cure,  and  the  probability  of  failure. 

The  medical  treatment  can  only  be  undertalcen  by  a  skilful  veterinarian,  and  it  will 
principally  consist  in  getting  rid  of  any  inflammation  that  may  then  exist,  by  local  bleed- 
ing and  physic  ;  next  paring  the  sole  to  the  utmost  extent  that  it  will  bear ;  rasping  tlie 
quarters  as  deeply  as  may  be,  so  that  they  shall  not  be  too  much  weakened,  or  the  coro- 
nary ring  (see  b,  p.  217)  injured;  then  rasping  deeply  likewdse  at  the  toe,  and  perhaps 
scoring  at  the  toe.  The  horse  is  afterwards  made  to  stand  during  the  day  in  wet  clay, 
placed  in  one  of  the  stalls  of  his  stable,  and  he  is  moved  at  night  into  another  stall  and 
nis  feet  bound  up  thickly  in  wet  cloths  ;  or  he  is  turned  out  into  wet  pasturage,  with 
tips,  or,  if  possible,  without  them,  and  his  feet  are  frequently  pared  out,  and  the  quarters 
lightly  rasped.  In  five  or  six  months  the  horn  will  have  grown  fairly  down,  when  he 
may  be  taken  up,  and  shod  with  shoes,  unattached  by  nails  on  the  inner  side  of  the  foot, 
and  put  to  gentle  work.  The  foot  will  be  found  veiy  considerably  enlarged,  and  the 
owner  will,  perhaps,  think  that  the  cure  is  accomplished ;  and  the  horse  may,  possibly, 
for  a  time  stand  very  gentle  work,  and  the  inner  side  of  the  foot  being  left  at  liberty  its 
natural  expansive  process  maybe  resumed.  The  internal  part  of  the  foot,  however,  has 
not  healthily  filled  up  with  the  expansion  of  the  cnist.  If  that  expansion  has  been  effect- 
ed forward  on  the  quarters,  the  crust  will  no  longer  be  in  contact  with  the  lengthened 
and  narrowed  heels  of  the  coffin-bone ;  there  will  not  be  the  natural  adhesion  and 
strength,  and  a  very  slight  cause,  or  even  the  very  habit  of  contraction,  will,  in  spite  of 
all  our  care  and  the  freedom  of  the  inner  quarter,  in  very  many  instances,  cause  the 
foot  to  wire  in  again  as  badly  as  before. 

THE   NAVICOLAR-JOINT   DISEASE. 

Many  horses  with  well-formed  and  open  feet  become  sadly  and  permanently  lame ; 
and  veterinary  surgeons  have  been  much  puzzled  to  find  out  why.  The  farrier  has  had 
his  convenient  explanation  "  the  shoulder;"  but  the  scientific  practitioner  has  not  been 
able  to  discover  an  ostensible  cause  of  lameness  in  the  whole  limb.  There  is  no  one 
accustomed  to  horses  who  does  not  recollect  many  an  instance  of  this.  Mr.  James 
Turner  has,  of  late  years,  thrown  very  considerable  light  on  the  seat  and  cause  of  this 
disease,  although,  as  in  contacted  feet,  the  most  skilful  surgeon  will  rarely  effect  a 
cure.  • 


THE  NAVICULAR  JOINT  DISEASE.  229 

By  reference  to  our  cut,  e,  page  193,  it  %vill  be  seen  that,  behind  and  beneath  the  lower 
pastern-bone,  and  behind  and  above  the  heel  of  the  coflin-bone,  is  a  small  bone  called 
tlie  navicular  or  shuttle  bone.  It  is  so  placed  as  to  strengthen  the  union  between  the 
lower  pastern  and  the  coffin-bone,  and  to  enable  the  flexor  tendon,  which  passes  over 
it,  in  order  to  be  inserted  into  the  bottom  of  the  coffin-bone,  to  act  with  more  advantage ; 
it  forms  a  kind  of  joint  with  that  tendon.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  weight  thrown  on 
the  navicular-bone,  and  from  the  navicular-bone  on  the  tendon ;  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
motion  or  play  between  them  in  the  bending  and  extension  of  the  pasterns.  Now  it  is 
very  easy  to  conceive  that  from  sudden  concussion  or  from  rapid  and  overstrained  motion, 
and  that  perhaps  after  the  animal  has  been  some  time  at  rest,  and  the  parts  have  not 
adapted  themselves  for  motion,  that  there  may  be  too  much  play  between  the  bone 
and  the  tendon ;  that  the  delicate  membrane  which  covers  the  bone,  or  the  cartilage 
of  the  bone,  may  be  bruised,  and  inflamed,  and  destroyed ;  and  that  all  the  painful  effects 
of  an  inflamed  and  opened  joint  may  ensue,  and  the  horse  may  be  dreadfully  lame.  Nu- 
merous dissections  have  shown  that  this  joint,  formed  by  the  tendon  and  the  bone,  has 
been  the  frequent,  and,  we  believe  it  to  be,  the  almost  invariably  seat  of  these  obscure 
lamenesses.  The  membrane  covering  the  cartilage  of  the  bone  has  been  found  in  an  ulcer- 
ated state ;  the  cartilage  itself  has  been  ulcerated  and  eaten  away ;  and  the  bone  has 
become  carious  or  decayed,  and  bony  adhesions  have  often  taken  place  between  the 
navicular  and  the  pastern  and  the  coffin-bones,  and  this  part  of  the  foot  has  bec*me  com- 
pletely disorganised  and  useless.  This  joint  is  probably  the  seat  of  lameness,  not  only 
in  flat  and  perfect  feet,  but  in  those  which  become  lame  after  contraction  ;  for  in  propor- 
tion as  the  inner  frog  is  compressed  by  the  contraction  of  the  heels,  and  the  frog  is 
absorbed  by  that  pressure,  and  the  sole  is  become  concave,  and  the  horny  frog,  and  the 
coffin-bone  too,  thereby  elevated  (see  cut,  page  206),  will  there  be  less  room  for  the 
action  of  this  joint,  and  more  danger  of  the  tendon  and  the  delicate  membrane  of  the 
navicular-bone  being  crushed  between  that  bone  and  the  horny  frog. 

Stable  management  has  little  to  do  with  the  production  of  this  disease,  any  further 
than  if  a  horse  stands  idle  in  the  stable  several  days,  and  the  structure  of  the  foot,  and 
all  the  apparatus  connected  with  motion,  become  unused  to  exertion,  and  indisposed  for 
it,  and  he  be  then  suddenly  and  violently  exercised,  this  membrane  is  very  liable  to  be 
bruised  and  injured.  Irregular  and  undue  exercise  are  the  causes  in  all  feet;  but  the 
contracted  foot,  from  its  alteration  of  form,  is  most  in  danger. 

The  cure  is  extremely  uncertain.  The  fiist  object  is  to  abate  the  inflammation  in  this 
very  susceptible  membrane.  Local  bleeding,  poulticing,  and  physic  will  be  our  princi- 
pal resources.  If  there  be  contraction,  this  must,  if  possible,  be  removed  by  the 
means  already  pointed  out.  If  there  be  not  contraction,  it  will  be  prudent  to  remove  tJl 
surrounding  pressure  by  paring  the  sole  and  rasping  the  quarters,  and  using  the  shoe 
without  nails  on  the  inner  quarter.  This  is  a  case,  however,  which  must  be  turned  over 
to  the  veterinary  surgeon,  for  he  alone,  from  his  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the  foot, 
and  the  precise  seat  of  the  disease,  is  competent  to  treat  it.  If  attacked  on  its  earliest 
appearance,  and  before  ulceration  of  the  membrane  of  the  joint  has  taken  place,  it  may 
be  radically  cured,  but  ulceration  of  the  membrane  will  be  with  difficulty  healed,  and 
caries  of  the  bone  will  for  ever  remain.  Blistering  the  coronet  will  often  assist  in  pro- 
moting a  cure  by  diverting  the  inflammation  to  another  part,  and  it  will  materially 
quicken  the  growth  of  the  horn ;  and  a  seaton  passed  through  the  frog  by  a  skilful 
operator,  and  approaching  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  seat  of  disease,  lias  been  ser- 
viceable. 

In  cases  of  old  contraction,  attended  by  a  short  and  feeling  step,  neurotomy,  or  the  cut- 
ting out  of  a  portion  of  the  nerve,  (for  an  explanation  of  the  nature  and  effects  of  which 
see  page  87,)  may  be  resorted  to  with  decided  advantage.  Not  only  will  the  lameness 
be  removed,  but,  by  the  foot  being  again  brought  fully  and  firmly  upon  the  ground,  the 
inner  side  of  the  shoe  being  unfettered  by  nails,  a  portion  of  the  contraction  may  be 
removed  by  the  sole  being  allowed  to  descend  and  the  foot  to  expand  at  each  contact  with 
the  ground. 

Even  when  the  navicular  joint  is  particularly  suspected,  if  there  be  no  apparent  in- 
flammation, (and  that  would  be  readily  detected  by  the  heat  of  the  foot,)  neurotomy 
may  be  practised  with  the  hope  of  alleviating  the  sufferings  of  the  animal,  and  thus  re- 
moving a  portion  of  the  lameness ;  but  if  the  lameness  be  extreme,  either  with  or  without 
contraction,  and  especially  if  there  be  heat  about  the  foot,  the  operation  is  dangerous. 
There  is,  probably,  ulceration  of  the  membrane — possibly,  decay  of  the  bone  ;  and  the 
additional  friction  to  which  the  parts  would  be  subjected,  by  the  freer  action  of  the  horse, 
the  Gense  of  pain  being  removed,  would  cause  tliat  ulceration  or  decay  to  proceed  more 
rapidly  until  the  foot  would  be  completely  disorganized,  or  the  tendon  would  be  gradually 
worn  through  by  rubbing  against  the  roughened  surface  of  the  bone. 


280  THE  HORSE. 

SAND-CRACK. 

This,  as  its  name  imports,  is  a  crack  or  division  of  the  hoof  from  above  downward, 
and  into  which  sand  and  dirt  are  too  apt  to  insinuate  themselves ;  or,  as  some  say,  be- 
cause it  most  frequently  occurs  in  sandy  districts,  the  heat  of  the  sand  applied  to  the 
feet,  giving  them  a  disposition  to  crack.  They  occur  both  in  the  fore  and  the  hind  feet 
In  the  fore  feet  they  are  usually  found  in  the  inner  quarter  (see  g,  p.  197,)  but  occasion- 
ally in  the  outer  quarter,  because  at  the  quarter  is  the  principal  stress  or  effort  towards 
expansion  in  the  foot,  and  the  inner  qujirter  is  weaker  tnan  the  outer.  In  the  hind  feet 
the  crack  is  almost  invariably  found  in  the  front,  because  in  the  digging  of  the  toe  into 
the  ground  in  the  act  of  drawing,  the  principal  sb-ess  is  in  front. 

This  is  a  most  serious  defect.  It  indicates  a  brittleness  of  the  crust,  sometimes  natural, 
but  oltener  the  consequence  of  mismanagement  or  disease,  which,  in  spite  of  every 
means  adopted,  will  probably  be  the  source  of  future  annoyance.  On  a  hoof  that  has 
once  been  thus  divided  no  dependence  can  be  placed,  unless,  by  great  care,  the  natural 
suppleness  of  the  horn  has  been  restored  and  is  retained. 

Sand-crack  may  happen  in  an  instant  from  a  false  step  or  over-exertion  ;  and  there- 
fore a  horse,  although  he  may  spring  a  sand-crack  within  an  hour  after  the  purchase, 
cannot  be  returned  on  that  account. 

It  is  always  necessary  to  examine  tlie  inner  quarter  of  the  foot  at  the  time  of  purchase, 
for  it  has  more  than  once  occurred  that,  by  low  dealers,  and  particularly  at  fairs,  a  sand- 
crack  has  been  neatly  covered  witli  pitch,  and  then  the  whole  of  the  hoof  having  been 
oiled,  the  injury  was  so  adroitly  concealed  that  an  incautious  person  might  be  easily 
deceived. 

The  crack  sometimes  does  not  penetrate  through  the  horn :  it  then  causes  no  lameness ; 
nevertheless,  it  must  not  be  neglected.  It  shows  that  brittleness  which  should  make  the 
purchaser  pause  ;  and,  if  proper  means  are  not  taken,  it  will  generally  soon  reach  to  the 
quick.  It  should  be  pared  or  rasped  fairly  out ;  and  if  the  paring  or  rasping  has  been 
deep,  the  foot  should  be  strengthened  by  a  coating  of  pitch,  with  coarse  tape  bound  over 
it,  and  covered  by  another  coating  of  pitch,  and  which  may  be  moulded  and  polished  so 
as  to  be  scarcely  distinguishable  trom  the  natural  horn.  Every  crack  should  be  pared  or 
rasped  to  ascertain  its  depth.  If  it  penetrates  through  the  crust,  and  no  lameness  ex- 
ists, and  is  situated  low  down  on  the  foot,  a  firing  iron,  red-hot,  should  be  run  pretty 
deeply  above  and  below  it  to  prevent  its  lengthening ;  the  edges  should  be  a  little  thin- 
ned to  remove  any  painful  or  injurious  pressure ;  and  it  should  be  bound  up  in  the 
manner  directed,  taking  care  that  the  shoe  does  not  press  upon  the  crust  immediately 
under  the  crack. 

If  the  crack  has  penetrated  through  the  crust,  and  lameness  has  ensued,  the  case  is 
more  serious.  It  must  be  carefully  excimined  to  ascertain  that  no  dirt  or  sand  has  got  into  it ; 
the  edges  must  be  considerably  thinned  ;  and  if  any  fungus  is  beginning  to  sprout  through 
the  crack,  and  is  imprisoned  and  pinched  there,  it  must  be  destroyed  by  the  application 
of  the  butyr  (chloride)  of  antimony.  This  is  far  preferable  to  the  cautery,  because  the 
edges  of  the  horn  will  not  be  thickened  or  roughened,  and  thus  become  a  source  of  after 
irritation.  The  iron  must  then  be  run  deeply  above  and  below  the  crack,  as  in  the 
other  case  a  pledget  of  dry  tow  must  be  placed  in  the  crack  with  another  over 
it,  and  the  whole  bound  down  as  tightly  as  possible.  On  the  third  day  the  part  should 
be  examined,  and  the  caustic  again  applied  if  necessary ;  but  if  the  crack  be  dry,  and 
defended  by  a  hard  horny  crust,  the  sooner  the  pitch  plaster  is  put  on  the  better.  The 
most  serious  case  is  when,  from  tread  or  neglect,  the  coronet  is  divided.  The  growth 
of  horn  proceeds  from  the  coronary  ligament,  and  unless  this  is  perfect  the  horn  will 
grow  down  divided.  The  method  to  be  here  adopted  is  to  run  the  back  of  the  firing- 
iron  over  the  coronet  at  the  division.  Some  inflammation  will  ensue,  and  when  the  scab 
produced  by  the  cautery  peels  off,  as  it  will  in  a  few  days,  the  division  will  be  obliter- 
ated, and  sound  and  united  horn  will  grow  down.  In  this  case,  as  in  almost  every  case 
of  sand-crack,  the  horse  should  be  kept  as  quiet  as  possible.  It  is  not  in  the  power  of 
the  surgeon  to  effect  a  perfect  cure  if  tne  owner  will  continue  to  use  the  animal.  When 
the  horn  is  divided  at  the  coronet  it  will  take  five  or  six  months  for  it  to  grow  fairly 
down,  and  not  before  it  is  grown  fairly  down  should  the  horse  be  used,  even  for  ordinary 
work  :  but  when  the  horn  is  grovni  an  inch  from  the  coronet  the  horse  may  be  turned 
out,  the  foot  being  well  defended  by  the  pitch  plaster,  and  that  renewed  as  often  ias  it 
becomes  loose,  a  bar  shoe  being  worn  chambered  so  as  riot  to  press  upon  the  hoof  imme- 
diately under  the  crack,  and  that  shoe  being  taken  off",  the  sole  pared  out,  and  any  bul- 
bous projection  of  the  new  horn  being  removed  once  in  every  three  weeks. 

To  remedy  the  undue  brittleness  of  the  hoof,  we  know  no  better  application  than 
that  recommended  in  page  144,  the  sole  being  covered  at  the  same  time  with  the  com- 
moD  cow-dung  or  felt  stopping. 


QUITTOR.  231 

TREAD,    OB    OVERREACH. 

Under  this  term  are  comprised  bruises  and  wounds  of  the  coronet,  produced  usually  in 
the  hind-feet,  by  the  awkward  habit  of  setting  one  toot  upon  another,  and  in  the  forefoot 
by  the  liinder  one  over-reaching  it,  and  wounding  the  other  near  the  heel.  When  pro- 
perly treated,  a  tread  is  seldom  productive  of  much  injury.  If  the  dirt  be  well  vvashed 
out  of  it,  and  a  pledget  of  tow  dipped  in  Friar's  balsam  be  bound  over  the  wound,  it  will, 
in  the  majority  of  cases,  speedily  heel.  Should  the  bruise  be  extensive  or  the  wound 
deep,  a  poultice  may  be  applied  for  one  or  two  days,  and  then  the  Friar's  balsam,  or  digest- 
ive ointment.  Sometimes  a  soft  tumour  will  lorm  on  the  part,  which  will  be  quickly 
brought  to  suppuration  by  a  poultice,  and  when  the  matter  has  run  out  the  ulcer  will  heal 
by  the  application  of  the  Friar's  balsam,  or  a  weak  solution  of  blue  vitriol. 

A  tread,  or  wound  of  the  coronet,  should  never  be  neglected,  lest  gravel  should  insinuate 
itself  into  the  wound,  and  form  deep  ulcerations  called  sinusus  or  pipes,  and  which  con- 
stitute quittor;  and  more  particularly  the  caustic,  too  frequently  used  by  faiTiers,  should 
be  carefully  avoided,  not  only  lest  quittor  should  be  formed,  but  lest  the  coronary  ligament 
should  be  so  injured  as  to  be  afterwards  incapable  of  throwing  out  perfect  horn.  This 
defect  is  called 

FALSE    QUARTER. 

If  the  coronary  ligament  by  which  the  horn  of  the  crust  is  secreted  is  either  divided  by 
the  original  cut  or  bruise,  or  eaten  through  by  the  caustic,  there  will  be  a  division  in  the 
horn  as  it  grows  down,  either  in  the  form  of  a  permanent  sand-crack  or  one  portion  of 
the  horn  overlapping  the  otlier.  This  is  not  only  a  very  serious  defect,  and  a  frequent 
cause  of  lameness,  but  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  remedy.  The  coronary  ligament 
must  be  restored  to  its  perfect  state,  or  at  least  to  the  discharge  of  its  perfect  function. 
Much  danger  would  attend  the  application  of  the  caustic  in  order  to  effect  this.  A  blister 
is  rarely  sufficiently  active,  and  the  application,  not  too  severely  of  a  heated  flat  or  rounded 
iron  to  the  coronet  at  the  injured  part  affords  the  best  chance  of  success  ;  the  edges  of  the 
horn  on  either  side  of  the  crack  being  thinned,  the  hoof  supported,  and  the  separated 
parts  held  together  by  a  firm  encasement  of  pitch,  as  described  when  spealdn^  of  the 
treatment  of  sand-crack.  The  coronet  must  be  examined  at  least  once  in  every  fortnight 
in  order  to  ascertain  whether  the  desired  union  has  there  taken  place  ;  and,  as  a  palliative, 
during  the  treatment  of  the  case,  or  if  the  treatment  should  be  unsuccessful,  a  bar  shoe 
may  be  used,  and  care  taken  that  there  be  no  bearing  at  or  immediately  under  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  horn.  This  will  be  best  effected,  if  the  crust  be  thick  and  the  quarters 
strong,  by  paring  off  a  little  of  the  bottom  of  the  crust  at  the  part,  so  that  it  shall  not 
touch  the  shoe  ;  but  if  the  foot  be  weak,  an  indentation,  or  hollow,  should  be  made  in 
the  shoe.  Strain  or  concussion  on  the  immediate  part  will  tlms  be  avoided,  and  in  sudden 
or  violent  exertion  the  crack  will  not  be  so  likely  to  extend  upward  again  to  the  coronet, 
when  whole  and  sound  horn  has  begun  to  be  formed  there. 

In  some  cases  false  quarter  assumes  a  less  injurious  character.  The  horn  grows  down 
whole,  but  the  ligament  is  unable  to  secrete  that  which  is  perfectly  healthy,  and  therefore 
there  is  a  narrow  slip  of  horn  of  a  different  and  lighter  colour.  This  is  sometimes  the 
best  result  that  can  be  procured  when  the  surgeon  has  been  able  to  obliterate  the  absolute 
crack  or  separation.  It  is,  however,  to  be  regarded  as  a  defect,  not  sufficient  to  condemn 
the  horse,  but  indicating  that  he  has  had  sand-crack,  and  that  a  disposition  to  sand-crack 
may  possibly  remain.  There  will  also,  in  the  generality  of  cases,  be  some  degTee  of 
tenderness  in  that  quarter,  which  may  produce  slight  lameness  when  unusual  exertion  is 
required  from  the  horse,  or  the  shoe  is  suffered  long  to  press  on  tlie  part. 

QUITTOR. 

This  has  been  described  as  being  the  result  of  neglected  or  bad  tread  or  overreach  ;  but 
it  may  be  the  consequence  of  any  wound  in  the  foot,  and  in  any  part  of  the  foot.  In  the 
natural  process  of  ulceration,  matter  Ls  thrown  out  from  the  wound.  This  precedes  the 
actual  healing  of  the  part.  The  matter  which  is  thrown  out  in  wounds  of  the  foot  is 
usually  pent  up  there,  and,  increasing  in  quantity,  and  thus  urging  its  way  in  every 
direction,  it  forces  the  fleshy  little  plates  of  the  coffin-bone,  from  the  horny  ones  of  the 
crust,  or  the  horny  sole  from  the  fleshy  sole,  or  even  eats  deeply  into  the  internal  parts  of 
the  foot.  These  pipes  or  sinuses  run  in  every  direction,  and  constitute  tlie  essence  of 
quittor. 

If  it  arise  from  a  wound  in  the  bottom  of  the  foot,  the  matter  which  is  rapidly  formed 
is  pent  up  there,  the  nail  of  the  shoe  or  the  stub  remains  in  the  wound,  or  the  small  aper- 
ture which  was  made  is  immediately  closed  again.  This  matter,  however,  continues  to 
be  thrown  out,  and  it  separates  the  horny  sole  from  the  fleshy  one  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent, and  at  length  forces  its  way  upward,  and  appears  at  tlie  coronet,  and  usually  at  tlie 


m  THE  HORSE. 

quarter,  and  there  slowly  oozes  out ;  but  the  aperture  and  the  quantity  discharged  are  so 
small  that  the  inexperieTiced  person  would  form  no  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  mischief 
within,  and  the  difficulty  of  repairing  it.  The  opening  may  scarcely  admit  a  probe  into 
it,  yet  over  the  greater  part  of  the  qucirter  and  the  sole  the  horn  may  have  separated  from 
the  foot,  and  the  matter  may  have  penetrated  under  the  cartilages  and  ligaments,  and  into 
the  coffin  joint ;  and  not  only  so,  but  two  mischievous  results  have  been  produced — the 
pressure  of  the  matter  wherever  it  has  gone  has  formed  ulcerations  that  are  indisposed 
to  heal,  and  that  require  tlie  application  of  strong  and  painful  stimulants  to  induce  them 
to  heal ;  and,  worse  than  this,  the  horn,  once  separated  from  the  sensible  parts  beneath, 
will  never  again  unite  with  them. 

It  will  be  sufficiently  plain  that  the  aid  of  a  skilful  practitioner  is  here  requisite,  and 
also  the  fuU  exercise  of  the  patience  of  the  proprietor  of  the  horse.  It  may  be  necessary 
to  remove  much  of  the  horny  sole,  which  will  be  speedUy  reproduced  wnen  the  fleshy 
surface  beneath  can  be  brought  to  a  healthy  condition  ;  but  if  much  of  the  horn  at  the 
quau-ters  must  be  taken  away,  five  or  six  months  may  probably  elapse  before  it  will  be 
sufficiently  grown  down  again  to  render  the  horse  useful. 

Measures  of  considerable  severity  are  indispensable.  The  application  of  some  caustic 
will  alone  produce  a  healthy  action  on  tlie  ulcerated  surfaces ;  but  on  the  ground  of  inte- 
rest and  of  humanity  we  protest  against  that  brutal  practice,  or  at  least  the  extent  to 
which  it  is  earned,  of  coring  out,  or  deeply  destroying  the  healthy  as  well  as  the  diseased 
parts,  and  parts  which  no  process  will  again  restore,  which  is  piusued  by  many  ignorant 
smiths.  The  unhealthy  surface  must  be  removed,  but  the  cartilages  and  ligaments,  and 
even  portions  of  the  bone,  need  not  be  sacrificed. 

The  experienced  veterinary  surgeon  will  alone  be  able  to  counsel  the  proprietor  of  the 
horse  when,  in  cases  of  confirmed  quittor,  there  is  reasonable  hope  of  permanent  cure. 
A  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the  foot  is  necessary  to  enable  him  to  decide  what  parts, 
indispensable  to  the  action  of  the  animal,  may  have  been  irreparably  injured  or  destroyed, 
or  to  save  these  parts  from  the  destructive  effect  of  torturing  caustics.  When  any  por- 
tion of  the  bone  can  be  felt  by  the  probe  the  chances  of  success  are  diminished,  and  the 
owner  and  the  operator  should  pause.  When  the  joints  are  exposed  the  case  is  hopeless  ; 
yet,  in  a  great  many  instances,  the  bones  and  the  joints  are  exposed  by  the  remedy  and 
not  by  the  disease.  One  hint  may  not  be  necessary,  to  the  practitioner,  but  it  may  guide 
the  determination  and  hopes  of  the  owner :  if,  when  a  probe  is  introduced  into  the  fistu- 
lous  orifice  on  the  coronet,  the  direction  of  the  sinuses  or  pipes  is  backward,  there  is  much 
probability  that  a  perfect  cure  may  be  effected ;  but  if  the  direction  of  the  sinuses  be 
forw£ird,  the  cure  is  at  best  doubtfull.  In  the  first  instance,  there  is  neither  bone  nor 
joint  to  be  injured  ;  in  the  other,  the  more  important  parts  of  the  foot  are  in  dsmger,  and 
the  principal  action  and  concussion  are  found. 

Neglected  braises  of  the  sole  sometimes  lay  the  foundation  for  quittor.  When  the 
foot  is  flat,  it  is  very  liable  to  be  bruised  if  the  horse  is  ridden  fast  over  a  rough  and  stony 
road ;  or  a  small  stone,  insinuating  itself  between  the  shoe  and  the  sole,  or  clipped  and 
confined  by  the  curvature  of  the  shoe,  will  frequently  lame  the  horse.  The  heat  and 
tenderness  of  the  part,  the  occasional  redness  of  the  horn,  and  the  absence  of  puncture 
will  clearly  mark  the  bruise.  The  sole  must  then  be  thinned,  and  particularly  over  the 
bruised  part,  and,  in  neglected  cases,  it  must  be  pared  even  to  the  quick,  in  order  to  as- 
certain whether  the  inflammation  has  run  on  to  suppuration.  Bleeding  at  the  toe  will 
be  clearly  indicated, — poultices, — and  such  other  means  as  have  either  been  described 
under  "  Inflammation  of  the  Feet,"  or  will  be  pointed  out  under  the  next  head.  The 
principal  causes  of  bruises  of  the  foot  are  leaving  the  sole  too  much  exposed  by  means 
of  a  narrow-webbed  shoe,  or  the  smith  paring  out  the  sole  too  closely,  or  the  pressure  of 
the  shoe  on  the  sole,  or  the  introduction  of  gravel  or  stones  between  the  shoe  and  the 
sole. 

PEICK   OR   WOUND    III   THE    SOLE    OR   CHtTST. 

This  is  the  most  frequent  cause  of  quittor.  It  is  evident  that  the  sole  is  very  liable  to 
be  wounded  by  nails,  pieces  of  glass,  or  even  sharp  flints,  but  much  more  frequently  the 
fleshy  little  plates  are  wounded  by  the  nail  in  shoeing  ;  or  if  the  nail  does  not  penetrate 
through  the  internal  surface  of  the  crust,  it  is  driven  so  close  to  it  that  it  presses  upon  the 
fleshy  parts  beneath,  and  causes  irritation  and  inflammation,  and  at  length  ulceration. 
When  a  horse  becomes  suddenly  lame,  after  the  legs  have  been  carefiilly  examined  and 
no  cause  of  lameness  appears  in  them,  the  shoe  should  be  taken  off.  In  many  cases  the 
ofliending  substance  will  be  immediately  detected,  or  the  additional  heat  felt  in  some  part 
of  the  foot  wiU  point  out  the  seat  of  injury  ;  or,  if  the  crust  be  rapped  with  the  hammer 
all  around,  the  flinching  of  the  horse  will  discover  it ;  or  pressure  with  the  pincers  will 
render  it  evident. 

When  the  shoe  is  removed  for  this  examination  the  smith  should  never  be  permitted  to 
wrench  it  off,  but  each  nail  should  be  drawn  separately,  and  examined  as  it  is  drawn, 


'■y-Jnium^ 


PRICK  OB  WOUND  IN  THE  SOLE  OH  CRUST.  233 

when  some  moisture  appearing  upon  it  will  not  unfrequently  reveal  the  spot  at  which 
matter  has  been  thrown  out.  In  the  fore-foot  the  injury  will  generally  be  found  on  the 
inner  quarter,  and  on  the  hind-feet  near  tlie  toe,  these  being  the  thinnest  parts  of  the 
fore  and  hind-feet. 

Sudden  lameness  occurring  within  two  or  three  days  after  the  horse  has  been  shod  will 
lead  us  to  suspect  that  the  smith  has  been  in  fault ;  yet  no  one  who  consider  the  thinness 
of  the  crust,  and  the  difficulty  of  shoeing  many  feet,  will  blame  him  for  sometimes  prick- 
ing the  horse.  His  fault  will  consist  in  concealing  or  denying  that  of  which  he  will  al- 
most always  be  aware  at  the  time  of  shoeing,  from  the  flinching  of  the  horse,  or  the  dead 
sound,  or  the  peculiar  resistance  that  may  be  noticed  in  the  driving  of  the  nail.  We  would 
plead  the  cause  of  the  honest  portion  of  a  humble  class  of  men,  who  discharge  this  me- 
chanical part  of  their  business  with  a  skill  and  good  fortune  scarcely  credible  ;  but  we 
resign  those  to  the  reproaches  and  the  punishment  of  the  owner  of  the  horse,  who  too 
often  and  with  bad  policy  deny  that  which  accident,  or  possibly  momentary  carelessness, 
might  have  occasioned,  and  the  neglect  of  which  is  fraught  with  danger,  although  the 
mischief  resulting  from  it  might  at  the  time  be  easily  remedied. 

When  the  seat  of  mischief  is  ascertained,  the  sole  should  be  thinned  round  it;  and,  es- 
pecially at  the  nail-hole,  or  the  puncture,  it  should  be  pared  to  the  quick.  The  escape 
of  some  matter  will  now  probably  tell  the  nature  of  the  injury,  and  remove  its  conse- 
quences. If  it  be  puncture  of  the  sole  by  some  nail,  or  any  similar  body,  picked  up 
on  the  road,  all  that  will  be  necessary  is  a  little  to  enlai'ge  the  opening,  and  then  to  place 
on  it  a  pledget  of  tow  dipped  in  Friar's  balsam,  and  over  that  a  little  common  stepping ; 
or,  if  there  be  much  heat  and  lameness,  a  poultice  should  be  applied. 

The  part  of  the  sole  wounded  and  the  depth  of  the  wound  will  be  taken  into  consider- 
ation. It  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  cut  in  p.  193,  that  a  deep  puncture  towards 
the  back  part  of  the  sole,  and  penetrating  even  into  the  sensible  frog,  may  not  be  pro- 
ductive of  serious  consequence.  There  is  no  great  motion  in  the  part,  and  there  are  no 
tendons  or  bones  in  danger.  A  puncture  near  the  toe  may  not  be  followed  by  much  inju- 
ry. There  is  Uttle  motion  in  that  part  of  the  foot,  and  the  internal  sole  covering  the 
coffin-bone  will  soon  heal ;  but  a  puncture  about  the  centre  of  the  sole  may  wound  the 
flexor  tendon  where  it  is  inserted  into  the  coffin-bone,  or  may  even  penetrate  the  joint 
which  unites  the  navicular-bone,  with  the  coffin-bone,  or  pierce  through  the  tendon  into 
the  joint  which  it  forms  with  the  navicular-bone,  and  a  degree  of  inflammation  may  en- 
sue, which,  if  neglected,  may  be  fatal.  Many  horses  have  been  lost  by  the  smallest 
puncture  of  the  sole  in  these  dangerous  points.  All  the  anatomical  skill  of  the  veteri- 
narian should  be  called  into  requisition,  when  he  is  examining  the  most  trifling  wound 
of  the  foot. 

If  the  foot  has  been  wounded  by  the  wrong  direction  of  a  nail  in  shoeing,  and  the  sole 
be  well  pared  out  over  the  part  on  the  first  appearance  of  lameness,  little  more  will  be 
necessary  to  be  done.     The  opening  must  be  somewhat  enlarged,  the  Friar's  balsam  ap- 

f»hed,  and  the  shoe  tacked  on,  with  or  without  a  poultice,  according  to  the  degree  of 
ameness  or  heat,  and  on  the  following  day  all  will,  often,  be  well.  It  may,  however, 
be  prudent  to  keep  the  foot  stopped  for  a  few  days.  If  the  accident  has  been  neglected, 
and  matter  begins  to  be  formed,  and  to  be  pent  up  and  to  press  on  the  neighboring  parts, 
and  the  horse  evidently  suffers  extreme  pain,  and  is  sometimes  scarcely  able  to  put  his 
foot  to  the  ground,  and  much  matter  is  poured  out  when  the  opening  is  enlarged,  further 

Erecautions  must  be  adopted.  The  fact  must  be  recollected  that  the  living  and  dead 
orn  will  never  unite,  and  every  portion  of  the  horny  sole  that  has  separated  from  the 
fleshy  sole  above  must  be  removed.  T/ie  separation  must  be  followed  as  far  as  it  reaches. 
Much  of  the  success  of  the  treatment  depends  on  this.  No  small  strip  or  edge  of  sepa- 
rated horn  must  be  suffered  to  press  upon  any  part  of  the  wound.  The  exposed  fleshy 
sole  must  then  be  touched,  but  not  too  severely,  with  the  butyr  (chloride)  of  antimony, 
some  soft  and  dry  tow  placed  over  the  part,  and  the  foot  stopped,  and  a  poultice  placed 
over  all  if  the  inflammation  seems  to  require  it.  On  the  following  day  a  thin  pellicle  of 
horn  will  frequently  be  found  over  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  wound.  This  should  be, 
yet  very  lightly,  touched  again  with  tne  caustic  ;  but  if  there  be  an  appearance  of  fun- 
gus sprouting  from  the  exposed  surface,  tlie  apphcation  of  the  butyr  must  be  most  severe, 
and  the  tow  again  placed  over  it,  so  as  to  afford  considerable  yet  uniform  pressure. 
Many  days  do  not  often  elapse  before  the  new  horn  covers  the  whole  of  the  wound.  In 
these  extensive  openings  the  Friar's  balsam  will  not  often  be  successful,  but  the  cure 
must  be  effected  by  the  judicious  and  never  too  severe  use  of  the  caustic.  Bleeding  at 
the  toe,  and  physic,  will  be  resorted  to  as  useful  auxiliaries  when  much  inflammauon 
arises. 

In  searching  the  foot  to  ascertain  the  existence  of  prick,  there  is  often  something  very 
censurable  in  tlie  carelessness  vdth  which  the  horn  is  cut  away  between  tlie  bottom  of 
the  crust  and  the  sole,  so  as  to  leave  little  or  no  hold  for  the  nails,  while  some  montlis 
30 


284  THE  HORSE. 

must  elapse  before  the  horn  will  grow  down  sufficiently  fax  for  the  shoe  to  be  securely 
fastened. 

When  a  free  opening  has  been  made  below,  and  matter  has  not  broken  out  at  the  coro- 
net, it  will  rarely  be  necessary  to  remove  any  portion  of  the  horn  at  the  quaa-ters,  although 
we  may  be  able  to  ascertain  by  the  use  of  the  probe  that  the  separation  of  the  crust  ex- 
tends lor  a  considerable  space  above  the  sole. 


In  the  angle  between  the  bars  c,  p,  218,  and  the  quarters,  the  horn  of  the  sole  has 
sometimes  a  red  appearance,  and  is  more  spongy  and  softer  than  at  any  other  part.  The 
horse  flinches  when  this  portion  of  the  horn  is  pressed  upon,  and  there  is  occasional  or 
permanent  lameness.  This  disease  of  the  foot  is  termed  corns  :  bearing  this  resemblance 
to  the  corn  of  the  human  being,  that  it  is  produced  by  pressure,  and  is  a  cause  of  lameness, 
but  differing  from  it  in  that  the  horn,  answering  to  the  skin  of  the  human  foot,  is  thin  and 
weak,  instead  of  being  thickened  and  hardened.  When  it  is  neglected,  so  much  inflam- 
mation is  produced  in  that  j^art  of  the  sensible  sole  that  suppuration  follows,  and  to  that, 
quittor,  and  the  matter  either  undermines  the  horny  sole,  or  is  discharged  at  the  coronet. 

The  cause  is  pressure  on  the  sole  at  that  part,  by  the  irritation  of  which  a  small  quantity 
of  blood  is  extravasated.  The  horn  is  secreted  in  a  less  quantity,  and  of  a  more  spongy 
natui-e,  and  this  extravasated  blood  becomes  inclosed  in  it. 

This  pressure  is  produced  in  various  ways.  When  the  foot  becomes  contracted,  the 
part  of  the  sole  inclosed  between  the  external  crust  which  is  wiring  in,  and  the  bars 
which  are  opposing  that  contraction  (see  cut,  p.  218,)  is  squeezed  as  it  were  in  a  vice, 
and  becomes  inflamed  ;  hence  it  is  rare  to  see  a  contracted  foot  without  corns.  When 
the  shoe  is  suffered  to  remain  on  too  long,  it  becomes  imbedded  in  the  heel  of  the  foot : 
the  external  crust  grows  down  on  the  outside  of  it,  and  the  bearing  is  thrown  on  this 
angular  portion  of  the  sole.  No  part  of  tlie  sole  can  bear  continued  pressure,  and  in- 
flammation and  corns  are  the  result.  From  the  length  of  wear  the  shoe  sometimes 
becomes  loosened  at  the  heels,  and  gravel  insinuates  itself  between  the  shoe  and  the 
crust,  and  accumulates  in  this  angle,  and  even  eats  into  it  and  wounds  it.  The  bars  are 
too  frequently  cut  away,  and  then  the  heel  of  the  shoe  must  be  bevelled  inward,  in  order 
to  answer  to  this  absurd  and  injurious  shaping  of  the  foot ;  and  by  this  slanting  direction 
of  the  heel  of  the  shoe  inward,  an  unnatural  disposition  to  contraction  is  given,  and  the 
sole  must  suflfer  in  two  ways,  in  being  pressed  upon  by  the  shoe,  and  being  squeezed 
between  the  outer  crust  and  the  external  portion  of  the  bar.  The  shoe  is  often  made 
unnecessarily  narrow  at  the  heels,  by  which  this  angle,  seemingly  less  disposed  to 
bear  pressure  than  any  other  part  of  the  foot,  is  exposed  to  accidental  bruises.  If,  in 
the  paring  out  of  the  foot,  the  smith  should  leave  the  bars  prominent,  he  too  frequently 
neglects  to  pare  away  the  horn  in  the  angle  between  the  bars  and  the  external  crust ;  or 
if  lie  cuts  away  the  bars,  he  scarcely  touches  the  horn  at  this  point ;  and  thus,  before 
the  horse  has  been  shod  a  fortnight,  the  shoe  rests  on  this  angle,  and  produces  corns. 
The  use  of  a  shoe  for  the  fore  feet,  thickened  at  the  heels,  is,  and  especially  in  weak 
feet,  a  source  of  corns,  from  the  undue  bearing  there  is  on  tlie  heels,  and  the  concussion 
to  which  they  are  subject. 

The  unshod  colt  rarely  has  corns  The  heels  have  their  natural  power  of  expansion, 
and  the  sensible  sole  at  this  part  can  scarcely  be  imprisoned,  while  the  projection  of 
the  heel  of  the  crust  and  the  bar  is  a  sufficient  defence  from  external  injury.  Corns 
seem  to  be,  to  a  certain  degree,  the  almost  inevitable  consequence  of  shoeing,  which, 
by  limiting,  or  in  a  manner  destroying,  the  expansibility  of  the  foot,  must,  when  the  sole 
attempts  to  descend,  or  the  coffin  bone  has  a  backward  and  downward  direction  (see  cut, 
p.  193,)  imprison  and  injure  this  portion  of  the  sole  ;  and  this  evil  consequence  is  in- 
creased when  the  shoe  is  badly  formed,  or  kept  on  too  long,  or  when  the  paring  is  omitted 
or  injudiciously  extended  to  the  bars.  By  this  unnatural  pressure  of  uie  sole,  blood  is 
thrown  out,  and  enters  into  the  pores  of  the  soft  and  diseased  horn  which  is  then  secreted : 
therefore  we  judge  of  the  existence  and  the  extent  of  the  corn  by  the  color  and  softness 
of  the  horn  at  tliis  place. 

The  cure  is  difficult ;  for  as  all  shoeing  has  some  tendency  to  produce  pressure  here, 
it  is  difficult  to  get  rid  of  the  habit  of  tlirowing  out  tliis  diseased  horn  when  it  is  once 
contiacted. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  well  to  pare  out  the  angle  between  the  crust  and  the  bars. 
Two  objects  are  answered  by  this ;  the  extent  of  the  disease  will  be  ascertained,  and  one 
cause  of  it  removed.  A  very  small  drawing  knife  must  be  used  for  this  pui-pos^.  The 
corn  must  be  pared  out  to  tlie  very  bottom,  taking  care  not  to  wound  the  sole.  It  will 
then  be  discovered  whether  there  be  any  effusion  of  blood  or  matter  underneath.  If  this 
be  suspected,  an  opening  must  be  made  through  the  horn,  the  matter  evacuated,  the 
separated  horn  taken  away,  the  course  and  extent  of  the  sinuses  explored,  and  the  ti-eat- 


THRUSH.  236 

ment  recommended  for  quittor  adopted.  Should  there  be  no  collection  of  fluid,  tlie 
butyr  of  antimony  should  be  applied  over  the  whole  extent  of  tlie  corn,  after  the  horn 
has  been  thinned  as  closely  as  possible.  The  object  of  this  is  to  stimulate  the  sole  to 
throw  out  more  healthy  horn.  In  bad  cases  a  bar-shoe  may  be  put  on,  so  chambered, 
that  there  shall  be  no  pressure  on  the  diseased  part.  Tliis  may  be  worn  lor  one  or  two 
shoeings,  but  not  constantly,  for  there  are  few  frogs  that  would  bear  the  constant  pres- 
sure of  tlie  bar-shoe  ;  and  the  want  of  the  pressure  on  the  heel,  generally  occasioned  by 
their  use,  would  produce  a  softened  and  bulbous  state  of  the  heels,  which  would  of  itself 
be  an  inevitable  source  of  lameness. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  corn  is  either  confined  to  the  inner  quarter  of  the  foot, 
or  crust.  That  this  should  be  the  case  may  be  easily  imagined,  from  what  we  have  said 
of  contraction  being  most  frequent  in  the  inner  quarter.  The  shoe,  unfettered  on  tlie 
inner  side,  rnay,  in  corn  on  that  side,  be  applied  with  great  benefit  if  the  country  be  not 
too  heavy,  or  the  pace  required  from  the  horse  too  great. 

Next  is  to  be  considered  the  cause  of  the  corn,  which  a  careful  examination  of  the 
foot  and  the  shoe  will  easily  discover.  The  cause  being  ascertained,  the  etlect  may,  to  a 
great  extent,  be  afterwards  removed.  Turning  out  to  grass,  after  the  horn  is  a  little 
grown,  first  with  a  bar-shoe,  and  afterwards  with  the  shoe  fettered  on  one  side,  or  with 
tips,  will  often  be  serviceable.  A  horse  that  has  once  had  corns  to  any  considerable  extent 
should,  at  everp  shoeing,  have  the  seat  of  corn  well  pared  out,  and  the  butyr  of  antimony 
applied.  The  seated  shoe  (hereafter  to  be  described)  should  be  used,  with  a  web  suffi- 
ciently thick  to  cover  tlie  place  of  corn,  and  extending  as  far  back  as  it  can  be  made  to 
do  without  injury  to  the  frog. 

Low  weak  heels  should  be  rarely  touched  with  the  knife,  or  any  thing  more  be  done 
to  them  than  lightly  to  rasp  them,  to  give  them  a  level  surface.  The  inner  heel  should 
be  pai'ticularly  spared.  Corns  are  seldom  found  in  the  hind  feet,  because  the  heels  are 
stronger  and  the  feet  are  not  exposed  to  so  much  concussion ;  and  when  they  are  found 
there  they  are  rarely  or  never  productive  of  lameness. 


Is  a  discharge  of  offensive  matter  from  the  cleft  of  the  frog.  It  is  inflammation  of 
the  lower  surface  of  the  sensible  frog,  and  during  which  pus  is  secreted  together  with, 
or  instead  of  horn.  When  the  frog  is  in  its  sound  state  the  cleft  sinks  but  a  little  way 
into  it ;  but  when  it  becomes  contracted  or  otherwise  diseased,  the  cleft  extends  in 
length,  and  penetrates  even  to  the  sensible  horn  within,  and  through  this  unnaturally 
deepened  fissure  the  thrushy  discharge  proceeds.  It  is  caused  by  anything  that  interferes 
with  the  healthy  structure  and  action  of  the  frog.  We  find  it  in  the  hinder  feet  oftener 
and  worse  than  in  the  fore,  because  in  our  stable  management  the  hinder  feet  are  too 
much  exposed  to  the  pernicious  effect  of  the  dung  and  the  urine,  moistening,  or  as  it  were 
macerating,  and  at  the  same  time  irritating  them.  The  distance  of  the  hinder  feet  from 
the  centre  of  the  circulation  would,  as  in  tlie  case  of  grease,  more  expose  them  to  accu- 
mulations of  fluid  and  discharges  of  this  kind.  In  the  fore  feet  thrushes  are  usually 
connected  with  contraction.  We  have  stated  that  they  are  both  the  cause  and  the  effect 
of  contraction.  The  pressure  on  the  frog  from  the  wiring  of  the  heels  will  produce  pain 
.and  inflammation,  and  the  inflammation,  by  the  increased  heat  and  suspended  function 
of  the  part,  will  dispose  to  contraction.  Horses  of  all  ages,  and  in  almost  all  situations, 
are  subject  to  thrush.     The  unshod  colt  is  frequently  thus  diseased. 

Thrushes  are  not  always  accompanied  by  lameness.     In  a  great  many  cases  the  ap- 

Eearance  of  the  foot  is  scarcely,  or  not  at  all  altered,  and  the  disease  can  only  be  detected 
y  close  examination,  or  the  peculiar  smell  of  the  discharge.  The  frog  may  not  appear 
to  be  rendered  in  the  slightest  degree  tender  by  it,  and  therefore  the  horse  may  not  be 
considered  by  many  as  unsound.  Every  disease,  however,  should  be  considered  as  legal 
unsoundness,  and  especially  a  disease  which,  although  not  attended  with  present  detri- 
ment, must  not  be  neglected,  for  it  would  eventually  injure  and  lame  the  horse.  All 
other  things  being  right,  a  horse  should  not  be  rejected  because  he  has  a  slight  thrush, 
for  if  the  shape  of  the  hoof  be  not  altered,  experience  tells  us  that  the  thrusu  is  easily 
removed ;  yet  if  the  tlirush  be  not  soon  removed,  it  will  alter  the  shape  of  the  foot  and 
the  action  of  the  horse,  and  becomes  manifest  unsoundness.  ^The  progress  of  a 
neglected  thrush,  although  sometimes  slow,  is  sure.  The  frog  begins  to  conti-act  in  size, 
it  becomes  rough,  ragged,  brittle,  tender.  The  discharge  is  more  copious  and  more 
offensive — the  horn  gradually  disappears— a  mass  of  hardened  mucus  usurps  its  place — 
this  easily  peals  off,  and  the  sensible  frog  remains  exposed — the  horse  cannot  bear  it  to 
be  touched — fungous  granulations  spring  from  it — they  spread  around — the  sole  becomes 
underrun,  and  canker  steals  over  the  greater  part  of  the  foot. 

There  are  few  errors  more  common  or  more  dangerous,  than  that  the  existence  of 
thrush  is  a  matter  of  little  consequence,  or  even,  aa  some  suppose,  a  benefit  to  the  horse. 


2»  THE  HORSE. 

— a  discharge  for  superabundant  humours, — and  that  it  should  not  be  dried  up  too  quickly, 
and  in  some  cases  not  dried  up  at  all.  If  a  young  colt,  fat  and  full  of  blood,  has  a  bad 
thrush,  with  much  discharge  it  may  be  prudent  to  accompany  the  attempt  at  cure  by  a 
dose  of  physic  or  a  course  of  diuretics  ;  a  few  diuretics  may  not  be  injurious  when  we 
are  endeavouring  to  dry  up  thrush  in  older  horses :  but  disease  can  scarcely  be  attacked  too 
soon  or  subdued  too  rapidly,  and  especially  a  disease  which  steals  on  so  insidiously,  and  has 
such  fatal  consquences  in  its  train.  If  the  heels  once  begin  to  contract  through  the  baneful 
effect  of  thrush,  it  will  with  difficulty,  or  not  at  all,  be  afterwards  removed. 

There  are  many  recipes  to  stop  a  running  thrush.  Almost  every  application  of  an 
astringent  but  not  too  caustic  nature  will  have  the  etlect.  The  common  iEgyptiacum 
(vinegar  boiled  with  honey  and  vci'digrease)  is  a  very  good  liniment;  but  the  most 
effectual  and  the  safest,  diying  up  the  discharge  speedily,  but  not  suddenly,  is  a  paste 
composed  of  two  ounces  of  blue  and  one  of  white  vitriol  powdered  as  finely  as  possible, 
and  rubbed  down  witli  one  pound  of  tar  and  two  of  lard.  A  pledget  of  tow  covered 
with  it  should  be  introduced  as  deeply  as  possible,  yet  without  force,  into  the  cleft  of 
the  liog  every  night,  and  removed  in  the  morning  belbre  the  horse  goes  to  work.  At- 
tention should  at  the  same  time,  as  in  other  diseases  of  the  foot,  be  paid  to  the  apparent 
cause  of  the  complaint,  and  that  cause  should  be  carefully  obviated  or  removed.  Before 
the  application  of  the  paste,  the  frog  should  be  examined,  and  every  loose  part  of  the 
horn  or  hardened  discharge  removed;  and  if  much  of  the  frog  be  then  exposed,  a  larger 
and  wider  piece  of  tow  covered  with  the  paste  may  be  placed  over  it,  in  addition  to  the 
pledget  introduced  into  the  cleft  of  the  frog.  It  will  be  necessary  to  preserve  the  frog 
moist  while  the  cure  is  in  progress,  and  this  may  be  done  by  filling  the  feet  with  tow 
covered  by^common  stopping,  or  using  tlie  felt  pad,  likewise  covered  w'ith  it.  Turning 
out  would  be  prejudicial  rather  than  of  benefit  to  thrushy  feet,  except  the  dressing  be 
continued,  and  the  feet  defended  from  moisture. 


Is  a  separation  of  the  horn  from  the  sensible  part  of  the  foot,  and  the  sprouting  of 
fungous  matter  instead  of  it,  and  occupying  a  portion  of,  or  even  the  whole  of  the  sole 
and  frog.  It  is  the  occasional  consequence  of  bruise,  puncture,  corn,  quittor,  and 
thrush,  and  is  extremely  difficult  to  cure.  It  is  more  frequently  the  consequence  of 
neglected  thrush  than  of  any  other  disease  of  the  foot.  It  is  oftenest  found  in,  and  is 
almost  peculiar  to  the  heavy  breed  of  cart  horse,  resulting  partly  from  constitutional  pre- 
disposition. Horses  with  white  legs  and  thick  skins,  and  much  hair  upon  their  legs, — 
the  very  character  of  many  of  oiu-  dray  horses, — are  subject  to  canker,  especially  if  they 
have  had  an  attack  of  grease,  or  their  heels  are  habitually  thick  and  greasy.  The  dis- 
position to  canker  is  certainly  hereditary.  The  dray  horse  likewise  has  this  disadvan- 
tage, that  in  order  to  give  him  foot-hold,  it  is  necessary  to  raise  the  heels  of  the  hinder 
feet  so  high,  that  all  pressure  on  the  frog  is  taken  away,  its  functions  are  destroyed,  and 
it  is  rendered  liable  to  disease.  Canker,  however,  arises  more  from  the  peculiar  injury 
to  which  the  feet  of  these  horses  are  subject  from  the  enormous  shoes  with  which  they 
are  covered,  the  bulk  of  the  nails  with  which  these  shoes  are  necessarily  fastened  to  the 
foot,  and  the  strain  of  the  foot,  in  the  violent  although  short  exertion  in  moving  heavy 
weights  ;  but  most  of  all  from  the  neglect  of  the  feet,  and  the  filthiness  of  the  stable  in 
these  establishments.     Although  canker  is  a  disease  most  difficult  to  remove,  it  is  easily 

5»revented.  Attention  to  the  punctures  to  which  these  heavy  horses,  with  their  clubbed 
iset  and  brittle  hoofs,  are  more  than  any  others  subject  in  shoeing,  and  to  the  bruises 
and  treads  on  the  coronet,  to  which  with  their  awkwardness  and  weight  they  are  so 
liable,  and  the  greasy  heels  which  a  very  slight  degi'ee  of  negligence  will  produce  in 
them,  and  to  the  stopping  of  the  thrushes,  which  are  so  apt  in  them  to  run  on  to  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  horn  from  tne  sensible  frog,  will  most  materially  lessen  the  number  of  can- 
kered feet.  Where>this  disease  often  occurs,  the  owner  of  the  team  may  be  well  assured 
that  there  is  gross  mismanagement  either  in  himself,  or  his  horsekeeper,  or  smith,  or  sur- 
geon, and  it  will  rarely  be  a  difficult  matter  to  detect  the  precise  nature  of  that  misman- 
agement. 

The  cure  of  canker  is  the  business  of  the  veterinary  surgeon,  and  a  most  harassing  and 
tedious  business  it  is.  The  principles  on  which  he  proceeds  are  first  of  all  to  remove  the 
extraneous  fungous  growth,  and  here  probably  he  will  call  in  the  aid  both  of  the  knife 
and  the  caustic,  or  the  cautery  ;  he  will  cut  away  every  portion  of  horn  which  is  in  the 
slightest  degree  separated  from  the  sensible  parts  beneath.  He  will  next  endeavour  to 
discourage  the  growth  of  fresh  fungus,  and  to  bring  the  foot  into  that  state  in  which  it 
will  again  secrete  healthy  horn  :  here  he  will  remember  that  he  has  to  do  with  the  surface 
of  the  foot ;  that  this  is  a  disease  of  the  surface  only,  and  that  there  will  be  no  necessity 
for  those  deeply-corroding  and  torturing  caustics  whicli  will  eat  to  the  very  bone. 
A  slight  and  daily  application  of  the  chlonde  of  antimony,  and  that  not  where  the  new 


c  J^'ttiSItt^ 


WEAKNESS  OF  THE  FOOT.  287 

horn  is  forming,  but  only  on  the  surface  which  continues  to  be  diseased,  and  accompanied 
by  as  firm  but  equal  pressure  as  can  be  made — and  the  careful  avoidance  of  the  slightest 
degree  of  moisture — the  horse  bein^  exercised  or  worked  in  the  mill,  or  wherever  the 
foot  will  not  be  exposed  to  wet — and  that  exercise  adopted  as  early  as  possible,  and  even 
from  the  beginning  if  the  disease  is  confined  to  the  sole  and  frog — these  means  will  suc- 
ceed if  the  disease  is  capable  of  cure.  Humanity,  perhaps,  will  dictate,  that,  considering 
the  long  process  of  cure  in  a  cankered  foot,  and  the  daily  torture  of  the  caustic,  and  the 
sulfering  which  would  otherwise  result  from  so  lai-ge  or  exposed  a  surface,  the  nerves  of 
the  leg  should  be  divided  to  take  away  the  sense  of  pain ;  but  then  especial  care  must 
be  taken  that  the  horse  is  placed  in  such  a  situation,  and  exposed  to  such  work,  that,  being 
insensible  to  pain,  he  may  not  injuriously  batter  and  bruise  diseased  parts. 

Medicine  is  not  of  much  avail  in  the  cure  of  canker.  It  is  a  mere  local  disease ; 
or  the  only  cause  of  fear  is,  tliat  so  great  a  determination  of  blood  to  the  extremities,  hav- 
ing existed  during  the  long  progress  of  the  cure,  it  may  in  some  degree  continue,  and 
produce  injuiy  in  another  torm.  Grease  has  occasionally  followed  canker.  They  have, 
although  rarely,  been  known  to  alternate.  When  one  has  become  better,  the  other  has 
appeared,  and  that  for  a  considerable  period.  It  may,  therefore,  be  prudent,  when  the 
cure  of  a  cankered  foot  is  nearly  effected,  to  subject  tlie  horse  to  a  course  of  alteratives 
or  diuretics. 

OSSIFICATION   OF   THE    CARTILAGES. 

We  have  spoken  (page  222)  of  the  side  cartilages  of  the  foot,  occupying  (see  cut, 
page  197)  a  considerable  portion  of  the  external  side  and  back  part  of  the  foot.  They 
are  designed  to  preserve  the  expansion  of  the  upper  part  of  the  foot,  and  to  preserve  it, 
when  that  of  the  lower  part  is  limited  or  destroyed  by  shoeing.  These  cartilages  are 
subject  to  inflammation,  and  the  result  of  that  inflammation  is,  that  the  cartilages  are 
absorbed,  and  bone  is  substituted  in  their  stead.  This  ossification  of  the  cartilages  fre- 
quently accompanies  ringbone,  but  it  may  exist  without  any  affection  of  the  pastern  joint. 
It  is  oftenest  found  in  horses  of  heavy  draught.  It  arises  not  so  much  from  concussion, 
as  from  a  species  of  sprain,  for  tlie  pace  of  the  horse  is  slow.  The  cause,  indeed,  is  not 
well  understood,  but  of  the  elfect  we  have  too  numerous  instances.  Veiy  few  heavy 
draught  horses  arrive  at  old  age  without  this  change  of  structure. 

In  the  healthy  state  of  the  loot,  these  cartilages  will  readily  yield  to  the  pressiue  of  the 
fingers  on  the  coronet  over  the  quarters,  but,  by  degi-ees,  the  resistance  becomes  greater, 
and  at  length  bone  is  formed,  and  the  parts  yield  no  more.  No  evident  inflcimmation  of 
the  foot,  or  gi'eat,  or  perhaps  even  perceptible  lameness  accompanies  this  change  :  a  mere 
Blight  degree  of  stiffness  may  have  been  observed,  which,  in  a  horse  of  more  rapid  pace, 
would  have  been  lameness.  Even  when  the  change  is  completed,  there  is  not  in  many 
cases  any  thing  more  than  a  slight  increase  of  stiffness,  little  or  not  at  all  interfering  with 
the  usefulness  of  the  horse.  When  this  altered  structure  appears  in  the  lighter  horse, 
the  lameness  is  more  decided,  and  means  should  be  taken  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the 
change  :  these  are  blisters  or  firing ;  but,  after  these  parts  have  become  bony,  no  opera- 
tion will  restore  the  cartilage. 

Connected  with  ringbone  the  lameness  may  be  very  great.  This  has  been  spoken  of 
in  page  197. 

WEAKNESS    OF   THE   FOOT. 

This  is  more  accurately  a  bad  formation,  than  a  disease  ;  often,  indeed,  the  result  of 
disease,  but  in  many  instances  the  natural  construction  of  the  foot.  The  term  weak  foot 
is  familiar  to  every  horseman,  and  the  consequence  is  too  severely  felt  by  all  who  have 
to  do  with  horses.  In  the  slanting  of  the  crust  from  the  coronet  to  the  toe,  a  less  angle 
is  almost  invariably  formed,  amounting  probably  to  not  more  than  forty  instead  of  forty- 
five  degrees ;  and  after  the  horse  has  oeen  worked  for  one  or  two  years  the  line  is  not 
straight,  but  a  little  indented  or  hollow,  midway  between  the  coronet  and  the  toe.  We 
have  described  this  as  the  accompaniment  of  pumiced  feet,  but  it  is  often  seen  in  weak 
feet,  which,  although  they  might  become  pumiced  by  severity  of  work,  do  not  othei-wise 
have  the  sole  convex.  The  crust  is  not  only  less  oblique  than  it  ought  to  be,  but  it  has 
not  the  smooth,  even  appearance  of  the  good  foot.  The  surface  is  sometimes  irregularly 
roughened,  but  it  is  much  oftener  roughened  in  circles  or  rings.  The  form  of  the  crust 
likewise  presents  too  much  the  appearance  of  a  cone ;  the  bottom  of  the  foot  is  unnatu- 
rally wide  in  proportion  to  the  coronet ;  and  the  whole  of  the  foot  is  generally,  but  not 
always,  larger  than  it  should  be. 

When  the  foot  is  lifted,  it  will  often  present  a  round  and  circular  appearance,  with  a 
fullness  of  frog,  that  would  mislead  the  inexperienced,  and  indeed  be  considered  as  almost 
the  perfection  of  structure  ;  but,  bein»  examined  more  closely,  many  glaring  defects  will 
be  seeu.    The  sole  ia  flat,  and  the  smith  finda  that  it  will  bear  little  or  no  paring.    The 


298  THE  HORSE. 

bars  are  small  in  size.  They  are  not  cut  away  by  the  smith,  but  they  can  be  scarcely  said 
to  hav^e  any  existence  ;  tlie  heels  are  low,  so  low  that  the  very  coronet  seems  almost  to 
touch  the  gi-ound ;  and  the  crust,  if  examined,  seems  scarcely  thick  enough  to  hold  the 
nails.  Horses  with  these  feet  can  never  stand  much  work.  Tney  will  be  subject  to  corns, 
to  bruises  of  the  sole,  to  convexity  of  the  sole,  to  punctures  in  nailing,  to  breaking  away 
of  the  crust,  to  inflammation  of  the  foot,  and  to  sprain  and  injiuy  of  the  pastern,  and  the 
fetlock,  and  the  tlexor  tendon.  These  feet  admit  of  little  improvement.  Shoeing  as 
seldom  as  may  be,  and  with  a  light,  yet  wide  concave  web ;  little  or  no  paring  at  the  time 
of  shoeing,  with  as  little  violent  work  as  possible,  and  especially  on  rough  roads,  may 
protract  for  a  long  period  the  evil  day,  but  he  who  buys  a  horse  with  these  feet  will  sooner 
or  later  have  cause  to  repent  his  bargain. 


CHAPTER   XVII. 
ON    SHOEING. 


The  period  when  the  shoe  began  to  be  nailed  to  the  foot  of  the  horse  is  uncertain. 
William  the  Norman  introduced  it  into  our  country. 

We  have  seen,  in  the  progress  of  our  inquiry,  that  while  it  affords  to  the  foot  of  the 
horse  that  defence  which  seems  now  to  be  necessary  against  the  destructive  effects  of 
our  artificial  and  flinty  roads,  it  has  entailed  on  the  animal  some  evils.  It  has  limited  or 
destroyed  the  beautiful  expansibility  of  the  lower  part  of  the  foot ;  it  has  led  to  contrac- 
tion, although  that  contraction  has  not  always  been  accompanied  by  lameness ;  in  the 
most  careful  fixing  of  the  best  shoe,  and  in  the  careless  manufacture  and  setting  on  of 
the  bad  one,  much  injury  has  often  been  done  to  the  horse ;  yet,  as  we  have  already  stated 
to  nothing  like  the  extent  which  some  have  fancied  or  fe£u-ed. 

THE    CONCAVE-SEATED    SHOE. 

The  proper  form  and  construction  of  the  shoe  is  a  subject  deserving  of  very  senous 
inquiry,  for  it  is  most  important  to  ascertain  the  kind  of  shoe  that  will  do  the  least  mis- 
chief to  the  feet.  We  subjoin  a  cut  of  that  which  we  sb'ongly  recommend  for  general 
purposes.  It  is  in  use  in  many  of  our  best  forges,  and  is  gradually  superseding  tlie  flat 
and^the  simple  concave  shoe.    The  following  cut  exhibits  the  near  fore  shoe 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  THE  FOOT.  239 

It  presents  a  perfectly  flat  surface  to  the  ground,  to  give  as  many  points  of  bearing  aa 
possible,  except  that,  round  the  outer  edge,  there  is  a  groove  or  fuller,  in  which  the  nail 
toies  are  punched,  so  that,  sinking  into  the  fuller,  their  heads  project  but  a  little  way, 
and  are  soon  worn  down  level  with  the  shoe.  The  ground  surface  of  the  common  shoe 
used  in  the  country  is  somewhat  convex,  and  the  inward  rim  of  the  shoe  comes  first  on 
the  ground  ;  the  consequence  of  this  is,  that  the  weight,  instead  of  being  borne  fairly  on 
the  crust,  is  supported  by  the  nails  and  tlie  clenches,  which  must  be  injurious  to  the  crust 
and  often  chip  and  tear  it. 

The  web  of  the  shoe  is  of  the  same  thickness  throughout,  from  the  toe  to  the  heel ; 
and  it  is  sufficiently  wide  to  guard  the  sole  from  bruises,  and  as  wide  at  the  heel  as  the 
frog  will  permit,  in  order  to  cover  the  seat  of  corn. 

On  the  foot  side  it  is  seated.  The  outer  part  of  it  is  accurately  flat,  and  of  the  width 
of  the  crust,  and  designed  to  support  the  crust,  and  tlie  crust  only,  for  it  has  already  been 
proved  that  by  the  crust  alone,  or  rather  by  the  union  between  the  numerous  little  plates 

Eroceeding  from  the  crust  and  the  covering  of  the  coffin-bone,  the  whole  weight  of  the 
orse  is  supported.  Towards  the  heel  this  flattened  part  is  wider  and  occupies  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  web,  to  support  (see  p.  218)  the  heel  of  the  crust  and  its  reflected  part  of 
the  bar ;  thus,  while  it  defends  the  horn  included  within  this  angle  from  injury,  it  gives 
that  equal  pressure  upon  the  bar  and  crust,  which  is  the  best  preventive  against  corn, 
and  a  powerful  obstacle  to  contraction. 

It  is  fastened  to  the  foot  by  nine  nails,  five  on  the  outside,  and  four  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  shoe ;  those  on  the  outside  extending  a  little  farther  down  towards  the  heel,  because 
the  outside  heel  is  thicker,  and  stronger,  and  there  is  more  nail-hold ;  the  last  nail  on  the 
inner  quarter  being  farther  from  the  heel  on  account  of  the  weakness  of  that  quarter. 
For  feet  not  too  large,  and  where  moderate  work  only  is  required  from  the  horse,  four 
nails  on  the  outside,  and  three  on  the  inside,  will  be  sufficient ;  and  the  last  nail  being  far 
from  the  heels  will  allow  more  expansion  there. 
■  The  inside  part  of  the  web,  is  bevelled  off',  or  rendered  concave,  that  it  may  not  press 
upon  the  sole.  Notwithstanding  our  iron  fetter,  the  sole  does,  although  to  a  very  incon- 
siderable extent,  descend  when  the  foot  of  the  horse  is  put  on  the  ground.  It  is  unable 
to  bear  constant  or  even  occasional  pressure,  and  if  it  came  in  contact  with  the  shoe,  the 
sensible  sole,  between  the  horny  sole  and  the  coffin-hone,  would  be  bruised,  and  lame- 
ness would  ensue.  Many  of  our  horses,  from  too  early  and  undue  work,  have  the  natu- 
ral concave  sole  flattened,  and  the  disposition  to  descend  and  the  degree  of  descent  are 
thereby  increased.  The  concave  shoe,  prevents,  even  in  this  case,  the  possibility  of  inju- 
ry, because  the  sole  can  never  descend  in  the  degree  in  which  tlie  shoe  is  bevelled.  A 
snoe  bevelled  still  further  is  necessary  to  protect  the  projecting  or  pumiced  foot. 

While  the  horse  is  travelling,  dirt  and  gravel  are  apt  to  insinuate  themselves  between 
the  web  of  the  shoe  and  the  sole.  If  the  shoe  were  flat  they  would  be  easily  retained 
there,  and  would  bruise  the  sole  and  be  productive  of  injuiy  ;  but  when  the  shoe  is  thus 
bevelled  off",  it  is  scarcely  possible  for  them  to  remain.  They  must  be  shaken  out  every 
time  the  foot  comes  in  contact  with  the  ground. 

The  web  of  the  shoe  is  likewise  of  that  thickness,  that  when  the  foot  is  properly 
pared,  the  prominent  part  of  the  frog  shall  lie  just  within  and  above  its  ground  surface, 
so  that  in  the  descent  of  the  sole  the  frog  shall  come  sufficiently  on  the  ground,  to  enable 
it  to  act  as  a  wedge,  and  to  expand  the  quarters,  while  it  is  defended  from  the  wear  and 
injury  it  would  receive  if  it  came  on  the  ground  with  the  first  and  full  shock  of  the 
weight. 

Tne  nail  hole's  are,  on  the  ground  side,  placed  as  near  the  outer  edge  of  the  shoe  as 
they  can  safely  be,  and  brought  out  near  the  inner  edge  of  the  seating.  The  nails  thus 
take  a  direction  inwju-d,  resembling  the  direction  of  the  crust  itself,  and  take  firmer  hold ; 
while  the  strain  upon  them  in  the  common  shoe  is  altogether  prevented  ;  and  the  weight 
of  the  horse  being  thrown  on  a  flat  surface,  contraction  is  not  so  likely  to  be  produced. 

The  smith  sometimes  objects  to  the  use  of  this  shoe  on  account  of  its  not  being  so  ea- 
sily formed  as  one  composed  of  a  bar  of  iron,  either  flat  or  a  little  bevelled.  It  likewise 
occupies  more  time  in  the  forming  ;  but  these  objections  would  vanish,  when  the  owner 
of  the  horse  declared  that  he  would  have  him  shod  elsewhere ;  or  when  he  consented,  as 
in  justice  he  should,  to  pay  somewhat  more  for  a  shoe  that  required  better  workmanship 
and  longer  time  in  the  construction. 

THE   PREPARATION  OF    THE    FOOT. 

We  will  suppose  that  the  horse  is  sent  to  the  forge  to  be  shod.  If  the  master  would 
occasionally  accompany  him  there,  he  would  find  it  much  to  his  advantage.  The  old 
shoe  must  be  first  taken  off.  We  have  something  to  observe  even  on  this.  It  was  retained 
on  the  foot  by  the  ends  of  the  nails  being  twisted  off",  turned  down,  and  clenched.  These 
clenches  should  be  first  raised,  which  the  smith  seldom  takes  the  trouble  tlioroughly  to  do : 


240  THE  HORSE. 

but  after  going  carelessly  round  the  crust  and  raising  one  or  two  of  the  clenches,  he  takes 
hold  first  of  one  heel  of  the  shoe,  and  then  of  the  other,  and  by  a  violent  wrench  separates 
them  from  the  foot,  and  by  a  third  wTench,  applied  to  tlie  middle  of  the  shoe,  he  tears  it 
off.  By  this  means  he  must  enlarge  every  nail  hole,  and  weaken  the  future  hold,  and 
sometimes  tear  off  portions  of  the  crust,  and  otherwise  injure  the  foot.  The  horse  gene- 
rally shows  by  his  flinching  that  he  suffers  by  the  violence  witli  which  this  preliminary 
operation  is  performed.  The  clenches  should  always  be  raised  or  filed  off;  and  where 
the  foot  is  tender,  or  the  horse  is  to  be  examined  for  lameness,  each  nail  should  be  partly 
punched  out.  Many  a  stub  is  left  in  the  crust,  the  source  of  future  £innoyance,  when 
this  unnecessary  violence  is  used. 

The  shoe  having  been  removed,  the  smith  proceeds  to  rasp  the  edges  of  the  crust.  Let 
not  the  stander-by  object  to  the  apparent  violence  which  ne  uses,  or  fear  that  the  foot 
will  suffer.  It  is  the  only  means  he  has,  with  safety  to  his  instruments,  to  detect  whether 
any  stubs  remain  in  the  nail  holes  ;  and  it  is  the  most  convenient  method  of  removing 
that  portion  of  the  crust  into  which  dirt  and  gravel  have  insinuated  themselves. 

Next  comes  the  important  process  of  paring  out,  with  regard  to  which  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  lay  down  any  specific  rules.  This,  however,  we  can  say  with  confidence, 
that  more  injuiy  has  been  done  by  the  neglect  of  paring,  than  by  carrying  it  to  too  great 
an  extent.  The  act  of  paring  is  a  work  of  much  more  labor  than  the  proprietor  of  the 
horse  often  imagines  ;  the  smith,  except  he  be  overlooked,  will  give  himself  as  little  trou- 
ble about  it  as  he  can ;  and  that,  which  in  the  unshod  foot  would  be  worn  away  by  contact 
with  the  ground,  is  suffered  to  accumulate  month  after  month,  until  the  elasticity  of  the 
sole  is  destroyed,  and  it  can  no  longer  descend,  and  the  functions  of  the  foot  are  impeded, 
and  foundation  is  laid  for  corn,  and  contraction,  and  navicular  disease,  and  inflammation. 
That  portion  of  horn  should  be  left  on  the  sole,  which  will  defend  the  internal  parts 
from  being  bruised,  and  yet  suffer  the  external  sole  to  descend.  How  is  this  to  be  mea- 
sured ?  The  strong  pressure  of  the  thumb  of  the  smith  will  be  the  best  guide.  The 
buttress,  that  most  destructive  of  all  instruments,  being  banished  from  the  respectable 
forge,  the  smith  sets  to  work  with  his  drawing  knife,  and  he  removes  the  growth  of  horn, 
until  the  sole  will  yield,  although  in  the  slightest  possible  degree,  to  uie  very  strong 
pressure  of  his  thumb.     The  proper  thickness  of  horn  will  then  remain. 

If  the  foot  has  been  previously  neglected,  and  the  horn  is  become  very  hard,  the 
owner  must  not  object  if  the  smith  resort  to  some  means  to  soften  it  a  little ;  and  if  he 
tcikes  one  of  his  flat  irons,  and  having  heated  it,  draws  it  over  the  sole,  Eind  keep  it  a 
little  while  in  contact  with  it.  When  the  sole  is  thick,  this  rude  and  apparently  barbar- 
ous method  can  do  no  harm,  but  it  should  never  be  permitted  with  the  sole  that  is  regu- 
larly pared  out. 

The  quantity  of  horn  to  be  removed  in  order  to  leave  the  proper  degree  of  thickness 
•will  vary  with  different  feet.  From  a  strong  foot  a  great  deal  must  be  taken.  From  the 
concave  foot  the  horn  may  be  removed  until  tlie  sole  will  yield  to  a  raoderata  pressure. 
From  the  flat  foot  little  need  be  pared ;  while  the  pumiced  foot  will  spare  nothing  but 
the  ragged  parts. 

The  paring  being  nearly  completed,  the  knife  and  the  rasp  of  the  smith  must  be  a 
little  watched,  or  he  will  reduce  the  crust  to  a  level  with  the  sole,  and  thus  endanger  the 
bruising  of  the  sole  by  its  pressure  on  the  edge  of  the  seating.  The  crust  should  be 
reduced  to  a  perfect  level,  all  round,  but  left  a  little  higher  than  the  sole. 

The  heels  will  require  very  considerable  attention.  From  the  stress  which  is  thrown 
on  the  inner  heel,  and  from  the  weakness  of  the  quarter  there,  it  usuedly  wears  consider- 
ably faster  then  the  outer  one  ;  and,  if  an  equal  portion  of  horn  were  pared  from  it,  it 
would  be  left  lower  than  the  outer  heel.     The  smith  should,  therefore,  accommodate  his 

{)aring  to  the  comparative  wear  of  the  heels,  and  be  very  careful  to  leave  them  precisely 
evel. 

If  the  reader  will  recollect  what  we  have  said  of  the  intention  and  action  of  the  bars, 
he  will  readily  perceive  that  the  smith  should  be  checked  in  his  almost  universal  fond- 
ness for  opening  the  heels,  or,  more  truly,  removing  that  which  is  the  main  impediment 
to  contraction.  That  portion  of  the  heels  between  the  inflection  of  the  bar  and  the  frog 
should  scarcely  be  touched,  at  least  nothing  but  the  ragged  and  detached  parts  should  be 
cut  away.  The  foot  may  not  look  so  pretty,  but  it  will  last  longer  without  contraction. 
The  bar  Ukewise  should  be  left  fully  prominent,  not  only  at  its  first  inflection,  but  as 
it  runs  down  the  side  of  the  frog.  The  heel  of  our  shoe  is  designed  to  rest  partly  on  the 
heel  of  the  foot,  and  partly  on  the  bar,  for  reasons  that  have  been  already  stated.  If  tlie 
bar  is  weak,  the  growth  of  it  should  be  encouraged,  and  it  should  be  scarcely  touched  at 
the  shoeing  until  it  has  attained  a  level  with  the  crust.  We  recall  to  the  recollection  of 
our  readers,  the  observation  which  we  have  made  in  page  218,  that  the  destruction  of 
the  bars  not  only  leads  to  contraction  by  removing  a  powerful  impediment  to  it,  but  by 
adding  a  still  more  powerful  cause  in  the  slanting  direction  which  is  given  to  the  bearing 
at  the  heels,  when  the  bar  does  not  contribute  to  the  support  of  tlie  weight. 


CALKINS.  241 

It  will  also  be  apparent  that  the  horn  between  the'crust  and  the  bar  should  be  carefully 
pared  out.  Eveiy  horseman  has  observed  the  relief  which  is  given  to  the  animal  lame 
with  corns  when  this  angle  is  well  thinned  ;  a  relief,  however,  which  is  but  temporaiy, 
for  when  tlie  horn  grows  again  and  tlie  siioe  presses  upon  it,  the  torture  of  the  animal  is 
renewed. 

The  degree  of  paring  to  which  the  frog  must  be  subjected  will  depend  on  its  promi- 
nence, and  on  the  shape  of  the  foot.  The  principle  has  already  been  stated,  that  it  must 
be  left  so  far  projecting  and  prominent,  that  it  shall  be  just  within  and  above  the  lower 
surface  of  the  shoe,  if  will  then  descend  with  the  sole,  sufficiently  to  discharge  the  func- 
tions which  we  have  attributed  to  it.  If  it  be  lower,  it  will  be  bruised  and  injured  ;  if 
it  be  higher,  it  cannot  come  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  thus  be  enabled  to  do  its 
duty.  The  ragged  parts  must  be  removed,  and  especially  those  occasioned  by  thrush, 
but  the  degree  of  paring  must  depend  entirely  on  this  principle. 

It  appears,  then,  that  the  office  of  the  smith  requires  some  skill  and  judgment  in  order 
to  be  properly  discharged  ;  and  the  horse  proprietor  will  find  it  his  interest  occasionally 
to  visit  the  forge  and  complain  of  the  careless,  or  idle,  or  obstinate,  and  reward,  by  some 
trifling  gratuity,  the  expert  and  diligent.  He  should  likewise  remember  that  a  great  deal 
more  depends  on  the  paring  out  ot  the  foot  than  on  the  consh-uction  of  the  shoe ;  that 
few  shoes,  except  they  press  upon  the  sole,  or  are  made  outrageously  bad,  will  lame 
the  horse  ;  but  that  he  may  be  very  easily  lamed  from  ignorant  and  improper  paring  out 
of  the  foot. 

THE  PUTTING  ON  OF  THE  SHOE. 

The  foot  being  thus  prepared,  the  smith  looks  about  for  a  shoe.  He  should  select  one 
that  as  nearly  as  possible  fits  the  foot,  or  may  be  altered  to  the  foot.  He  will  sometim^^s 
care  httle  about  this,  for  he  can  easily  alter  the  foot  to  the  shoe.  The  toe-knife  is  a  very 
convenient  instrument  for  him,  and  plenty  of  horn  can  be  struck  off  with  it,  or  removed 
by  the  rasp,  to  make  the  foot  as  small  as  the  shoe  ;  while  he  cares  little,  although  by  this 
destructive  method  the  crust  is  materially  thinned  where  it  should  receive  the  nail,  and 
the  danger  of  puncture  is  increased,  and  the  danger  of  pressure  upon  the  sole  is  increased, 
and  a  foot  so  artificially  diminished  in  size  will  soon  grow  over  the  shoe,  to  the  hazard  of 
considerable  or  permanent  lameness. 

While  choosing  the  shoe  we  must  once  more  refer  to  the  shape  of  our  pattern  shoe; 
the  web  is  of  equal  thickness  from  toe  to  heel.  A  shoe,  thinner  at  the  heel  than  at  the 
toe,  by  letting  down  the  heel  too  low,  is  apt  to  produce  sprain  of  the  flexor  tendon,  and 
a  shoe  thicker  at  the  heels  than  at  the  toe  is  fit  only  to  elevate  the  frog,  to  the  destruction 
of  its  function,  and  to  its  own  certain  disease,  and  also  to  press  upon  and  to  batter  and  to 
bruise  that  part  of  the  foot  which  is  soonest  and  most  destructively  injured. 


It  is  expedient  not  only  that  the  foot  and  ground  surface  of  the  shoe  should  be  most 
accurately  level,  but  that  the  crust  should  be  exactly  smoothed  and  fitted  to  the  shoe. 
Much  sldll  and  time  are  necessary  to  do  this  perfectly  with  the  drawing  knife.  The 
smith  has  adopted  a  method  of  more  quickly  and  more  accurately  adapting  the  shoe  to 
the  foot.  He  pares  the  crust  as  level  as  he  can,  and  then  he  takes  the  shoe,  at  a  heat 
something  below  a  red  heat,  and  applies  it  to  the  foot,  and  detects  any  little  elevations 
by  the  deeper  color  of  the  burned  horn.  This  practice  has  been  much  inveighed 
against ;  but  it  is  the  abuse  and  not  the  use  of  the  thing  which  is  to  be  condemned.  If 
the  shoe  be  not  too  hot,  nor  held  too  long  on  the  foot,  an  accuracy  of  adjustment  is  thus 
obtained,  which  the  knife  would  be  long  in  producing,  or  would  not  produce  at  all.  If, 
however,  the  shoe  is  made  to  burn  its  way  to  its  seat  with  little  or  no  previous  prepara- 
tion of  the  foot,  the  heat  must  be  injurious  both  to  the  sensible  and  insensible  parts  of  ,j 
the  foot.  •»'-' 

The  heels  of  the  shoe  should  be  examined  as  to  their  proper  width.  Whatever  be  the 
custom  of  shoeing  the  horses  of  dealers,  and  the  too  prevalent  practice  in  the  metropolis, 
of  giving  the  foot  an  open  appearance,  although  the  back  part  of  it  is  thereby  exposed  to 
injury,  nothing  is  more  certain,  than  that  in  the  horse  for  work,  the  heels,  and  particu- 
larly the  seat  of  corn,  can  scarcely  be  too  well  covered.  Part  of  the  shoe  projecting 
outwai-d  can  be  of  no  possible  good,  but  nither  an  occasional  source  of  mischief,  and 
especially  in  a  heavy  country.  A  shoe,  the  web  of  which  projects  inward  as  far  as  it 
can,  without  touching  the  frog,  affords  protection  to  the  angle  between  the  bars  and 
the  crust. 

Of  the  manner  of  attaching  the  shoe  to  the  foot  the  owner  can  scarcely  be  a  compe- 
tent judge  ;  he  can  only  take  care  that  the  shoe  itself  shall  not  be  heavier  than  the  work 
requires — that  for  workaUttle  hard  the  shoe  shall  still  be  light,  with  a  bit  of  steel  welded 

31 


_^5^^ 


242  THE  HORSE. 

into  the  toe — that  the  nails  shall  be  as  small,  and  as  few,  and  aa  far  from  the  heels,  as 
may  be  consistent  with  the  security  of  the  shoe  ;  and  that,  for  light  work  at  least,  the 
shoe  shall  not  be  driven  on  so  closely  and  firmly  as  is  often  done,  nor  the  points  of  the 
nails  be  brought  out  so  high  up  as  is  generally  practised. 

There  ai-e  few  cases  in  which  the  use  of  calkins  (a  turning  up  and  elevation  of  the 
heel)  can  be  admissible  in  the  fore-feet,  except  in  frosty  weather,  to  prevent  the 
slipping  of  the  feet.  If,  however,  calkins  are  used,  let  them  be  placed  on  both  feet.  If 
the  outer  heel  only  be  raised  with  the  calkin,  as  is  too  ofen  the  case,  the  weight  cannot 
be  thrown  evenly  on  the  foot,  suid  undue  sti'aining  and  injury  of  some  part  of  the  foot  or 
of  the  leg  must  be  tlie  necessaiy  consequences.  Few  things  deserve  more  the  atten- 
tion of  the  horseman  than  this  most  absurd  and  injurious  of  all  the  practices  of  the  forge. 
One  quarter  of  an  hour's  walking,  with  one  side  of  the  shoe  or  boot  raised  considerably 
above  the  other,  will  painfully  convince  us  of  what  the  horse  must  suffer  from  this  too 
common  method  of  shoeing.  We  cannot  excuse  it  even  in  the  hunting  shoe.  If  the 
horse  be  ridden  far  to  cover,  or  galloped  over  much  hard  and  flinty  ground,  he  will  in- 
evitably suffer  from  this  unequal  distribution  of  the  weight.  If  the  calkin  be  put  on  the 
outer  heel  to  prevent  the  horse  from  slipping,  either  the  horn  of  that  heel  should  be 
lowered  to  a  corresponding  degree,  or  the  other  heel  of  the  shoe  should  be  raised  to  the 
same  level  by  a  gradual  thickening.  Of  the  use  of  calkins  iu  the  hindei'  foot,  we  shall 
presently  speeik. 


These  are  portions  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  shoe,  hammered  out,  and  turned  up  so 
aa  to  embrace  the  lower  part  of  the  crust,  and  which  is  usually  pared  out  a  httle  to  re- 
ceive the  clip.  They  are  very  useful,  as  more  securely  attaching  the  shoe  to  the  foot, 
and  relieving  the  crust  from  that  stress  upon  the  nails  which  would  otherwise  be  inju- 
rious. A  clip  at  the  toe  is  almost  necessaiy  in  every  draught  horse,  and  absolutely  so 
in  the  horse  of  heavy  draught,  to  prevent  the  shoe  firom  being  loosened  or  torn  off  by  the 
stress  which  is  thrown  upon  the  toe  in  the  act  of  dravdng.  A  clip  on  the  outside  of  each 
shoe  at  the  beginning  of  the  quarters  will  give  security  to  it.  Clips  are  likevrise  neces- 
sary on  the  shoes  of  all  heavy  horses,  and  of  all  otliers  who  are  disposed  to  stamp,  or 
violently  paw  vdth  their  feet,  and  thus  incur  the  danger  of  displacing  the  shoe ;  but  they 
are  evils,  in  that  they  press  upon  the  crust  as  it  grows  down,  and  should  only  be  used 
when  circumstances  absolutely  require  them. 

THE   HINDER   SHOE. 

In  forming  the  hinder  shoes  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  hind  limbs  are  the 
principal  instruments  in  progression,  and  that  in  every  act  of  progression,  except  the 
walk,  the  toe  is  the  point  on  which  the  whole  frame  of  the  animal  turns,  and  from  which 
it  is  propelled.  This  part,  then,  should  be  strengthened  as  much  as  possible ;  and  there- 
fore, the  hinder  shoes  are  made  broader  at  the  toe  than  the  fore  ones,  and  the  toe  of 
the  foot,  which  is  naturally  broader  than  that  of  the  fore-foot,  is  still  further  widened  by 
rasping.  Another  good  effect  is  produced  by  this,  that  the  hinder  foot  being  shortened 
there  is  less  danger  of  overreaching  or  forging,  and  especially  if  the  shoe  be  wider  on 
the  foot  surface  than  on  tlie  ground  one ;  and  thus  the  shoe  is  made  to  slope  inward,  jind 
is  a  little  witliin  the  toe  of  the  crust. 

The  shape  of  the  hinder  foot  is  somewhat  different  from  that  of  the  fore  foot;  it  is 
straighter  in  the  quarters,  and  the  shoe  must  have  the  same  shape.  For  carriage  and 
draught  horses  generally,  calkins  may  be  put  on  the  heels,  because  the  animal  wall  be 
thus  enabled  to  dig  his  toe  more  firmly  into  the  ground,  and  urge  himself  forward,  Jind 
throw  his  weight  into  the  collar  with  greater  advantage.  But  the  calkins  must  not  be 
too  high,  and  they  must  be  of  an  equal  height  on  each  heel ;  otherwise,  as  ha-i  been 
"stated  with  regard  to  the  fore  feet,  tlie  weight  will  not  be  fairly  distributed  over  the  foot, 
and  some  part  of  the  foot  or  of  the  leg  will  materially  suffer.  The  nails  in  the  hinder 
shoe  may  be  placed  nearer  to  the  heel  than  in  the  fore  shoe,  because,  from  the  compara- 
tive little  weight  and  concussion  thrown  on  the  hinder  feet,  there  is  not  so  much  danger 
of  contraction. 

DIFFERENT   KINDS   OF   SHOES. 

The  shoe  will  vaiy  in  substance  and  weight  with  the  kind  of  foot,  and  the  nature  of 
the  work.  A  weak  foot  should  never  wear  a  heavy  shoe,  nor  any  foot  a  shoe  that  will 
last  longer  tlian  a  month.  Here,  perhaps,  we  may  be  permitted  to  caution  the  horse-pro- 
prietor against  having  his  cattle  shod  too  much  by  contract,  unless  he  binds  down  his 
farrier  or  surgeon  to  remove  the  shoes  once  at  least  in  every  montli ;  for  if  the  contrac- 


THE  EXPANDING  SHOE.  243 

tor,  by  a  heavy  shoe,  and  a  little  steel,  can  cause  five  or  six  weeks  to  intervene  between 
the  shoeinga,  he  will  do  so,  although  the  feet  of  the  horse  must  necessarily  suifer.  The 
shoe  should  never  be  heavier  than  the  work  requires.  An  ounce  or  two  in  the  weight 
of  the  shoe  will  sadly  tell  before  the  end  of  a  hard  day's  work.  This  is  acknowledged 
in  the  hunter's  shoe,  wliich  is  narrower  and  lighter  tlian  that  of  tlie  hackney  with  even 
smaller  feet  than  the  hunter ;  and  it  is  more  decidedly  acknowledged  in  the  racer,  who 
wears  a  shoe  only  sufficiently  thick  to  prevent  it  from  bending  when  used. 

THE   HUNTING   SHOE. 

The  hunter's  shoe  is  different  from  that  of  the  hackney  in  shape  as  well  as  weight. 
It  is  not  so  much  bevelled  off  as  the  common  concave  seated  shoe.  Sufficient  space 
alone  is  left  for  the  introduction  of  a  picker  between  the  shoe  and  the  sole,  otherwise, 
in  going  over  heavy  ground,  the  clay  will  get  in,  and  by  its  tenacity  loosen,  and  even 
tear  off  the  shoe.  The  heels  likewise  are  somewhat  shorter,  that  they  may  not  be  torn 
off  by  the  toe  of  the  hind-feet  when  galloping  fast,  and  the  outer  heel  is  frequently  and 
injudiciously  turned  up  to  prevent  shpping.  The  reader  will  remember  what  we  have 
just  said  of  this.    If  calkins  are  necessary,  let,  at  least,  both  heels  have  an  equal  bearing. 

THE   BAR-SHOE. 

A  bar-shoe  is  a  very  useful  contrivance.  It  is  the  continuation  of  the  common  shoe 
round  the  heels,  and  by  means  of  it  the  pressure  may  be  taken  off  some  tender  part  of 
the  foot  and  thrown  on  another  which  is  better  able  to  bear  it,  or  more  widely  and  equally 
diffused  over  the  whole  foot.  It  is  principally  resorted  to  in  cases  of  corn,  the  seat  of 
which  it  perfectly  covers — in  pumiced  feet,  the  soles  of  which  may  be  tbus  elevated 
above  the  ground  and  secured  from  pressure, — in  sand-crack,  when  the  pressure  may  be 
removed  from  tlie  fissure  and  thrown  on  either  side  of  it — in  thrushes,  when  the  frog  is 
tender,  or  is  become  cankered,  and  requires  to  be  frequently  dressed,  and  the  dressing 
can  by  this  means  alone  be  retained.  In  these  cases  the  bar-shoe  is  an  excellent  contri- 
vance, if  worn  only  for  one  or  two  shoeings,  or  as  long  as  the  disease  requires  it  to  be 
worn,  but  it  must  be  left  off  as  soon  as  it  can  be  dispensed  with.  If  it  be  used  for  the 
protection  of  a  diseased  foot,  however  it  may  be  chambered  and  laid  off  the  frog,  it  will 
soon  be  flattened  down  upon  it ;  or  if  the  pressure  of  it  be  thrown  on  the  frog  to  relieve 
the  sand-crack  or  the  corn,  that  frog  must  be  very  sti'ong  and  healthy  which  can  long 
bear  the  great  and  continued  pressure.  More  mischief  is  often  produced  in  the  frog  than 
previously  existed  in  the  part  which  was  relieved.  It  will  be  plain  that  in  the  use 
of  the  bai'-shoe  for  corn  or  sand-crack,  the  crust  and  the  frog  should  be  precisely  on  a 
level,  and  the  bar  should  be  the  widest  part  of  the  shoe,  to  afford  as  extended  bearing  as 
possible  on  the  frog,  and  therefore  less  likely  to  be  injurious.  Bar-shoes  are  evidently 
not  safe  in  frosty  weather;  they  are  never  safe  when  inuch  speed  is  required  from  the 
horse,  and  they  are  apt  to  be  wrenched  off  in  a  hea\y,  clayey  country. 


Tips  are  short  shoes,  reaching  only  half  round  the  foot,  and  worn  while  the  horse  is  at 
grass  to  prevent  tlie  crust  being  torn  by  the  occasional  hardness  of  the  ground,  or  by  the 
pawing  of  the  animal ;  and  the  quarters  at  the  same  time  being  free,  the  foot  disj)03ed 
to  contract  has  a  chance  of  expanding  and  regaining  its  natural  shape. 

THE   EXPANDING   SHOE, 

Our  subject  would  not  be  complete  if  we  did  not  describe  the  supposed  expanding 
shoe.  It  is  either  seated  or  concave  like  the  common  slioe,  with  a  joint  at  the  toe,  by 
which  the  natural  expansion  of  the  foot  is  said  to  be  permitted,  and  tiie  injurious  conse- 
quences of  shoeing  prevented.  There  is,  however,  this  radical  defect  in  the  jointed  shoe, 
uiat  the  nails  occupy  the  same  situation  as  in  the  common  shoe,  and  prevent,  as  do  the 
nails  of  the  common  shoe,  the  gradual  expansion  of  the  sides  and  quarters,  and  allow 
only  of  a  hinge-like  motion  at  the  toe.  This  is  a  most  imperfect  accommodation  of  the 
expansion  of  tlie  foot  to  the  action  of  its  internal  parts,  and  even  this  accommodation  is 
afforded  in  the  slightest  possible  degree,  or  rather  can  scarcely  be  afforded  at  all.  Either 
the  nails  fix  tlie  sides  and  quarters  as  in  the  common  shoe,  and  then  the  joint  at  the  toe 
is  useless ;  or  if  that  joint  merely  opens  like  a  hinge,  the  nail-holes  in  the  shoe  can  no 
longer  correspond  with  those  in  the  quarters  which  are  unequally  expanding  at  every 
point ;  and,  therefore,  there  will  be  more  stress  on  the  crust  at  these  holes,  which  will 
not  only  enlai-ge  them  and  destroy  the  fixed  attachment  of  the  shoe  to  the  hoof,  but  will 
often  tear  away  portions  of  the  crust.    This  has,  in  many  cases,  been  found  to  be  the 


244  THE  HORSE. 

effect  of  tlie  jointed  shoe ;  the  sides  and  quarters  of  the  foot  have  been  broken  until  it 
has  become  difficult  to  find  nail-hold.  This  shoe,  to  answer  the  intended  purpose,  should 
consist  of  many  joints,  running  along  the  sides  and  quarters,  which  would  make  it  too 
complicated  and  expensive  and  frail  for  general  use. 

While  the  shoe  is  to  be  attached  to  the  foot  by  nedls,  we  must  be  content  witli  the  con- 
cave seated  one,  taking  care  to  place  the  nail-holes  as  far  from  the  heels,  and  particularly 
from  the  inner  heel,  as  the  state  of  the  foot  and  the  nature  of  the  work  will  admit ;  and 
where  the  country  is  not  too  heavy  nor  the  work  too  severe,  even  omitting  the  nails  on 
the  inner  side  of  tlie  foot.  Shoes  nailed  on  the  outer  side,  and  at  the  toe,  are  more  se- 
cure than  some  would  imagine,  while  the  inner  quarter  will  be  left  free,  to  prevent  con- 
traction, or  to  arrest  its  progress. 

The  attempt,  however,  to  lessen  the  evils  produced  by  shoeing  is  most  praiseworthy ; 
and  men  like  Mr.  Bracy  Clark  deserve  the  respect  and  the  thanks  of  the  public,  although 
their  labors  may  not  be  crowned  with  success.  Every  contrivance  permanently  to  fix  the 
shoe  on  the  foot  without  the  use  of  nails  has  failed  ;  but  a  make-shift  shoe  has  been  con- 
trived, and  is  to  be  procured  at  most  saddlers,  which  is  easily  carried  in  the  pocket,  and 
put  on  in  a  minute  or  two  if  a  shoe  is  lost  in  hunting  or  on  the  road  ;  and  which  will  re- 
main securely  attached  to  the  foot,  and  prevent  iiijury  to  it,  during  a  journey  of  thirty  or 
forty  miles. 

FELT    OR    LEATHER    SOLES. 

When  the  foot  is  bruised  or  inflamed,  the  concussion  or  shock  produced  by  tlie  hard 
contact  of  the  elastic  iron  on  the  ground  gives  the  animal  much  pain,  and  causes  a  short 
and  feeling  step,  or  even  lameness,  and  aggravates  the  injury  or  disease.  A  strip  of  felt 
or  leather  is  sometimes  placed  between  the  seating  of  the  shoe  and  the  crust,  which, 
from  its  want  of  elasticity,  deadens  or  materially  lessens  the  vibration  or  shock,  and  the 
horse  treads  more  freely  and  is  evidently  relieved.  This  is  a  very  good  contrivance 
while  the  inflammation  or  tenderness  of  the  foot  continues,  but  a  very  bad  practice  if 
constantly  adopted.  The  nails  cannot  be  driven  so  surely  or  so  securely  when  this  sub- 
stance is  interposed  between  the  shoe  and  the  foot ;  the  contraction  and  swelling  of  the 
felt  or  leather  from  the  effect  of  moisture  or  dryness  will  soon  render  the  attachment  of 
the  shoe  less  firm  ;  there  will  be  too  much  play  upon  the  nails  ;  the  nail-holes  will  en- 
large, and  the  crust  will  be  broken  away. 

After  wounds  or  extensive  bruises  of  the  sole,  or  where  the  sole  is  thin  and  flat  and 
tender,  it  is  sometimes  covered  with  a  piece  of  leather,  fitted  to  the  sole,  and  nailed  on 
with  the  shoe.  This  may  be  allowed  as  a  temporary  defence  of  the  foot ;  but  there  is 
the  same  objection  to  its  permanent  use  from  the  insecurity  of  fastening,  and  the  strain 
on  the  crust,  and  the  frequent  chipping  of  it ;  and  there  are  these  additional  inconve- 
niences, that  if  tlie  hollow  between  the  sole  and  the  leather  be  filled  with  stopping  and 
tow,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  introduce  them  so  evenly  and  accurately  as  not  to  pro- 
duce some  partial  or  injurious  pressure — ^that  a  few  days'  work  vrill  almost  inveiriably  so 
derange  the  padding  as  to  produce  partial  pressure — that  the  long  contact  of  the  sole  with 
stopping  of  almost  every  kind  will  produce,  not  a  healthy,  elastic  horn,  but  horn  of  a 
scaly,  spongy  nature — and  that  if  the  hollow  be  not  thus  filled,  gravel  and  dirt  will  insin- 
uate themselves,  and  cause  unequal  pressure,  and  eat  into  and  injure  the  foot. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
OPERATIONS 

These  belong  more  to  the  veterinary-surgeon  than  to  the  proprietor  of  the  horse,  but 
a  short  account  of  the  manner  of  conducting  the  principal  ones  should  not  be  omitted. 

It  is  frequently  necesseirj'  to  bind  the  human  patient,  and  in  no  painful  or  dangerous 
operation  should  this  preliminary  be  omitted.  It  is  more  necessary  to  bind  the  horse, 
who  is  not  under  the  control  of  reason,  and  whose  struggles  may  not  only  be  injurious 
to  himself  but  dangerous  to  the  operator. 

The  trevis  is  a  machine  indispensable  in  every  continental  forge ;  even  the  quietest 
horses  are  there  put  into  it  to  be  shod.  It  is  to  be  found  in  many  of  our  country  forges, 
and  is  occupied  by  horses  that  cannot  otherwise  be  shod  without  manifest  danger  to  the 
smith.    It  seldom,  however,  finds  a  place  in  our  improved  forges,  although  it  >vould  be 


BLEEDING.  245 

useful  for  docking,  firing,  and  many  other  purposes.  The  horse  is  confined  within  enor- 
mous bars  of  wood,  and  slung  there,  but  many  have  been  destroyed  in  their  determined 
resistance  to  such  restraint. 

The  side-line  is  a  veiy  simple  and  useful  method  of  confining  the  horse,  and  places 
him  in  suificient  subjection  for  the  operations  of  docking,  nicking  and  slight  firing.  The 
Ion'' line  of  the  hobbles,  or  a  common  cart-rope  with  a  noose  at  the  end,  is  fastened  on  the 
pastern  of  one  hind-leg.  The  rope  is  then  brought  over  the  neck  and  round  tlie  withers, 
and  there  tied  to  the  portion  that  comes  from  the  leg.  The  leg  may  thus  be  drawn  so  far 
forward,  tliat  while  the  horse  evidently  cannot  kick  with  that  leg,  he  is  disarmed  of  the 
other ;  for  he  would  not  have  suflicient  support  under  him  if  he  attempted  to  raise  it. 
Neither  can  he  easily  use  his  fore-legs,  or,  it  he  attempts  to  use  them,  one  of  them  may 
be  lifted  up,  when  he  becomes  nearly  powerless.  If  necessary,  the  aid  of  the  twitch  or 
the  bai'nacles  may  be  resorted  to. 

For  every  minor  operation,  and  even  for  many  that  are  of  more  importance,  this  mode 
of  resti-aint  is  sufficient ;  especially  if  the  operator  has  active  and  determined  assistants  : 
and  we  confess  that  we  are  no  friends  to  the  casting  of  horses  if  it  can  possibly  be  pre- 
vented. When  both  legs  are  included  in  the  hobble  or  rope  (as  in  another  way  of  using 
the  side  line),  the  horse  may  appear  to  be  more  secure,  but  there  is  greater  danger  of  his 
falling  in  his  violent  struggles  during  the  operation. 

For  castrating  and  severe  firing  the  animal  must  be  thrown.  The  construction  of  the 
hobbles  is  well  known  to  eveiy  fju-rier,  and  almost  to  every  proprietor  of  horses.  We  will 
only  say  that  the  safety  of  the  horse  and  of  the  operator  will  require  the  use  of  the  im- 
proved hobbles,  by  which  any  leg  may  be  releT;sed  from  confinement,  and  retui-ned  to  it 
at  pleasure  ;  and,  when  the  operation  is  ended,  the  whole  of  the  legs  may  be  set  at  liberty 
at  once  without  danger.  The  method  of  putting  the  legs  as  closely  together  as  possible 
before  the  pull — the  necessity  of  tlie  assistants  all  pulling  together — and  the  power,  which 
one  man  standing  at  the  head  and  firmly  holding  the  snaffle  bridle,  and  another  at  the 
haunch  pushing  trie  horse  when  he  is  beginning  to  fall,  have  in  bringing  him  on  the  pro- 

?er  side,  and  on  the  very  spot  on  which  he  is  intended  to  lie,  need  not  to  be  described, 
'his,  however,  is  a  method  of  securing  the  horse  to  which  we  repeat  tliat  we  are  not  par- 
tial, and  to  wMch  we  should  not  resort  except  necessity  compelled,  for  in  the  act  of  fall- 
ing, and  in  the  struggles  after  falling,  many  accidents  have  occurred  both  to  the  horse 
and  the  surgeon. 

Among  tlie  minor  methods  of  restraint,  but  sufficient  for  many  purposes,  are  the  twitch 
and  the  barnacles.  The  former  consists  of  a  noose  passed  through  a  hole  at  the  end  of  a 
sti-ong  stick,  and  in  which  the  muzzle  is  inclosed.  The  stick  being  turned,  the  muzzle 
is  securely  retained,  while  the  horse  suffers  great  pain  from  the  pressure — sufficiently 
gi'eat  to  render  him  comparatively  inattentive  to  that  which  is  produced  by  the  operation  ; 
at  the  same  time,  he  is  afraid  to  struggle,  for  every  motion  increases  the  agony  caused  by 
the  twitch,  or  the  assistant  has  power  to  increase  it  by  giving  an  additional  turn  to  the  stick. 

The  barnacles  are  tlie  handles  of  the  pincers  placed  over  and  inclosing  the  muzzle,  and 
which,  being  compressed  by  the  assistant,  give  pain  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  twitch. 
These  may  appear  to  be  barbarous  modes  of  enforcing  submission,  but  they  are  absolutely 
indispensable.  In  a  few  instances,  the  blindfolding  of  the  horse  terrifies  him  into  sub- 
mission ;  but  this  is  not  to  be  depended  upon.  The  twitch  should  be  resorted  to  when 
the  least  resistance  is  offered ;  and  when  that,  as  it  occasionally  does,  renders  the  horse 
more  violent,  recourse  must  be  had  to  the  side-line  or  the  hobbles. 

In  painful  examination  of  the  fore-leg  or  foot  while  on  the  ground,  the  otlier  foot  should 
be  held  up  by  an  assistant ;  or,  if  his  aid  be  required  in  an  operation,  the  knee  may  be 
fully  bent,  and  the  pastern  tied  up  to  the  arm.  When  the  hind-leg  is  to  be  examined  in 
the  same  way,  the  fore-leg  on  that  side  should  be  held  or  fastened  up. 

BLEEDING. 

The  operation  of  Bleeding  has  been  already  described  (p.  142),  but  we  would  remind 
cur  readers  of  the  necessity,  in  every  case  of  acute  inflammation,  of  making  a  large 
orifice,  and  abstracting  the  blood  as  rapidly  as  possible,  for  the  constitution  will  thus  be 
the  more  speedily  and  beneficially  affected ;  and  also,  of  the  propriety  of  never  determin- 
ing to  take  a  precise  quantity  of  blood,  but  of  keeping  the  finger  on  the  artery  until  the 
pulse  begins  to  change  ;  until  ihe  strong  pulse  of  fever  becomes  softer,  or  the  animal  is 
laint,  or  the  oppressed  pulse  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  rounder  and  fuller. 

In  cases  of  inflammation,  and  in  the  hands  of  a  skilful  practitioner,  bleeding  is  the 
sheet-anchor  of  the  veterinarian ;  yet  few  things  are  more  to  be  reprobated  than  the  in- 
discriminate bleeding  of  the  groom  or  the  farrier. 

The  change  which  takes  place  in  the  blood  after  it  is  drawn  from  the  vein  is  very  dili- 
ently  noticed  by  many  practitioners,  and  is  certainly  deserving  of  some  attention.  The 
ilood  coagulates  soon  after  it  is  taken  from  the  vein.    The  coagulable  part  is  composed 


b] 


246  THE  HOUSE. 

of  two  substances,  that  which  gives  color  to  the  blood,  and  that  in  which  the  red  particles 
float.  These,  by  degrees,  separate  from  each  other,  and  the  red  particles  sink  to  the 
bottom.  If  the  coagulation  takes  place  slowly,  the  red  particles  have  more  time  to  sink 
through  the  fluid,  and  there  appears  on  the  top  a  thick,  yellowish,  adhesive  coat,  called 
the  butfy  coat.  It  is  supposed  that  the  slowness  of  coagulation,  and  the  thickness  of 
bnfty  coat,  are  indicative  of  inflammation,  and  of  the  degree  of  inflammation. 

In  a  healthy  state  of  the  system,  the  coagulation  is  more  rapid,  the  red  particles  have 
not  time  to  fall  through,  and  the  buify  coat  is  thin.  These  appearances  are  worth  observ- 
ing ;  but  much  more  dependence  is  to  be  placed  on  the  pulse,  the  change  of  the  pulse, 
and  the  symptoms  generally.  When  the  horse  is  exhausted,  and  the  system  nearly  broken 
up,  the  blood  will  sometimes  not  coagulate  at  all,  but  be  of  one  uniform  black  color,  and 
loose  texture.  When  the  blood  runs  down  the  side  of  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  received, 
the  coagulation  will  be  very  imperfect.  When  it  is  drawn  in  a  full  stream,  it  coagulates 
slowly ;  when  more  slowly,  or  from  a  smaller  orifice,  the  coagulation  is  more  rapid ; 
therefore,  all  these  extraneous  circumstances  ariecting  so  much  the  coagulation  and  con- 
sequent appearance  of  the  blood,  the  pulse,  and  the  general  symptoms,  should  be  the 
chief  ob'ects  of  regai-d. 

BLISTERING. 

Of  Blisters  we  have  also  spoken  when  treating  of  the  various  diseases  to  which  they 
are  applicable.  The  principle  on  which  they  act  is,  that  no  two  intense  inflammations 
can  exist  in  neighboring  parts,  or  perhaps  in  the  system,  at  the  same  time.  Hence  we 
apply  some  stimulating  acrimonious  substance  to  the  skin,  to  excite  external  inflamma- 
tion, and  to  lessen  or  draw  away  inflammation  in  some  deeper  seated  and  generally  not 
far  distant  part.  Thus  we  blister  the  sides  in  inflammation  of  the  lungs — the  beUy  in 
that  of  the  bowels — the  legs  in  that  of  the  cellular  substance  surrounding  the  sheaths  of 
the  tendons,  or  the  sheaths  themselves,  and  the  coronet  or  the  heel  in  inflammation  of  the 
navicular  joint. 

Blisters  have  likewise  the  property  of  increasing  the  activity  of  the  neighboring  vessels  : 
thus  we  blister  to  bring  the  tumour  of  strangles  more  speedily  to  a  head — we  blister  to 
rouse  the  absorbents  to  more  energetic  action,  and  take  away  tumours,  and  callous  and 
even  bony  substances. 

The  judgment  of  the  practitioner  will  decide  when  the  desired  effect  will  be  best  pro- 
duced by  a  sudden  and  violent  action,  or  by  the  continuance  of  one  of  a  milder  nature. 
Inflammation  should  be  met  by  active  blisters ;  old  enlargements  and  swellings  will  be 
most  certainly  removed  by  milder  stimulants — by  the  process  which  farriers  call  sweat- 
ing down. 

There  is  no  better  blister  ointment  or  active  blister  than  the  Spanish  fly,  mixed  with 
the  proportions  of  lard  and  rosin  already  mentioned,  p.  147.  The  best  liquid  or  sweating 
blister  is  an  infusion  of  the  fly  in  turpentine,  and  that  lowered  with  neat's  foot  oil  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  activity  required. 

In  preparing  the  horse  for  blistering,  the  hair  should  be  clipped  or  shaved  as  closely  as 
possible,  and  the  ointment  thoroughly  rubbed  in.  Much  fault  is  often  found  with  tho 
ointment  if  the  blister  does  not  rise,  when  the  real  blame  should  be  attiibuted  to  the  idle- 
ness of  the  operator. 

The  head  of  the  horse  must  be  tied  up  for  the  first  two  days  ;  except  that,  when  the 
sides  are  blistered,  the  body-clothes  may  be  so  contiived  as  to  prevent  the  horse  from 
nibbling  and  blemishing  the  part,  or  blistering  his  muzzle.  At  the  expiration  of  twenty- 
four  hours,  a  little  olive  or  neat's  foot  oil  maybe  applied  over  the  blister,  which  will  con- 
siderably lessen  the  pain  and  supple  the  part,  and  prevent  cracks  in  the  sldn  that  maybe 
difficult  to  heal.  The  oil  should  be  ajiplied  morning  and  night,  until  the  scabs  peel  ofl'. 
When  they  begin  to  loosen,  a  lather  ot  soap  and  water  applied  witli  a  sponge  may  hasten 
their  removal,  but  no  violence  must  be  used. 

Every  particle  of  litter  should  be  carefully  removed  from  the  stall,  for  the  sharp  ends 
of  the  straw  coming  in  contact  with  a  part  rendered  so  tender  and  irritable  by  the  blis- 
ter, vnll  cause  very  great  annoyance  to  the  animal.  After  the  second  day  the  horse  may 
be  suffered  to  lie  down ;  but  still  the  possibility  of  blemishing  himself  should  be  pre- 
vented by  a  cradle  or  wooden  necklace,  consisting  of  round  strips  of  wood,  strung  toge- 
ther, reaching  from  the  lower  jaw  to  the  chest,  and  preventing  the  horse  from  sufficiently 
turning  or  bending  his  head,  to  get  at  the  blistered  part. 

A  blister  thus  treated  will  rarely  produce  the  slightest  blemish.  When  the  scabs  are 
all  removed,  the  blister  may  be  repeated,  if  the  case  should  appear  to  require  it,  or  the 
horse  may  be  turned  out. 

In  inflammations  which  threaten  life,  a  blister  can  scarcely  be  too  active  or  too  exten- 
sive. In  inflammation  of  the  lungs  it  should  reach  over  the  whole  of  the  sides,  and  the 
greater  part  of  tlje  brisket ;  for,  should  a  portion  of  the  fly  be  absorbed,  and  produce 


FIRING.  247 

strangury  (inflammation,  or  spasmodic  affection  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder,)  even  this 
new  irritation  may  assist  in  subduing  the  tirst  and  more  dangerous  one ;  but  in  blis- 
tering for  injuries  or  diseases  of  the  legs  or  feet  some  caution  is  necessary.  When  speak- 
ing of  the  treatment  of  sprain  of  the  back  sinews,  p.  192,  we  stated,  that  "  a  blister 
should  never  be  used  while  any  heat  or  tenderness  remains  about  the  part,"  for  we  should 
then  add  to  the  superficial  inflammation,  instead  of  abating  the  deeper  seated  one ;  and 
enlargements  of  the  limb  and  ulcerations  might  follow,  which  would  render  the  horse 
perfectly  unserviceable.  When  there  is  a  tendency  to  grease,  a  blister  is  a  dangerous 
thing,  and  has  often  aggravated  the  disease,  in  winter,  the  inflammation  of  the  skin 
produced  by  blistering  is  apt  to  degenerate  into  grease  ;  therefore,  if  it  should  be  neces- 
sary to  blister  the  horse  during  that  season,  great  care  must  be  tedcen  that  he  is  not  ex- 
posed to  cold,  and,  particularly,  that  a  current  of  cold  air  does  not  come  upon  the  legs. 

The  inhuman  practice  of  blistering  all  round,  and  perhaps  high  on  tlie  leg  at  the  same 
time,  cannot  be  too  strongly  reprobated.  Many  a  valuable  horse  has  been  lost  through 
the  excessive  general  irritation  which  this  has  produced,  or  its  violent  effect  on  the  uri- 
nary organs ;  and  this  has  been  particularly  the  case,  when  con-osive  sublimate  has  en- 
tered into  the  composition  of  the  blister. 

If  strangury  should  appear,  the  horse  should  be  plentifully  supplied  with  linseed  tea, 
which  is  thus  best  prepared — a  gallon  of  boiling  water  is  poured  on  half  a  pound  of  lin- 
seed ;  the  infusion  suliered  to  stand  till  nearly  cold,  and  the  clean  mucilaginous  fluid  then 
poured  oif.  Three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  Epsom  salts  should  also  be  given,  dissolved 
in  a  quart  of  water,  and,  after  that,  a  ball  every  six  hours,  composed  of  a  scruple  of  opi- 
um, and  a  drachm  of  camphor,  with  linseed  meal  and  treacle. 

Half  a  pound  or  a  pound  of  good  mustard  powder,  made  into  a  paste  with  boiling  wa- 
ter, and  applied  hot,  will  often  produce  as  good  a  blister  as  canthcirides  with  far  more 
swelling.  It  is  a  preferable  one,  where,  as  in  inflammation  of  the  kidneys,  the  effect  of 
cantharides  on  the  urinary  organs  is  feared.  Hartshorn  is  not  so  effectual.  Tincture  of 
croton  makes  an  active  liquid  blister. 

FIRING. 

Whatever  seeming  cruelty  may  attend  this  operation,  it  is  in  many  cases  indispensa- 
ble. The  principle  on  which  we  have  recourse  to  it  is  similar  to  that  which  justifies  the 
use  of  a  blister  ;  by  producing  superficial  inflammation  we  may  be  enabled  to  remove  a 
deeper  seated  one,  or  we  may  excite  the  absorbents  to  take  away  any  unnatural  bony  or 
other  tumour;  it  has  also  tliis  additional  advantage,  tliat,  while  it  raises  intenser  external 
inflammation  than  we  can  produce  by  other  means,  it  is  the  most  powerful  agent  that  we 
have  at  our  disposal.  Humanity,  however,  will  dictate,  that  on  account  of  the  inflam- 
mation which  it  excites,  and  the  pain  which  it  inflicts,  it  should  only  be  had  recourse  to 
when  milder  means  have  failed,  except  iu  those  cases  in  which  experience  has  taught  us 
that  milder  means  rarely  succeed. 

The  part  which  is  to  be  submitted  to  the  operation  is  shaved,  or  the  hair  is  cut  from  it 
as  closely  as  possible  with  the  trimming  scissors.  Tliis  is  necessary  to  bring  the  iron 
into  immediate  contact  with  the  skin,  and  likewise  to  prevent  the  smoke  that  will  arise 
from  the  burned  hair  from  obscuring  the  view  of  the  operator.  The  horee  must  then 
be  thrown.  This  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  safety  Wh  of  the  operator  and  the  ani- 
mal. The  side  line  is  applied  in  a  shorter  time,  and  so  many  hands  are  not  wanted  to 
cast  the  horse  ;  but  no  person  can  fire  accurately,  or  with  the  certainty  of  not  penetrating 
the  skin,  except  the  horse  is  effectually  secured  by  the  hobbles ;  and  although  accidents 
have  occurred  in  the  act  of  throwing,  yet  many  more  have  resulted  to  the  operator,  the 
assistants,  or  the  horse,  in  a  protracted  operation  like  this,  when  the  side-line  only  has 
been  used. 

The  details  of  the  operation  belong  to  the  veterinary  surgeon.  The  greind  points  to 
be  attended  to  are  to  have  the  edge  of  the  iron  round  and  smooth — the  iron  itself  at,  or 
rather  below  a  red  heat — to  pass  it  more  or  less  rapidly  over  the  skin,  and  with  slighter 
or  greater  pressure  according  to  the  degree  of  heat — to  burn  into  the  skin  untU  the  line 
produced  by  the  iron  is  of  a  brown  color,  rather  light  than  dark,  and  by  all  means,  to 
avoid  penetrating  the  skin.  Leaving  the  additional  cruelty  of  deep  firing  out  of  the 
question,  we  may  depend  on  it  that  it  the  skin  is  burned  through,  inflammation  and  ul- 
ceration, and  sloughing  will  ensue,  which  will  be  with  much  difficulty  combated — which 
will  unavoidable  leave  unnecessary  blemish,  and  which  have  destroyed  many  valuable 
horses.  It  may  happen,  nevertheless,  that  by  a  sudden  plunge  of  the  animal  the  skin 
will  be  unavoidably  cut  through.  The  act  of  firing  requires  much  skill  and  tact,  and  the 
practitioner  cannot  be  always  on  his  guaird  against  the  struggles  of  the  tortured  beast. 
It  will,  also,  and  not  unfrequently  occur,  that  the  skin,  partially  divided,  will  separate  in 
two  or  three  days  after  the  operation.    This  must  not  be  attributed  to  any  neglect  or  un- 


.^iMPf^i!^ 


248  ""'  THE  HORSE. 

skilfulness  of  the  surgeon,  and  the  ulceration  thus  produced  will  be  slight  and  easily 
treated,  compared  with  that  caused  by  the  actual  burning  through  of  the  skin. 

Some  practitioners  blister  immediately  after  firing.  As  a  general  usage  it  is  highly 
to  be  reprobated.  It  is  wanton  and  useless  cruelty ;  but  it  may  be  required  in  bony 
tumours  of  considerable  extent,  and  long  standing,  and  interfering  materially  with  the 
action  of  the  neighboring  joint.  Spavin  accompanied  by  much  lameness,  and  ring-bone 
spreading  round  the  coronet,  and  involving  the  side  cartilages,  or  the  pastern  joint,  may 
justify  it.  The  inflammation  is  rendered  more  intense,  and  of  considerably  longer  dura- 
tion. In  old  affections  of  the  round  bone  it  may  be  admitted,  but  no  excuse  can  be  made 
for  it  in  slighter  cases  of  sprjun  or  weakness,  or  staleness. 

On  the  day  after  the  operation,  it  will  be  prudent  gently  to  rub  some  neat's  foot  oil,  or 
lard  over  the  lines.  This  will  soften  the  skin,  and  render  it  less  likely  to  sepzirate  or  ulcer- 
ate ;  a  bandage  would  add  to  the  irritation  of  the  part.  Any  cracks  of  the  skin,  or  ulcer- 
ations that  may  ensue,  must  be  treated  with  the  calamine  ointment  already  recommended. 

It  will  be  evident  that  there  is  an  advantage  derived  from  firing  to  which  a  blister  can 
have  no  pretension.  The  sldn,  partially  destroyed  bj'the  iron,  is  reinstated  and  healed, 
not  merely  by  the  formation  of  some  new  matter  filling  up  the  vacuity,  but  by  the  gradual 
drawing  together  and  closing  of  the  separated  edges.  The  skin,  therefore,  is  lessened  in 
surface  ;  it  is  tightened  over  the  part,  and  it  acts  as  a  salutary  and  permanent  bandage. 
Of  the  effect  ot  pressure  in  removing  enlargements  of  every  kind,  as  well  as  giving 
strength  to  the  part  to  which  it  is  applied,  we  have  repeatedly  spoken  ;  and  it  is  far  from 
being  the  least  valuable  effect  of  the  operation  of  firing,  that,  by  contracting  the  skin,  it 
affords  a  salutary,  equable,  and  permanent  pressure.  It  was  on  this  principle,  but  the 
practice  cannot  be  defended,  that  colts  which  were  not  very  strong  on  the  legs,  used  to  be 
fired  round  the  fetlock,  and  along  the  back  sinew,  or  over  the  hock,  to  brace  and  strength- 
en the  parts.  It  is  on  the  same  principle  that  a  racer  or  hunter,  that  has  become  stale 
and  stiff,  is  sometimes  fired  and  turned  out.  For  whatever  reason  the  horse  is  fired, 
he  should,  if  practicable,  be  turned  out,  or  soiled  in  a  loose  box,  for  three  or  four  months 
at  least.  The  full  effect  intended  to  result  from  the  external  irritation  is  not  soon  pro- 
duced, and  the  benefit  derived  from  pressure  proceeds  still  more  slowly.  In  the  thick- 
ened and  tender  state  of  the  skin,  and  the  substance  beneath,  for  some  weeks  after  firing, 
a  return  to  hard  work  would  be  likely  to  excite  a  new  inflammation,  and  cause  even  worse 
mischief  than  that  which  before  existed. 

Some  weeks  pass  before  the  tumified  parts  begin  to  lessen,  and  they  only  who  have  had 
experience  in  these  cases  would  imagine  how  long,  with  gentle  voluntary  exercise,  the 
process  of  absorption  is  carried  on.  He,  therefore,  who  would  expect  that  much  good 
should  accrue  from  the  operation  of  firing,  must  be  content  to  give  up  his  horse  for  three 
or  four  months  ;  but  if  he  will  use  him  sooner,  and  a  worse  lameness  should  follow,  let 
him  blame  his  own  impatience,  and  not  the  inefficiency  of  the  means,  or  the  WEint  of 
skill  in  the  surgeon. 

The  firing  in  every  case  should  be  either  in  longitudinal  or  parallel  lines.  On  the  back 
sinews,  the  fetlock,  and  the  coronet,  this  is  peculiarly  requisite,  for  thus  only  will  the  skin 
contract  so  as  to  form  the  greatest  and  most  equable  pressure. 

The  practitioner  may  pride  himself  in  the  accuracy  of  his  diamonds,  lozenges  and 
feathers,  but  plain  straight  lines,  about  half  an  inch  from  each  otlier,  wiU  form  the  most 
advantageous  mode  of  firing.  The  destroying  of  deeply  seated  inflammation,  by  the  ex- 
citing ot  violent  inflammation  on  the  skin,  is  as  well  obtained ;  and  common  sense  will 
determine,  that  in  no  way  can  the  pressure  which  results  from  the  contraction  of  the  skin 
be  so  advantageously  employed,  to  which  we  may  add,  tliat  it  often  leaves  not  the  slightest 
blemish. 


Are  pieces  of  tape  or  cord,  passed  by  means  of  an  instrument  resembling  a  large  needle 
either  through  abscesses,  or  the  base  of  ulcers  with  deep  sinuses,  or  between  the  skin  and 
the  muscular  or  other  substances  beneath.  They  are  retained  there  by  the  ends  being 
tied  together,  or  by  a  knot  at  each  end.  The  tape  is  moved  in  the  wound  twice  or  thrice 
in  the  day,  and  occasionally  wetted  with  spirit  of  turpentine,  or  some  acrid  liquid,  in  order 
to  increase  the  inflammation  which  it  produces,  or  the  discharge  which  is  intended  to  be 
established. 

In  abscesses,  such  as  tumours  in  the  withers  or  the  poll,  and  when  passed  from  the 
summit  to  the  very  bottom  of  the  sweOing,  setons  are  highly  useful,  as  discharging  the 
fluid  and  suffering  any  fresh  quantity  of  it  that  may  be  secreted  to  flow  out ;  and,  by  the 
degree  of  inflammation  which  they  excite  on  the  inside  of  the  tumour,  stimulating  it 
to  tlirow  out  healthy  granulations  which  gradually  occupy  and  fill  the  hollow.  In  deep 
fistulous  wounds  they  are  indispensable,  for  except  some  orifice  be  made  for  the  matter 
to  flow  from  the  bottom  of  the  wound,  it  will  continue  to  eat  deeper  into  it,  and  the  heal- 


JSICKING.  24» 

ing  process  can  never  be  accomplished.  On  these  accounts,  a  seton  passed  through  the 
bottom  of  the  ulcer  in  poll-evil  and  fistulous  withers  is  of  so  much  benefit. 

Setons  are  sometimes  useful  by  promoting  a  discharge  in  the  neighborhood  of  an  in- 
flamed part,  and  thus  diverting  and  cariying  away  a  portion  of  the  fluids  which  overload 
or  would  othei-wise  more  distend  the  vessels  of  that  part :  thus  a  seton  is  placed  in  the 
cheek  with  considerable  advantage,  when  the  eyes  are  inflamed ;  we  confess,  however, 
that  we  far  prefer  a  rowel  under  the  jaw. 

With  this  view,  and  to  excite  anew  and  different  inflammation  in  the  neighborhood  of 
a  part  already  inflamed,  and  especially  so  deeply  seated  and  so  difficult  to  be  got  at  as  the 
navicular  joint,  a  seton  has  occasionally  been  used  with  manifest  benefit,  biit  we  must 
peremptorily  object  to  the  indiscriminate  use  of  the  frog-seton  for  almost  every  disease 
of  the  frog  or  the  foot. 

In  inflammations  of  extensive  organs  setons  afford  only  feeble  aid.  Their  action  is  too 
circumscribed.  In  inflammation  of  the  chest  or  the  intestines  a  rowel  is  preferable  to  a 
seton ;  and  a  blister  is  far  better  than  eitiier  of  them. 

On  the  principle  of  exciting  the  absorbents  to  action  for  the  removal  of  tumors,  as 
spavin  or  splent,  a  blister  is  quicker  in  its  action,  and  far  more  eflectual  than  any  seton ; 
and  firing  is  still  more  energetic.  Many  horses  have  been  blemished  for  life  by  the  seton 
being  torn  out,  and  ulcerations,  difficult  to  heal,  having  been  produced  ;  while  week  after 
week  has  often  passed  on,  and  the  owner  has  been  deprived  of  the  use  of  the  animal, 
without  the  tumour,  or  the  lameness  which  it  caused,  being  in  the  least  degree  diminished. 


The  shortening  of  the  tail  of  the  horse  is  an  operation  which  fashion  and  the  conven- 
ience of  the  rider  require  to  be  performed  on  most  of  those  animals.  The  length  of 
the  dock,  or  stump,  is  a  matter  of  mere  caprice.  To  the  close-cropped  tail  of  the  wa- 
gon-horse, however,  we  decidedly  object,  from  its  perfect  ugliness,  and  because  the  ani- 
mal is  deprived  of  every  defence  against  the  flies.  The  supposition  that  the  blood  which 
should  have  gone  to  the  nourishment  of  the  tail,  causes  gi-eater  development  and  strength 
in  the  quarters,  is  too  absurd  to  deserve  serious  refutation.  It  is  the  rump  of  the  animjJ 
being  wholly  uncovered,  and  not  partly  hidden  by  the  intervention  of  the  tail,  that  gives  a 
false  appeai'ance  of  increased  bulk. 

The  operation  is  simple.  That  joint  is  searched  out  which  is  the  nearest  to  the  desired 
length  of  tail.  The  hair  is  then  turned  up,  and  tied  round  with  tape  for  an  inch  or  two 
above  this  joint ;  and  that  which  lies  immediately  upon  the  joint  is  cut  ofl^.  The  horse 
is  then  fettered  with  the  side  line,  and  the  veterinary  surgeon  with  his  docking  machine, 
or  the  farmer  with  his  carving  knife  and  mallet,  cuts  through  the  tail  at  one  stroke.  Con- 
siderable bleeding  now  ensues,  and  frightens  the  tinrid  or  the  ignorant ;  but  if  the  blood 
were  suffered  to  flow  on  until  it  ceased  of  its  own  accord,  the  colt,  and  especially  if  he 
were  very  young,  would  rarely  be  seriously  injured.  As,  however,  the  bleeding  would 
occasionally  continue  for  some  hours,  and  a  great  quantity  of  blood  would  be  lost,  and 
the  animal  would  be  somewhat  weakened,  it  is  usual  to  stop  the  haemorrhage  by  the  ap- 
plication of  a  red-hot  iron  to  the  stump.  A  large  hole  is  made  in  the  centre  of  the  iron 
that  the  bone  may  not  be  seared,  which  would  exfoliate,  if  it  were  burned  with  any  se- 
verity, or  diop  ofl'  at  the  joint  above,  and  thus  shorten  the  dock.  The  iron  rests  on  the 
muscular  parts  round  the  bone,  and  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  bleeding  vessels, 
and  very  speedily  stops  the  haemorrhage.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  iron  is  not  too 
hot, — and  that  it  is  not  held  too  long  or  too  forcibly  on  the  part,  for  many  more  horses 
would  be  destroyed  by  severe  application  of  the  cautery,  than  by  the  bleeding  being  left 
to  its  own  course.  Powdered  rosin  sprinkled  on  the  stump,  or  indeed  any  other  applica- 
tion, is  worse  than  useless  ;  it  causes  unnecessary  irritation,  and  sometimes  extensive  ul- 
ceration ;  but  if  the  simple  iron  be  moderately  applied,  the  horse  may  go  to  work  imme- 
diately after  the  operation,  and  no  dressing  will  be  afterwards  required.  If  a  slight  bleed- 
ing should  occur  after  the  cautery,  it  is  much  better  to  let  it  alone,  than  to  run  the  risk 
of  inflammation  or  locked-javv,  by  reapplying  the  iron  with  the  greater  severity. 

Some  farmers  dock  their  colts  a  few  days  alter  they  are  dropped.  This  is  a  commen- 
dable custom  on  the  score  of  humanity  ;  no  colt  was  ever  lost  by  it ;  and  we  do  not  be- 
lieve that  the  growth  of  the  hair  or  the  beauty  of  the  tail  is  in  the  least  impaired. 


This  barbarous  operation  has  long  been  sanctioned  by  fashion,  and  the  breeder  and  the 
dealer  must  have  recouise  to  it,  if  he  would  obtain  a  ready  sale  for  his  colts.  It  is  not, 
however,  practised  to  the  extent  that  it  used  to  be,  nor  attended  by  so  many  circumstan- 
ces of  cruelty. 

We  must  here  inti-oduce  a  small  portion  of  our  anatomy,  which  we  had  reserved  for 
32 


..^g.^. 


250  THE  HORSE. 

this  place.  We  have  spoken  p.  130,  of  the  eighteen  dorsal  vertebrae  or  bones  of  the 
back  (see  d,  p.  129),  and  the  five  lumbar  vert«JDrae,  or  bones  of  tlie  loins  (f,  p.  129). 
The  continuation  of  ftie  spine  consists  of  the  sacnim  or  five  bones,  {h,  p.  129,)  which,  al- 
though separate  in  the  colt,  are  in  the  full  grovv^n  horse  united  into  one  mass.  The  bones 
of  the  ilium,  the  upper  and  side  portion  of  the  haunch,  articulate  strongly  with  the  sa- 
crum, forming  a  bony  union  rather  than  a  joint.  The  spinal  maiTow,  and  the  blood-ves- 
sels generally,  here  begin  to  diminish,  and  numerous  branches  of  nerves  are  given  out, 
wliich,  joined  by  some  from  the  vertebrae  of  the  loins  form  the  ner^^es  of  the  nind  legs. 
The.  bones  of  the  tail,  {i,  p.  129,)  are  a  continuation  of  those  of  the  sacrum.  They  are 
fifteen  in  number,  gi-aduaJly  diminishing  in  size,  and  losing  altogether  the  character  of 
the  spinal  vertebrae.  Prolongations  of  the  spinal  marrow  run  through  the  whole  of  them, 
and  likewise  ai-terial  vessels,  being  a  continuation  of  those  which  supply  the  sacrum.  A 
great  deal  of  attention  is  paid  by  those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  horse  to  this  contin- 
uation of  the  sacral  and  tail  bones.  From  the  loins  to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail,  the  line 
should  be  nearly  straight,  or  inclining  only  a  little  way  downward.  There  is  not  a  surer 
test  of  the  breed  of  the  horse,  than  this  straight  line  from  the  loins  to  the  tail ;  nor,  as  we 
have  shown,  when  speaking  of  the  muscles  of  the  quarters,  is  there  any  circumstance  so 
much  connected  with  the  mechanical  advantage  wdth  which  these  muscles  act. 

The  tail  was  given  to  the  horse  to  perfect  the  beauty  of  his  form ;  to  assist  in  directing 
his  course  when  he  has  not  the  guiding  hand  of  man  ;  and  more  particularly  to  enable 
him  to  defend  himself  from  the  insects  by  which  in  every  climate  he  is  annoyed. 

There  are  three  sets  of  muscles  belonging  to  the  tail,  one  raising  it  (a,  p.  202),  another 
depressing  it,  (b,  p.  202),  and  a  third  set  giving  it  a  side  motion,  in  every  direction  when 
acting  singly,  or  very  powerfully  lowering  it  when  acting  together.  It  would  seem  that 
the  depressor  and  lateral  muscles  are  much  more  powerful  than  the  erector  muscles,  and 
that  when  the  horse  is  undisturbed,  the  tail  is  bent  down  close  on  the  buttocks ;  but  when 
he  is  excited,  and  particularly  when  he  is  at  speed,  the  erector  muscles  are  called  into 
action,  the  tail  is  elevated,  and  there  is  given  to  him  an  appearance  of  energy  and  spirit, 
which  adds  materially  to  his  beauty.  To  perpetuate  this  character  of  fire,  the  operation 
of  nicking  was  contrived.  The  depressor  muscles,  and  part  of  the  lateral  ones  are  cut 
through ;  and  the  erector  muscles  are  left  without  any  antagonists,  and  keep  the  tail  in 
a  position  more  or  less  erect,  according  to  the  whim  of  the  operator,  or  the  depth  to  which 
the  incisions  into  the  muscles  have  been  carried. 

The  operation  is  thus  performed.  The  side  line  is  put  on  the  horse,  or  some  deem  it 
more  prudent  to  cast  him,  and  that  precaution  we  should  be  disposed  to  recommend.  The 
hair  at  the  end  of  the  tail  is  securely  tied  together  for  the  purpose  of  afterwaurds  attaching 
a  weight  to  it.  The  operator  then  grasps  the  tail  in  his  hand,  and  lifting  it  up,  feels  for 
the  centre  of  one  of  the  bones  (the  prominences  at  the  extremities  will  guide  him  to  this), 
from  two  to  four  inches  from  the  root  of  the  tail,  according  to  the  size  of  the  horse.  He 
then  with  a  sharp  knife  divides  the  muscles  deep  from  the  edge  of  the  tail  on  one  side 
to  the  centre,  and  continuing  the  incision  across  the  bone  of  the  tail,  he  makes  it  as  deep 
on  the  other  side.  One  continued  incision,  steadily,  yet  rapidly  made,  will  accomplisn 
this.  If  it  be  a  blood  horse  this  will  be  sufficient.  For  a  hunter,  two  incisions  are  usu- 
ally made,  the  second  being  about  two  inches  below  the  first,  and  likewise  as  nearly  as 
possible  in  the  centre  of  one  of  the  bones  ;  tlie  reason  of  which  is,  tliat  the  incision,  in 
order  perfectly  to  divide  the  muscles  that  brii'g  down  the  tail,  must  be  so  deep,  as,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  a  joint,  to  endanger  the  wounding  of  the  ligament  which  ties  the  bones 
together,  or  the  substance  which  is  interposed  between  the  joints,  and  thus  by  destroying 
the  joint  to  render  the  tail  deformed. 

On  a  hackney  or  cocktail,  a  third  incision  is  made  ;  for  fashion  has  decided  that  his  tail 
shall  be  still  more  elevated  and  curved.  Two  incisions  only  are  made  in  the  tail  of  a 
mare,  and  the  second  not  very  deep. 

When  the  second  incision  is  made,  some  fibres  of  the  muscles  between  the  first  and 
second  incisions  will  project  into  the  wounds,  and  which  must  be  removed  with  a  pair 
of  curved  scissors.  The  same  must  be  done  with  the  projecting  portions  from  between 
the  second  and  third  incisions  ;  and  the  wounds  should  be  carefully  examined  to  ascertain 
that  the  muscles  have  been  equally  divided  on  each  side,  othenvise  the  tail  will  be  car- 
ried awry.  This  being  done,  pledgets  of  tow  must  be  introduced  deeply  into  each  gap, 
and  confined,  but  not  too  tightly,  by  a  bandage.  A  very  profuse  bleeding  will  alone 
justify  any  tightness  of  bandage ;  and  the  ill  consequences  which  have  resulted  from 
nicking  are  mainly  attributable  to  the  unnecessary  force  which  is  used  in  confining  these 
pledgets.  Even  if  the  bleeding,  immediately  after  the  operation,  should  have  been  very 
great,  the  roller  must  be  loosened  in  two  or  three  hours,  otherwise  swelhng  and  inflam- 
mation, or  death,  may  possibly  ensue.  Twenty-four  hours  after  the  operation,  the 
bandage  must  be  quite  removed ;  and  then,  all  that  is  necessary,  so  far  as  the  healing 
of  the  wounds  is  concerned,  is  to  keep  them  clean. 
If,  however,  the  tail  were  suffered  to  hang  down,  the  divided  edges  of  the  muscles 


j/f^m^-^ 


EESTIFNESS.  281 

would  come  again  in  contact  with  each  other  and  close  ;  the  natural  depression  of  the 
tail  would  remain;  and  the  animal  would  have  been  punished  for  no  purpose.  The 
wounds  must  be  liept  open,  and  that  can  only  be  accomplislisd  by  forcibly  keeping  the 
tail  curved  back,  for  two  or  three  weeks.  For  this  purpose,  a  cord  one  or  two  feet  in 
length,  is  affixed  to  the  end  of  tlie  hair,  which  terminates  in  another  divided  cord,  each 
division  going  over  a  pulley  on  either  side  of  the  bacic  of  the  stall.  A  weight  is  hung 
at  either  extremity,  sufficient  to  keep  the  incisions  properly  open,  and  regulated  by  the 
degree  in  which  this  is  wished  to  be  accomphshed.  The  animal  will  thus  be  retained  in 
an  uneasy  position,  although,  after  the  lirst  two  or  three  days,  probably  not  one  of  acute 
pain.  It  is  barbarous  to  increase  this  uneasiness  or  pain  by  alHxing  too  great  a  weight 
to  the  cords  ;  for  it  should  be  remembered,  that  the  proper  elevated  cui-ve  is  given  to  the 
tail,  710^  by  the  weight  keeping  it  in  a  certain  position  for  a  considerable  time,  but  by  the 
depth  of  the  first  incisions,  and  the  degree  in  which  the  wounds  are  kept  open.  By 
every  ounce  of  weight  beyond  that  which  is  necessary  to  keep  the  incisions  open,  un- 
necessary suffering  is  inflicted.  Some  practitioners  use  only  one  pulley  ;  others  do  not 
use  any  but  put  on  a  light  gii-th,  and  tie  a  cord  from  the  end  of  the  tail  to  the  girth, 
bending  it  over  the  back.  The  double  pulley,  however,  is  the  least  painful  to  the  horse, 
and  more  perfectly  secures  the  proper  elevation  and  sti-aight  direction  of  the  tail. 

The  dock  should  not,  for  the  first  three  or  four  days,  be  brought  higher  than  the  back. 
Dangerous  irritation  and  inflammation  would  probably  be  produced.  It  may,  after  that, 
be  gradually  raised  to  an  elevation  of  forty-five  degrees.  The  horse  should  be  taken  out 
of  the  pulleys,  and  gently  exercised  once  or  twice  every  day ;  but  the  pulleys  cannot 
finally  be  dispensed  with,  until  a  fortnight  after  tiie  wounds  have  healed,  because  the 
process  of  contraction,  or  the  approach  of  tlie  divided  parts,  goes  on  for  some  time  after 
the  skin  is  perfect  over  the  incisions ;  and  the  tail  would  thus  sink  below  the  desired 
elevation. 

If  the  tail  has  not  been  unnecessar-ily  extended  by  enormous  weights,  no  bad  conse- 
quences will  usually  follow  ;  but  if  considerable  inflammation  should  ensue,  the  fail  must 
be  taken  from  the  pulley,  and  diligently  fomented  with  simple  waim  water,  and  a  dose 
of  physic  given.  Locked  jaw  has  in  some  rare  instances  followed,  under  which  the 
horse  generally  perishes.  The  best  means  of  cure  in  the  early  state  of  locked  jaw  is 
to  amputate  the  tail  at  the  joint  above  the  highest  incision.  In  order  to  prevent  the  hair 
from  coining  olF,  it  should  be  unplatted  and  combed  out  every  fourth  or  fifth  day 


CHAPTER    XIX. 


THE  VICES,    AND   DISAGREEABLE   OR  DANGEROUS 
HABITS   OF   THE   HORSE. 

The  horse  has  many  excellent  qualities,  but  he  has  likewise  defects,  and  these  occa- 
sionally amounting  to  vices.  Some  of  them  maybe  attributed  to  natural  temper;  for 
the  human  being  scarcely  discovers  more  peculiarities  of  habit  and  disposition,  than  does 
the  horse.  The  majority  of  them,  however,  as  perhaps  in  the  human  being,  are  conse- 
quences of  a  faulty  education.  Their  early  instiuctor  has  been  both  ignorant  and  brutal, 
and  they  have  become  obstinate  and  vicious. 

KESTIFNESS. 

At  the  head  of  the  vices  of  the  horse  we  place  restifness,  tlie  most  annoying,  and  the 
most  dangerous  of  all.  It  is  the  produce  of  bad  temper  and  worse  education  ,  and,  like 
all  other  habits  founded  on  nature  and  stamped  by  education,  it  is  inveterate.  Whether 
it  appears  in  the  form  of  kicking,  or  rearing,  or  plunging,  or  bolting,  or  in  any  way  that 
threatens  danger  to  the  rider  or  the  horse,  it  rarely  admits  of  cure.  A  determined  rider 
may,  to  a  certain  degree,  subjugate  the  animal ;  or  tlie  horse  may  have  his  favorites,  or 
form  his  attachments,  and  with  some  particular  person  he  may  be  comparatively  or 
perfectly  manageable  ;  but  others  cannot  long  depend  upon  him,  and  even  his  master  is 
not  always  sure  of  him.  We  will  speak  of  the  most  likely  means  of  cure,  or  escaping 
from  danger,  as  it  regards  the  principal  forms  imder  which  restifness  displays  itself;  but 
we  must  premise  jis  a  rule  that  admits  of  very  few  exceptions  that  he  neither  displays 
his  wisdom,  nor  consults  his  safety,  who  attempts  to  conquer  a  restif  horse. 

An  excellent  veterinary  surgeon,  and  a  man  of  great  experience  in  horses,  Mr.  Castley, 


252  THE  HORSE. 

truly  says,  in  "  The  Veterinarian,"  "  From  whatever  cause  the  vicious  habits  of  horses 
may  originate,  whether  from  some  mismanagement,  or  from  natural  badness  of  temper, 
or  from  what  is  called  in  Yorkshire  a  mistelch,  wlienevcr  these  animals  acquire  one  of 
them,  and  it  becomes  in  some  dejp-ee  confirmed,  they  very  seldom,  if  ever,  altogether 
forget  it.  In  reference  to  driving,  it  is  so  true,  that  it  may  be  taken  as  a  kind  of  apho- 
rism, that  if  a  horse  kicks  once  in  harness,  no  matter  /'rom  what  cause,  he  will  be  liable 
to  kick  ever  afterwards.  A  good  coachman  may  drive  him,  it  is  true — and  may  make 
liim  go,  but  i;e  cannot  make  him  forget  his  vice  ;  and  so  it  is  in  riding.  You  may  con- 
quer a  restif  horse  ;  you  make  him  ride  quiet  for  months,  nay  almost  lor  years  together, 
but  I  ciflirm,  that  under  otlier  circumstances,  and  at  some  future  opportunity,  he  will  be 
sure  to  return  to  his  old  tricks  again." 

Mr.  Castley  gives  two  singular  and  conclusive  instances  of  the  truth  of  this  doctrine. 
"  When  a  very  young  man,"  says  he, "  I  remember  purchasing  a  horse  at  a  fair  in  the  nortli 
of  England,  that  was  offered  very  cheap  on  account  of  his  being  unmanageable.  It  was 
said  that  nobody  could  ride  him.  We  found  that  the  animal  objected  to  have  any  thing 
placed  upon  his  back,  and  that,  when  made  to  move  forward  with  notliing  more  than  a 
saddle  on,  he  instantly  threw  himself  down  on  his  side  with  great  violence,  and  would 
then  endeavor  to  roll  upon  his  back. 

"  There  was  at  that  time  in  Yorlcshire,  a  famous  colt-breaker,  known  by  the  name  of 
Jumper,*  who  was  almost  as  celebrated  in  that  countiy  for  taming  vicious  horses  into 
submission,  as  the  famed  Whisperer  was  in  Ireland.  We  put  this  animal  into  Jumper's 
hands,  who  took  him  away,  and  in  about  ten  days  brought  him  home  again,  certainly  not 
looking  worse  in  condition,  but  perfectly  subdued  and  almost  as  obedient  as  a  dog :  for 
he  would  lie  down  at  this  man's  bidding,  and  only  rise  again  at  his  command,  and  carry 
double  or  anything.  I  took  to  riding  him  myself,  and  may  say,  that  I  was  never  better 
carried  for  six  or  eight  months,  during  which  time  he  never  showed  the  least  vice  what- 
ever. I  then  sold  him  to  a  Lincolnshire  farmer,  who  said  that  he  would  give  him  a  sum- 
mer's run  at  grass,  and  show  him  a  very  fine  horse  at  the  great  Horncastle  fair. 

"  Happening  to  meet  this  gentleman  the  following  year,  I  naturally  enough  inquired 
after  ray  old  friend.  «  Oh,' said  he, 'that  was  a  bad  business — the  horse  turned  out  a 
sad  rebel.  The  first  time  we  attempted  to  mount  him,  after  getting  him  up  from  grass, 
he  in  an  instant  threw  the  man  down  vdth  the  greatest  violence,  pitching  him  several 
yards  over  his  head  ;  and  after  that  he  threw  every  one  that  attempted  to  get  on  his  back. 
If  he  could  not  throw  his  rider,  he  would  throw  himself  down.  We  could  do  nothing  with 
him,  and  I  was  obliged  at  last  to  sell  him  to  go  in  a  stage-coach.'  " 

In  the  next  story.  Jumper's  counterpart  and  superior,  the  Irish  Whisperer,  is  brought 
on  the  stage,  and,  although  he  performs  wonders,  he  cannot  radically  cure  a  restif  horse. 
"At  the  Spring  Meeting  of  1804,  Mr.Whalley's  King  Pippin  was  brought  on  the  Cur- 
ragh  of  Kildare  to  run.  He  was  a  horse  of  the  most  extraordinary  savage  and  vicious 
disposition.  His  particular  propensity  was  that  of  flying  at  and  worrying  any  person  who 
came  within  his  reach,  and  if  he  had  an  opportunity,  he  would  get  his  head  round,  seize 
his  rider  by  the  leg  with  his  teeth,  and  drag  nim  down  from  his  back.  For  this  reason  he 
was  always  ridden  in  what  is  called  a  sword ;  which  is  nothing  more  than  a  strong  flat 
stick,  having  one  end  attached  to  the  cheek  of  the  bridle,  and  the  other  to  the  girth  of 
the  saddle,  a  contrivance  to  prevent  a  horse  of  this  kind  from  getting  at  his  rider. 

"King  Pippin  had  long  been  difficult  to  manage  and  dangerous  to  go  near,  but  on  the 
occasion  in  question  he  could  not  be  got  out  to  run  at  all.  Nobody  could  put  the  bridle  upon 
his  head.    It  being  Easter  Monday,  and  consequently  a  great  holyday,  there  was  a  large 

*  Those  of  our  readers  who  were  connected  with  the  contested  elections  for  Yorkshire, 
will  recollect  Jumper,  covered  with  orange  plush  from  top  to  toe,  and  scampering  in  every 
direction  over  the  country.  Sometimes  he  would  exchange  this  for  a  bear-skin,  enveloped 
in  which,  and  mounted  occasionally  on  a  buffalo,  he  was  a  most  formidable  object.  He 
had  extraordinary  power  over  animals  of  various  species,  for  he  tamed  to  tlie  saddle  a 
buffalo  for  Mr.  Tempest,  and  a  pair  of  rein-deer  for  harness  for  Lord  Fitzwilliam.  But 
this  charm  consisted  chiefly  in  fearlessness,  and  brute  force,  accompanied  by  considerable 
tact.  He  would  generally  try  rough  measures  first ;  and  in  his  perilous  encounters  with 
some  of  his  ti-oublesome  scholars,  had  nearly  every  bone  in  his  body  fractured.  Sullivan's 
method  was  altogether  different^— force  was  rarely  resorted  to.  The  enemy  surrendered 
to  him  at  discretion  and  without  a  struggle.  Jumper,  however,  seemed  to  have  some 
charm  about  him,  for  when  he  had,  by  dint  of  punishment,  striven  in  vain  to  conquer  an 
unruly  horse  in  the  market-place  of  Wakefield — he  alighted — stood  on  the  near  side  of 
the  horse — brought  the  animal's  head  almost  back  to  his  off  shoulder  by  forcibly  pulling 
at  the  off  rein,  and  then  sternly  gazed  at  him  over  the  withers  for  two  or  three  minutes. 
The  animal  began  to  tremble,  and  broke  out  into  a  profuse  perspiration.  Jumper  then 
loosened  his  hold  of  tlie  rein,  and  patted  and  caressed  the  horse,  who  immediately  follow^ 
him  round  the  mar,kel-place  perfectly  tamed. 


e% 


RESTIFNESS.  253 

concourse  of  people  assembled  at  the  Curragh,  consisting  principally  of  the  neighboring 
peasantry  ;  and  one  countiyinan,  more  fearless  than  the  rest  of  the  lookers-on,  forgetting, 
or  perhaps  never  dreaming  tliat  the  better  part  of  courage  is  discretion,  volunteered 
his  services  to  bridle  the  horse.  No  sooner  had  he  committed  himself  in  this  operation, 
than  King  Pippin  seized  him  somewhere  about  the  shoulders  or  chest,  and  says  Mr. 
Watts  (Mr.  Castley's  informant),  '  I  know  of  nothing  I  can  compare  it  to,  so  much  as 
a  dog  shaking  a  rat.'  Fortunately  for  the  poor  fellow,  nis  body  was  very  thickly  covered 
with  clothes,  for  on  such  occasions  an  Irishman  of  this  class  is  fond  of  displaying  his 
wardrobe,  and  if  he  has  three  coats  at  all  in  the  world,  he  is  sure  to  put  them  all  on. 

'  This  circumstance  in  all  probability  saved  the  individual  who  had  so  gallantly  volun- 
teered the  forlorn  hope.  His  person  was  so  deeply  enveloped  in  extra-teguments,  that 
the  horse  never  got  fairly  hold  of  his  skin,  and  I  understand  that  he  escaped  with  but  little 
injury,  beside  the  sadly  rent  and  totally  ruined  state  of  his  holyday  toggery. 

'  The  Whisperer  was  sent  for,  who  having  arrived,  was  shut  up  with  the  horse  all  night, 
and  in  the  morning  he  exhibited  this  hitherto  ferocious  animal,  following  him  about  the 
course  like  a  dog — flying  down  at  his  command — sulfering  his  mouth  to  be  opened,  and 
any  person's  hand  to  be  introduced  into  it — in  short,  as  quiet  almost  as  a  sheep. 

"  He  came  out  the  same  meeting,  and  won  a  race,  and  his  dociUty  continued  satisfactory 
for  a  long  time ;  but  at  the  end  of  about  three  years  his  vice  returned,  and  then  he  is  said  to 
have  killed  a  man,  for  which  he  was  destroyed." 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting  in  tliis  connexion,  to  give  some  account  ot  this  tamer  of 
quadruped  vice.  However  strange  and  magical  his  power  may  seem  to  be,  there  is  no 
doubt  of  the  truth  of  the  account  that  is  given  of  him.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Townsend,  in  his 
Statistical  Survey  of  Cork,  first  introduced  him  to  the  notice  of  the  public  generally, 
although  his  fame  had  long  spread  over  that  part  of  Ireland.  We,  however,  give  the 
following  extract  from  Croker's  Fairy  Legends  and  Traditions  of  Ireland,  Part  II.  p.  200, 
for  the  tact  seems  the  work  of  some  elfin  sprite,  rather  than  of  a  rude  and  ignorant 
horse-breaker. 

"  He  was  an  awkward,  ignorant  rustic  of  the  lowest  class,  of  the  name  of  Sullivan,  but 
better  known  by  the  appellation  of  the  Whisperer ;  his  occupation  was  horse-breaking. 
The  nickname  he  acquired  I'rom  tlie  vulgar  notion  of  his  being  able  to  communicate  to 
the  animal  what  he  wished  by  means  ot  a  whisper,  and  the  singularity  of  his  method 
seemed  in  some  degree  to  justify  the  attribute.  In  his  own  neigliborhood,  the  notoriety 
of  the  fact  made  it  seem  less  remarkable,  but  I  doubt  if  any  instance  of  similar  subjugating 
talent  is  to  be  found  on  record.  As  far  as  the  sphere  of  his  control  extended,  the  boast 
of  veni,  vidi,  vici,  was  more  justly  claimed  by  Sullivan  than  by  Caesar  himselt. 

"How  his  art  was  acquired,  and  in  what  it  consisted,  is  likely  to  be  forever  unknown, 
as  he  has  lately  (about  1810)  left  the  world  without  divulging  it.  His  son,  who  follows 
the  same  trade,  possesses  but  a  small  portion  of  the  art,  having  either  never  learned  the 
true  secret,  or  being  incapable  of  putting  it  into  practice  The  wonder  of  his  slcill  con- 
sisted in  the  celerity  of  the  operation,  which  was  performed  in  privacy  without  any  ap- 
Earent  means  of  coercion.  Every  description  of  horse,  or  even  mule,  whether  previously 
roken  or  unhandled,  whatever  their  peculiar  habits  or  vices  might  have  been,  submitted 
without  show  of  resistance  to  the  magical  influence  of  his  art,  and  in  the  short  space  of 
half  an  hour  became  gentle  and  tractable.  This  eflect,  though  instantaneously  produced 
was  generally  durable.  Though  more  submissive  to  him  than  to  others,  they  seemed  to 
have  acquired  a  docility  unknown  before. 

"  When  sent  for  to  tame  a  vicious  beast,  for  which  he  was  either  paid  according  to  the 
distance,  or  generally  two  or  three  guineas,  he  directed  the  stable,  in  which  he  and  the 
object  of  the  experiment  were,  to  be  shut,  with  orders  not  to  open  the  door  until  a  signal 
was  given.  After  a  tete-a-tete  of  about  half  an  hour,  during  which  little  or  no  bustle 
was  heard,  the  signal  was  made,  and,  upon  opening  the  door,  the  horse  appeared  lying 
down,  and  the  man  by  his  side,  playing  with  him  like  a  child  with  a  puppy  dog.  From 
that  time  he  was  found  perfectly  willing  to  submit  to  any  discipline — however  repugnant 
to  his  nature  before."  "I  once,"  continues  Mr.  Townsend,  "sawhisslcill  tried  on  a 
horse,  which  could  never  before  be  brought  to  stand  for  a  smith  to  shoe  him.  The  day 
after  Sullivan's  half  hour's  lecture,  I  went,  not  without  some  incredulity,  to  the  smith's 
shop,  with  many  other  curious  spectators,  where  we  were  eye-witnesses  of  the  complete 
success  of  his  art.  This,  too,  had  been  a  troop  horse,  and  it  was  supposed,  not  without 
reason,  that  after  regimental  discipline  had  failed,  no  other  would  be  found  availing.  I 
observed  that  the  animal  appeared  terrified  whenever  Sullivan  either  spoke  or  looked  at 
him ;  how  that  extraordinary  ascendancy  could  have  been  obtained,  is  difficult  to  con 
jecture. 

"  In  common  cases  this  mysterious  prepai-ation  was  unnecessary.  He  seemed  to  pos- 
sess an  instinctive  power  of  inspiring  awe,  the  result,  perhaps,  of  natural  intrepidity,  in 
which,  I  believe,  a  great  part  of^his  art  consisted ;  though  the  circumstance  of  the  tete-a 
tete  shows  that,  on  particular  occasions,  something  more  must  have  been  added  to  it.    A 


254  THE  HORSE. 

faculty  like  this  would  in  some  hands  have  made  a  fortune,  and  I  understand  that  great 
offers  were  made  to  him,  for  the  exercise  of  his  art  abroad.  But  hunting  was  his  pas- 
sion. He  lived  at  home  in  the  style  most  agreeable  to  his  disposition,  and  nothing  could 
induce  him  to  quit  Duhallow  and  the  fox  hounds." 

Mr.  Castley  witnessed  tlie  total  failure  of  the  younger  Sullivan.  He  says,  "  we  have 
in  the  regiment  a  remai-kably  nice  horse,  called  Lancer,  that  has  always  been  very  diffi- 
cult to  shoe,  but  seven  or  eight  years  ago,  when  we  first  got  him,  he  was  downright  vi- 
cious in  that  respect.  When  the  regiment  was  stationed  at  Cork,  the  farrier-major  sought 
out  the  present  Sullivan,  the  son  of  the  celebrated  Whisperer,  and  brought  him  up  to  the 
barracks  in  order  to  try  his  hand  upon  Lancer,  and  make  him  more  peaceable  to  shoe  ; 
but  I  must  say  this  person  did  not  appear  to  possess  any  particular  controlling  power 
over  the  animal,  more  than  any  other  man.  Lancer  seemed  to  pay  no  attention  what- 
ever to  his  charm,  and,  at  last,  fairly  beat  him  out  of  the  forge.  Time,  however,  and  a 
long  perseverance  in  kind  and  gentle  treatment,  have  effected  what  force  could  not.  The 
horse  is  now  pretty  reasonable  to  shoe." 

BACKING    OR    GIBBING. 

One  of  the  first  species  of  restifhess,  taking  them  in  alphabetical  order,  is  backing  or 
eibbing.  These  are  so  closelv  allied  that  we  nardly  know  how  to  separate  them.  Some 
horses  have  the  habit  of  backing  at  first  starting,  and  that  more  from  playfulness  than 
desire  of  mischief  A  moderate  application  of  the  whip  will  usually  be  effectual.  Others, 
even  at  starting,  exhibit  considerable  obstinacy  and  viciousness.  This  is  frequently  the 
effect  of  bad  breaking.  Either  the  shoulder  of  the  horse  had  been  WTung  when  he  was 
first  put  to  the  collar,  or  he  had  been  foolishly  accustomed  to  start  in  the  break  vp-hill, 
and,  therefore,  all  his  work  coming  upon  him  at  once;  when  it  being  much  more  difficult 
to  draw  the  break  up-hill,  than  to  back  and  let  it  run  down-hill,  he  gradually  acquired  this 
dangerous  habit. 

A  hasty  and  passionate  breaker  will  often  make  a  really  good  tempered  young  horse 
an  inveterate  gibber.  Eveiy  young  horse  is  at  first  shy  of  the  coffar.  If  he  be  too  quickly 
forced  to  it,  he  will  possibly  take  a  dishke  to  it,  that  will  occasionally  show  itself  in  the 
form  of  gibbing  as  long  as  he  lives.  The  judicious  horse-breaker  will  resort  to  no  sever- 
ity, even  if  the  colt  should  go  out  several  times  without  touching  collar.  The  example 
of  his  compjmion  will  ultimately  induce  him  to  take  to  it  voluntarily  and  efl^ectually. 

A  large  and  heavy  stone  should  be  put  behind  the  wheel  before  starting,  when  the 
horse,  finding  it  more  difficult  to  back  tnan  to  go  forward,  will  gradually  forget  this  un- 
pleasant trick.  It  will  likewise  be  of  advantage,  as  often  as  it  can  be  managed,  so  to  start 
that  the  horse  shall  have  to  back  up-hill.  The  difficulty  of  accomplishing  this  will  soon 
make  him  readily  go  forward  at  once.  A  little  coaxing,  or  leading,  or  moderate  flagella- 
tion, win  assist  in  accomplishing  the  cure. 

When,  however,  a  horse,  thinking  that  he  has  had  enough  of  work,  or  has  been  impro- 
perly checked  or  corrected,  or  beginning  to  feel  the  painful  pressure  of  the  collar,  swerves, 
and  gibs,  and  backs,  it  is  a  more  serious  matter.  Persuasion  should  here  first  be  tried ; 
and,  afterwards,  reasonable  coercion,  but  no  cruelty ;  for  the  brutahty  which  is  often  ex- 
ercised in  attempting  to  compel  a  gibbing  horse  to  tlu-ow  himself  habitually  into  the  col- 
lar, never  yet  accomplished  the  purpose.  The  horse  may,  perhaps,  be  whipped  into  mo- 
tion, but  if  he  has  once  begun  to  gib,  he  will  have  recourse  to  it  again  whenever  any 
circumstance  displeases  or  annoys  him  ;  and  the  habit  will  be  rapidly,  and  so  completely 
formed,  that  he  will  become  insensible  to  all  severity. 

It  is  useless  and  most  dangerous  to  contend  with  a  horse  determined  to  back,  unless 
there  is  plenty  of  room,  and,  by  tight  reining,  the  driver  can  make  him  back  in  the  pre- 
cise direction  he  wishes,  and  especially  up-hill.  Such  a  horse  should  be  immediately 
sold,  or  turned  over  to  some  other  work.  In  a  stage-coach  as  a  wheeler,  and  psuticularly 
as  the  near- wheeler :  or,  in  the  middle  of  a  team  at  agricultural  work,  he  may  be  service- 
able. It  will  be  useless  for  him  to  attempt  to  gib  there,  for  he  will  be  dragged  along  by 
his  companions  whether  he  will  or  no ;  and,  finding  the  inutility  of  resistance,  he  will 
soon  be  induced  to  work  as  well  a#  any  horse  in  the  team.  This  reformation  will  last 
while  he  is  tlius  employed,  but,  like  restifness  generally,  it  will  be  delusive  when  the 
horse  returns  to  his  former  occupation.  The  disposition  to  annoy  will  very  soon  follow 
the  power  to  do  it.  Some  instances  of  complete  reformation  have  occurred,  but  they 
have  been  rare. 

When  a  horse,  not  often  accustomed  to  gib,  betrays  a  reluctance  to  work,  or  a  deter- 
mination not  to  work,  common  sense  and  humanity  will  demand  that  some  consideration 
should  be  taken,  before  measures  of  seventy  be  resorted  to.  The  horse  may  be  taxed 
beyond  his  power.  He  soon  discovers  whether  this  is  the  case,  and  by  refusing  to  pro- 
ceed, tells  his  driver  that  it  is  so ;  and  the  utmost  cmelty  will  not  induce  many  norses  to 
make  the  slightest  effort,  when  they  are  conscious  that  their  strength  is  inadequate  to  the 


BLEEDING.  255 

task.  Sometimes  tlie  withers  are  WTung,  and  the  shouldei-s  sadly  galled  ;  and  the  pain, 
which  is  intense  on  level  ground  and  with  fair  draught,  becomes  insupportable  when  he 
tugs  up  a  steep  acclivity.  These  things  should  be  examined  into,  and,  if  possible,  recti- 
fied ;  lor,  under  such  circumstances,  cruelty  might  produce  obstinacy  and  vice,  but  not 
willing  obedience. 

Those  who  are  accustomed  to  horses  know  what  seemingly  trivial  circumstances  oc- 
casionaly  produce  this  vice.  A  horse,  whose  shoulders  are  raw,  or  that  have  frequently 
been  so,  will  not  start  with  a  cold  collar.  When  the  collar  has  acquired  the  warmth  of 
the  parts  on  which  it  presses,  the  animal  will  go  without  reluctance.  Some  determined 
gibbers  have  been  reformed  by  constantly  wearing  a  false  collar,  or  stiip  of  cloth  round 
the  shoulders,  po  that  the  coldness  of  the  usual  collar  should  never  be  felt ;  and  others 
have  been  cured  of  gibbing  by  keeping  the  collar  on  night  and  day,  although  the  animal 
is  not  able  to  lie  down  so  completely  at  full  length,  which  the  tired  horse  is  always  glad 
to  do.  When  a  horse  gibs,  not  at  starting,  but  while  doing  his  work,  it  has  sometimes 
been  useful  to  line  the  collars  with  cloth  instead  of  leather ;  the  perspiration  is  readily 
absorbed,  the  substance  which  presses  on  the  shoulders  is  softer,  and  it  may  be  far  more 
accurately  eased  off  at  a  tender  place. 


This  is  either  the  consequence  of  natural  ferocity,  or  a  habit  acquired  fi'om  the  foolish 
and  teasing  play  of  grooms  and  stable  boys.  When  a  horse  is  tickled  and  pinched  by 
thoughtless  and  mischievous  youths,  he  will  first  pretend  to  bite  his  tormentors ;  by  de- 

frees  he  will  proceed  farther,  and  actually  bite  them,  and,  very  soon  after  that,  he  will 
e  the  first  to  cnallenge  to  the  combat,  and  without  provocation  seize  some  opportimity 
to  gripe  the  incautious  groom  ;  and  then,  as  the  love  of  mischief  is  a  propensity  too  easily 
acquired,  this  war,  half  playful,  and  half  in  earnest,  will  become  habitual  to  him,  and 
will  degenerate  into  absolute  viciousness.  Nothing  can  here  be  done  in  the  way  of 
cure  ;  kindness  would  aggravate  the  evil,  and  no  degree  of  severity  will  correct  it.  Pre- 
vention, however,  is  in  the  power  of  every  proprietor  of  horses.  While  he  insists  on 
gentle  and  humane  treatment  of  his  cattle,  he  should  systematically  forbid  this  horse- 
play. It  is  that  which  can  never  be  considered  as  operating  as  a  reward,  and  thereby 
rendering  the  horse  tractable ;  nor  does  it  increase  the  affection  of  tlie  animal  for  hi3 
groom,  becaues  he  is  annoyed  and  irritated  by  being  thus  incessantly  teased. 

GETTING   THE    CHEEK   OF    THE    BIT   INTO    THE   MOUTH. 

Some  horses  that  are  disposed  to  be  mischievous  try  to  do  tliis,  and  are  very  expert  at 
it.  They  soon  find  what  advantage  it  gives  them  over  their  driver,  who  by  this  manosu- 
^Te  loses  almost  all  command.  Harsh  treatment  is  here  completely  out  of  the  question. 
All  that  can  be  done  is,  by  some  mechanical  contrivance,  to  render  the  thing  difficult  or 
impossible,  and  this  may  be  managed  by  fastening  a  round  piece  of  leather  on  the  inside 
of  the  cheek  of  the  bit. 

KICKING. 

This,  as  a  vice,  is  another  consequence  of  the  culpable  habit  of  grooms  and  stable-boys 
of  teasing  ttie  horse.  That  which  is  at  first  an  indication  of  annoyance  at  the  pinching 
and  tickling  of  the  groom,  and  without  any  design  to  injure,  gradually  becomes  the  ex- 
pression of  anger,  and  the  eflbrt  at  mischief.  There  is  no  cure  for  this  vice ;  and  he 
cannot  be  justified  who  keeps  such  a  kicking  horse  in  his  stable. 

Some  horses  acquire  a  habit  of  kicking  at  the  stall  or  the  bail,  and  particularly  at  night, 
from  mere  irritability  and  fidgetiness.  The  neighboring  horses  are  disturbed,  and  the 
kicker  gets  swelled  hocks,  or  some  more  serious  injuiy.  This  is  also  a  habit  very  diffi- 
cult to  correct  if  suffered  to  become  established.  Mares  are  far  more  subject  to  it  than 
horses. 

Before  the  habit  is  inveterately  established,  a  thorn  bush  or  a  piece  of  furze  fast- 
ened against  the  partition  or  post  will  sometimes  effect  a  cure.  When  the  horse  finds 
that  he  is  pretty  severely  pricked  he  will  not  long  continue  to  punish  himself.  In  con- 
firmed cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the  log,  but  the  legs  are  often  not  a 
little  bruised  by  it.  A  rather  long  and  heavy  piece  of  wood  attached  to  a  chain  is 
buckled  above  the  hock,  so  as  to  reach  about  half  way  down  the  leg.  When  the  horse 
attempts  to  kick  violently,  his  leg  will  receive  a  severe  blow  from  this,  and  the  repetition 
of  the  blow  w'ill  soon  teach  him  to  be  quiet. 

A  much  more  serious  vice  is  kicking  in  harness.  From  the  least  annoyance  about  the 
rump  or  quarters,  some  horses  will  kick  at  the  most  violent  rate,  and  destroy  the  bottom 
of  the  chaise,  and  endanger  the  limbs  of  the  driver.  Those  that  are  fidgetty  in  the  stable 
are  most  apt  to  do  this.    If  the  reins  should  perchance  get  under  the  tail,  the  violence 


256  THE  HORSE. 

of  the  kicker  will  be  most  outrageous ;  and  while  the  animal  presses  down  his  tail  so 
tightly  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  extricate  the  reins,  he  continues  to  plunge  until  he 
has  demolished  every  thing  behind  him. 

This  is  a  vice  standing  foremost  in  point  of  danger,  and  which  no  treatment  will  often 
conquer.  It  will  be  altogether  in  vain  to  try  coercion  here.  If  the  shafts  are  veiy 
strong  and  without  flaw,  or  if  they  jire  plated  with  iron  underneath,  and  a  stout  kicking 
strap  used,  which  will  barely  allow  the  horse  the  proper  use  of  his  hind  limbs  in  progres- 
sion, but  not  permit  him  to  raise  them  sufKcienUy  for  the  purpose  of  kicking,  he  may  be 
prevented  from  doing  mischief;  or  if  he  is  harnessed  to  a  heavy  cart,  and  thus  confined,  his 
efforts  to  lash  out  will  be  restrained  :  but  it  is  a  verjf^  unpleasant  thing  frequently  to  wit- 
ness these  attempts,  although  ineffectual,  to  demolish  the  vehicle ;  and  the  shafts  or  theg 
kicking  sti-ap  may  possibly  break,  and  extreme  danger  may  ensue.  A  horse  that  has 
once  begun  to  kick,  whatever  may  have  been  the  original  cause  of  it,  can  never  be  de- 
pended on  again  ;  and  he  will  be  very  unwise  who  ventures  behind  him. 

UNSTEADINESS    WHILST   BEING   MOUNTED. 

When  this  merely  amounts  to  eagerness  to  start  (very  unpleasant,  indeed,  at  times,  for 
many  a  rider  has  been  thrown  from  his  seat  before  he  was  fairly  fixed  in  it),  it  maybe 
remedied  by  an  active  and  good  horseman.  We  have  known  many  instances  in  wmch, 
while  the  elderly,  and  inactive,  and  fearful  man,  has  been  making  more  than  one  ineffectual 
attempt  to  vault  into  the  saddle,  the  horse  has  been  dancing  about  to  his  annoyance  and 
danger ;  but  the  animal  had  no  sooner  been  ti'ansferred  to  the  management  of  a  younger 
and  more  agile  rider,  than  he  became  perfectly  subdued.  Severity  will  here,  more  de- 
cidedly than  in  any  other  case,  do  harm.  The  rider  should  be  fejirless ;  he  should  care- 
lessly and  confidently  approach  the  horse,  mount  at  the  first  effort,  and  then  restrziin  him 
for  a  while,  patting  him,  and  not  suflering  him  to  proceed  until  he  becomes  perfectly  quiet. 
These  horses  should  not  be  too  highly  led,  and  should  daily  have  sufficient  exercise. 

When  the  difficulty  of  mounting  arises  not  from  eagerness  to  start,  but  unwillingness 
to  be  ridden,  the  sooner  such  horse  is  disposed  of  the  better.  He  may  be  conquered  by 
a  determined  rider,  but  a  sldlful  and  determined  horseman  alone  will  manage  him ;  and 
even  he  will  not  succeed  without  frequent  and  even  dangerous^  contest3  that  will  mar  all 
the  pleasure  of  the  ride. 


This  sometimes  results  from  playfulness,  carried  indeed  to  an  unpleasant  and  dangerous 
extent ;  but  it  is  oftener  a  vice,  and  is  a  desperate  and  frequently  successful  effort  to  un- 
horse the  rider.  The  horse  that  has  twice  decidedly  and  dangerously  reared,  should 
never  be  ti-usted  again,  imless  indeed  it  be  the  fault  of  the  rider — unless  he  has  been 
using  a  deep  cui"b  and  sharp  bit.  Some  of  the  best  horses  will  contend  against  these,  and 
then  rearing  may  be  immediately  and  permanently  cured  by  using  a  sname  bridle  alone. 

The  horse-breaker's  remedy,  that  of  pulling  the  horse  backward  on  a  soft  piece  of 

Sound,  is  worthy  of  him,  and  would  be  practised  only  by  reckless  and  brutal  men. 
any  horses  have  been  injured  in  the  spine,  and  others  have  broken  their  necks,  by 
being  thus  suddenly  brought  over;  while  even  the  horse-bieaker,  who  fears  no  danger, 
is  not  always  able  to  extricate  himself  from  the  falling  horse.  If  rearing  proceeds  from 
vice,  and  is  unprovoked  by  the  bruising  and  laceration  of  the  mouth,  it  fully  partakes  of 
the  inveteracy  which  attends  the  other  divisions  of  restifhess. 

RUNNING   AWAY. 

Some  headstrong  horses  will  occasionally  endeavor  to  bolt  with  the  best  rider.  Others, 
with  their  wonted  sagacity,  endeavor  thus  to  dislodge  the  timid  or  unskilful.  Some  are 
hard  to  hold,  or  bolt  only  during  the  excitement  of  the  chace ;  others  will  run  away, 
prompted  by  a  vicious  propensity  alone.  There  is  no  cure  here.  That  method  which 
affords  any  probabihty  of  success,  is  to  ride  such  a  horse  with  a  strong  curb  and  sharp 
bit ;  to  have  him  always  firmly  in  hand ;  and  if  he  will  run  away,  and  the  place  will 
admit  of  it,  to  give  him  (sparing  neither  curb,  whip,  nor  spur)  a  great  deal  more  run- 
ning than  he  likes. 

VICIOUS   TO    CLEAN. 

It  would  scarcely  be  believed  to  what  an  extent  this  exists  in  some  horses,  that  are 
Otherwise  perfectly  quiet.  It  is  only  at  great  hazard  that  they  can  be  cleaned  at  all. 
The  origin  of  this  is  probably  some  maltreatment.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  the 
sensibility  of  the  skin  in  different  horses.    Some  seem  as  if  they  could  scarcely  be  made 


SWALLOWING  WITHOUT  GRINDING.  257 

to  feel  the  whip ;  others  cannot  bear  a  fly  to  alight  on  them  without  an  expression  of  an- 
noyance. In  young  horses  the  skin  is  peculiarly  delicate.  If  they  have  been  curried 
with  a  broken  comb,  or  hardly  rubbed  with  an  uneven  brush,  the  recollection  of  the  torture 
they  have  felt  makes  them  impatient,  and  even  vicious,  during  every  succeeding  opera- 
tion of  the  kind.  Many  grooms,  likewise,  seem  to  delight  in  producing  these  exhibi- 
tions of  uneasiness  and  vice  :  although  when  they  are  carried  a  little  too  far,  and  to  the 
hazard  of  the  limbs  of  the  groom,  the  animals  that  have  been  almost  tutored  into  these 
expressions  of  irritation,  are  brutally  kicked  and  punished. 

This,  however,  is  a  vice  which  may  be  conquered.     If  the  animal  be  dressed  with  a 
lighter  hand,  and  wisped  rather  than  brushed,  and  the  places  where  the  skin  is  most 
sensitive  be  avoided  as  much  as  thorough  cleanliness  will  allow,  the  horse  will  gradu- 
'ally  lose  the  recollection  of  Ibrmer  ill-treatment,  and  become  tractable  and  quiet. 

VICIOUS  TO  SHOE. 

The  correction  of  this  is  more  peculiarly  the  business  of  the  smith ;  yet  the  master 
should  diligently  concern  himself  with  it,  for  it  is  oftener  tlie  consequence  of  injudicious 
or  bad  usage  than  of  natural  vice.  It  may  be  expected  that  there  will  be  some  difficulty 
in  shoeing  a  young  horse  for  the  first  few  times.  It  is  an  operation  which  gives  him  a 
little  uneasiness.  The  man  to  whom  he  is  most  accustomed  should  go  with  him  to 
the  forge ;  and  if  another  and  steady  horse  were  shod  before  him,  he  might  be  induced 
more  readily  to  submit.  We  cannot  deny,  that  after  the  habit  of  resisting  this  neces- 
sary operation  is  formed,  force  may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  reduce  our  rebellious 
servant  to  obedience  ;  but  we  affirm  that  the  majority  of  horses  vicious  to  shoe  are  ren- 
dered so  by  harsh  usage,  and  by  the  pain  of  correction  being  added  to  the  uneasiness  of 
shoeing.  It  should  be  a  rule  in  every  forge  that  no  smith  should  be  permitted  to  strike 
a  horse,  much  less  to  twitch  or  to  gag  him,  without  the  master-farrier's  order ;  and  that 
a  young  horse  should  never  be  twitched  or  struck.  There  are  few  horses  that  may  not 
be  gradually  rendered  manageable  for  this  purpose  by  mildness  and  firmness  in  the  opera- 
tor. They  will  soon  understand  that  no  harm  is  meant,  and  they  will  not  depart  from 
their  usual  habit  of  obedience  ;  hut  if  the  remembrance  of  corporal  punishment  is  con- 
nected with  shoeing,  they  will  always  be  fidgety,  if  not  dangerous. 

This  is  a  very  serious  vice,  for  it  not  only  exposes  the  animal  to  occasional  severe  in- 
jury from  his  own  struggles,  but  also  from  the  correction  of  the  irritated  smith,  whose 
limbs,  and  even  whose  File  being  in  jeopardy,  may  be  forgiven  if  he  is  sometimes  a  little 
too  hard-handed.  Such  a  horse  is  very  liable,  and  without  any  fault  of  the  smith,  to  be 
pricked  and  lamed  in  shoeing  ;  and  if  the  habit  should  be  confirmed,  and  should  increase, 
and  it  at  length  becomes  necessary  to  cast  him,  or  to  put  him  in  the  trevis,  the  owner 
may  be  assured  that  many  years  will  not  pass  ere  some  formidable  and  even  fatal  acci- 
dent will  take  place.  If  therefore,  mild  treatment  will  not  correct  the  vice,  the  horse 
cannot  be  too  soon  got  rid  of. 

Horses  have  many  unpleasant  hubits  in  the  stable  and  the  road,  which  cannot  be  said 
to  amount  to  vice,  but  which  materially  lessen  their  value. 

SW.\LLOWING    WITHOUT    GRINDING. 

Some  greedy  horses  swallow  their  corn  without  properly  grinding  it,  and  the  power 
of  digestion  not  being  adequate  to  the  dissolving  of  the  husk,  no  nutriment  is  ex- 
tracted, and  the  oats  are  voided  whole.  This  is  particularly  the  case  when  horses  of 
unequal  appetite  feed  from  the  same  manger.  The  greedy  one,  in  his  eagerness  to  get 
more  than  his  share,  bolts  a  portion  of  his  corn  whole.  If  the  farmer  can  without  con- 
siderable inconvenience  so  manage  it  that  every  horse  shall  have  his  separate  division 
of  the  manger,  the  horse  of  smaller  appetite  and  slower  feed  would  have  the  opportunity 
of  grinding  at  his  leisure,  witliout  the  fear  of  his  share  being  stolen  from  him  by  his 
neighbor. 

Some  horses,  however,  are  naturally  greedy  feeders,  and  will  not,  even  when  alone, 
allow  tliemselves  time  to  chew  or  grind  their  corn.  In  consequence  of  this,  they  carry 
but  little  flesh;  they  are  not  equal  to  severe  work ;  and  if  their  rack  has  been  supplied 
with  hay  when  the  corn  was  put  into  the  manger,  their  stomachs  will  become  distended 
with  half-chewed  and  indigestible  food ;  they  will  be  incapable  of  exertion  for  a  long 
time  after  feeding,  and,  occasionally  dangerous  symptoms  of  staggers  will  occur.  The 
remedy  is,  not  to  let  such  horses  fast  too  long.  The  nose-bag  should  be  the  companion  of 
every  considerable  journey.  The  food  should  likewise  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  cannot 
be  easily  bolted.  Chaff  should  be  plentii'ully  mixed  with  corn,  and  in  some  cases,  and 
especially  in  horses  of  slow  work,  should,  with  the  corn  constitute  the  whole  of  the 
food.     Of  this  we  shall  treat  more  largely  under  the  article  "  Feeding." 

In  every  case  of  this  kind  the  teeth  should  be  very  carefully  examined    Some  of  them 

33 


258  THE  HORSE. 

maj'  be  unduly  lengthened,  particularly  the  first  of  the  grinders  ;  or  they  may  be  ragged 
at  the  edges,  and  may  scratcn  and  wound  the  cheek.    In  the  first  case  the  horse  cannot 

Eroperly  masticate  his  food ;  in  the  latter  he  will  not :  for  these  animals,  as  too  often 
appens  in  sore  throat,  would  rather  starve  than  put  themselves  to  much  pain. 

CRIB-BITING 

This  is  a  very  unpleasant  habit,  and  a  considerable  defect,  although  not  so  serious  a 
one  as  some  have  represented.  The  horse  lays  hold  of  the  manger  with  his  teeth, 
violently  extends  his  neck,  and  then,  after  some  convulsive  action  ot  the  throat,  a  slight 
grunting  is  heard,  accompanied  by  an  apparent  sucking  or  drawing  in  of  air.  Whether, 
however,  air  is  actually  drawn  ki,  and  thus  the  horse  becomes  more  subject  to  colic  than 
one  without  this  trick,  or  whether  a  portion  of  air  is  expelled,  showing  the  previous  ex- 
istence of  tlatulence  and  a  disposition  to  colic,  are  points  that  have  not  been  settled  among 
veterinarians. 

The  horse  is  evidently  making  the  edge  of  the  manger  a  fixed  point,  by  means  of 
which  he  may  overcome  that  obstacle  which  the  formation  of  the  soft  palate  and  the 
back  part  of  the  mouth  [see  page  120)  would  present  to  either  the  expulsion  or  draw- 
ing in  of  the  air,  if  accomplished  through  the  medium  of  the  mouth.  When  we  consider, 
however,  that  any  air  expelled  from  the  stomach  might  easily  find  a  passage  through  the 
nostril,  without  the  action  of  crib-biting ;  while  it  would  be  difficult  or  impossible,  with- 
out some  alteration  in  the  natural  form  and  action  of  the  parts  at  the  back  of  the  mouth, 
and  particularly  the  depression  of  the  epiglottis  or  covering  of  the  vrindpipe,  to  convey 
air  to  the  stomach,  we  are  inclined  to  conclude,  that  this  fixed  point  is  used  to  enable  the 
animal  to  accomplish  this  alteration,  and  suck  up  and  convey  a  portion  of  air  into  the 
stomach. 

The  effect  of  crib-biting  is  plain  enough.  The  teeth  are  injured  and  worn  away, 
and  that,  in  an  old  horse,  to  a  very  serious  degree  ;  a  considerable  quantity  of  corn  is  often 
lost,  for  the  horse  will  frequently  ciib  with  his  mouth  full  of  corn,  the  greater  part  of 
which  vsdll  fall  over  the  edge  of  the  manger ;  and  much  saliva  flows  out  while  the  manger 
is  thus  forcibly  held,  the  loss  of  which  must  be  of  ocrious  detriment,  as  impairing  the 
digestion.  The  crib-biting  horse  is  notoriously  more  subject  to  colic  than  other  horses 
usually  are,  and  to  a  species  difficult  of  treatment,  and  even  dangerous.  Although 
many  a  crib-biter  is  stout  and  strong,  and  capable  of  all  ordinary  work,  these  horses  do 
not  generally  carry  much  flesh,  and  have  not  the  endurance  of  others.  On  these  ac- 
counts, ci-ib-biting  has  very  properly  been  decided  to  be  unsoundness. 

It  is  one  of  those  tricks  which  are  very  contagious.  Every  companion  of  a  crib-biter 
in  the  same  stables  is  likely  to  acquire  the  habit,  and  it  is  the  most  inveterate  of  aU 
habits.  The  edge  of  the  manger  will  in  vain  be  lined  with  iron,  or  with  sheep-skin,  or 
with  sheep-skin  covered  with  tar  or  aloes,  or  any  other  unpleasant  substance.  In  defi- 
ance of  the  annoyance  which  these  may  occasion,  the  horse  will  in  a  very  short  time 
again  attack  his  manger.  A  strap  buckled  tightly  round  the  neck,  by  compressing  the 
windpipe,  will  prevent  the  possibility  of  this  action ;  but  the  strap  must  be  constantly 
woi'n,  and  its  pressure  is  too  apt  to  produce  a  worse  affection,  viz :  an  irritation  in  the 
windpipe,  which  terminates  in  roaring. 

Some  have  recommended  turning  out  for  five  or  six  months  ;  but  this  has  never  suc- 
ceeded except  with  a  young  horse,  and  then  rarely.  The  old  crib-biter  will  employ  the 
gate  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  edge  of  his  manger,  and  we  have  seen  him  gallop 
across  a  field  for  the  mere  object  of  having  a  gripe  at  a  rail.  Medicine  will  be  altogether 
thrown  away  in  this  case. 

The  only  remedy  is  a  muzzle,  with  bars  across  the  bottom ;  sufficiently  wide  to  enable 
the  animal  to  pick  up  his  corn  and  to  pull  his  hay,  but  not  to  grasp  the  edge  of  the 
manger.  If  this  be  worn  a  very  long  time,  the  hoi-se  may  be  tired  of  attempting  that 
which  he  cannot  accomplish,  and  may  possibly  for  a  while  forget  the  habit ;  but  in  the 
majority  of  cases  the  desire  of  crib-biting  will  return  with  the  power  of  gratifying  it. 

The  causes  of  crib-biting  are  various,  and  some  of  them  beyond  the  control  of  the 
proprietor  of  the  horse.  We  have  said  that  it  is  often  the  result  of  imitation ;  but  is 
more  frequently  the  consequence  of  idleness.  The  high-fed  and  spirited  horse  must  be 
in  mischief,  if  he  is  not  usefuUy  employed.  Sometimes,  but  we  believe  not  often, 
it  is  produced  by  partial  starvation,  whether  in  a  bad  straw-yard,  or  from  unpalatable 
food.  An  occasional  cause  of  crib-biting  is  the  frequent  custom  of  grooms,  even  when 
the  weather  is  not  severe,  of  dressing  them  in  the  stable.  The  horse  either  catches  at 
the  edge  of  the  manger  or  at  the  edge  of  the  partition  on  each  side,  if  he  has  been  turned, 
and  thus  he  forms  the  habit  of  laying  hold  ot  these  substances  on  eveiy  occasion. 


OVERREACH.  259 


WIND-SUCKING. 

This  bears  a  close  analogy  to  crib-biting.  It  arises  from  the  same  causes  ;  the  same 
purpose  is  accomplished ;  and  the  same  results  follow.  The  horse  stands  with  his  neck 
bent ;  his  head  drawn  inward ;  his  lips  alternately  a  little  opened  and  then  closed,  and  a 
noise  is  heard  as  if  he  were  sucking.  If  we  may  judge  from  the  same  comparative 
want  of  condition,  and  the  flatulence  which  we  have  described  under  the  last  head, 
either  some  portion  of  wind  enters  the  stomach,  or  there  is  an  injurious  loss  of  saliva. 
This  diminishes  the  value  of  the  horse  almost  as  much  as  crib-biting ;  it  is  as  conta- 
gious, and  it  is  as  inveterate.  The  only  remedies,  and  they  will  seldom  avail,  are  tying 
the  head  up,  except  when  the  horse  is  f(?eding,  or  putting  on  a  muzzle,  with  sharp  spikes 
towards  the  neck,  and  which  shall  prick  him  whenever  he  attempts  to  rein  his  head  in 
for  the  purpose  of  wind-sucldng. 


Of  this  habit  we  have  already  spoken  at  page  196,  and  we  would  advise  the  owner  of 
a  cutting  horse,  without  trying  any  previous  experiments  of  raising  or  lowering  the  heels, 
to  put  on  the  cutting  foot  a  shoe  of  even  thickness  from  heel  to  toe,  not  projecting  in  the 
slightest  degree  beyond  the  crust,  and  the  crust  itself  being  rasped  a  little  at  the  quarters ; 
ana  to  let  that  shoe  be  fastened  as  usual  on  the  outside,  but  with  only  one  nail  on  the  in- 
side, and  that  almost  close  to  the  toe.  The  principle  on  which  this  shoe  acts  has  been 
explained  at  page  189. 

NOT   LYING   DOWN. 

It  not  uncommonly  happens  that  a  horse  will  seldom  or  never  lie  down  in  the  stable. 
He  sometimes  continues  in  apparent  good  health,  and  feeds  and  works  well ;  but  gene- 
rally his  legs  swell,  or  he  becomes  fatigued  sooner  than  another  horse.  If  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  let  him  loose  in  the  stable,  or  to  put  him  into  a  spare  box,  we  know  not  what  is  to 
be  done.  No  means,  gentle  or  cruel,  will  force  him  to  lie  down.  The  secret  is  that  he 
is  tied  up,  and  either  has  never  dared  to  lie  down  through  fear  of  the  confinement  of  the 
halter,  or  he  has  been  cast  in  the  night,  and  severely  injured.  If  he  can  be  suffered  to 
range  the  stable,  or  have  a  comfortable  box,  in  which  he  may  be  loose,  he  will  usually 
lie  down  the  first  night.  Some  few  horses,  however,  will  lie  down  in  the  stable,  and  not 
in  a  loose  box.    A  fresh,  well-made  bed  will  generally  tempt  the  tired  horse  to  lie  down. 

OVERREACH. 

This  unpleasant  noise,  known  also  by  the  terms  ''  clicking,"  "  overreach,"  &c.  arises 
from  tlie  toe  of  the  hind  foot  knocking  against  the  shoe  of  the  fore  foot.  In  the  trot, 
one  fore  leg  and  the  opposite  hind  leg  are  first  lifted  from  Uie  ground  and  moved  forward, 
the  otlier  tore  leg  and  the  opposite  luriH  leg  remaining  fixed ;  but,  to  keep  the  centre  of 
gravity  within  the  base,  and  as  the  stride,  or  space  passed  over  by  these  legs,  is  often 
greater  than  the  distance  between  the  fore  and  hind  feet,  it  is  necessary  that  the  fore 
feet  should  be  alternately  moved  out  of  the  way  for  the  hind  feet  to  descend.  Then,  as 
occasionally  happens  wdth  horses  not  perfectly  broken,  and  that  have  not  been  taught 
their  paces,  and  especially  if  they  have  high  hinder  quarters  and  low  fore  ones,  if  the 
fore  feet  are  not  raised  in  time,  the  hind  feet  will  strike  them.  The  fore  foot  will  gene- 
rally be  caught  when  it  has  just  begun  to  be  raised,  and  the  toe  of  the  hind  foot  will 
meet  the  middle  of  the  bottom  of  the  fore  foot.  It  is  a  very  disagreeable  noise,  and  not 
altogether  free  from  danger ;  for  it  may  so  happen  that  a  horse,  the  action  of  whose  feet 
generally  so  much  interferes  with  each  other,  may  advance  the  hind  foot  a  little  more 
rapidly,  or  raise  the  fore  one  a  little  more  slowly,  so  that  the  blow  may  fall  on  the  heel  of 
the  shoe,  and  loosen  or  displace  it ;  or  the  two  shoes  may  be  locked  together,  and  the 
animal  may  be  thrown ;  or  the  contusion  may  be  received  even  higher,  and  on  the  tend- 
ons of  the  leg,  when  considerable  swelling  and  lameness  may  follow. 

If  the  animal  is  young,  the  action  of  the  horse  may  be  materially  improved ;  otherwise 
nothing  can  be  done,  except  to  keep  the  toe  of  the  hind  foot  as  short  and  as  round  as  it 
can  safely  be,  and  to  bevel  off  and  round  the  toe  of  the  shoe,  like  that  which  has  been 
worn  by  a  stumbler  for  a  fortnight,  and,  perhaps,  a  little  to  lower  the  heel  of  the  fore 
foot. 

A  blow  received  on  the  heel  of  the  fore  foot  in  tliis  manner  has  not  unfrequently,  and 
especially  if  neglected,  been  followed  by  quittor. 


260  THE  HORSE. 


Some  hot  and  irritable  horses  are  restless  even  in  the  stable,  and  paw  frequently  and 
violently.  Their  litter  is  destroyed,  the  floor  of  the  stable  broken  up,  the  shoes  worn 
out,  the  feet  bruised,  and  the  legs  sometimes  sprained.  If  this  habit  does  not  exist  to  any 
great  extent,  yet  the  stable  never  looks  well.  Shackles  are  the  only  remedy,  with  a 
chain  suliiciently  long  to  enable  the  horse  to  shift  his  posture,  or  move  in  his  stall ;  but 
even  tliese  must  be  tcuien  oli"  at  night,  otherwise  the  animal  will  seldom  lie  down. 

QUIDDING. 

A  horse  will  sometimes  partly  chew  his  hay,  and  suffer  it  to  drop  from  his  mouth.  If 
this  does  not  pi-oceed  from  iiTCgular  teeth,  which  it  will  be  the  busmess  of  the  veterinary 
surgeon  to  rasp  down,  it  will  be  found  to  be  connected  with  sore-throat,  and  then  the 
horse  will  exhibit  some  other  symptom  of  indisposition,  and  the  swallowing  of  water 
will  be  accompanied  by  a  peculiar  gulping  effort  In  this  case  the  disease  (catarrh,  with 
sore  throat)  must  be  attacked,  and  tlie  quidding  will  cease. 


This  is  a  very  pleasant  and  perfectly  safe  amusement  for  a  horse  at  grass,  but  cannot 
be  indulged  in  the  stable  without  the  phanee  nf  his  beio""  dangerously  entangled  with 
the  collar  rein,  and  being  cast.  Yet,  although  the  hoise  is  cast,  and  bruised,  and  half- 
stran^-led,  he  will  roll  again  on  the  following  night,  and  continue  to  do  so  as  long  as  he 
lives.  The  only  remedy  is  not  a  very  pleasant  one  to  the  horse,  nor  always  quite  safe  ;  yet 
it  must  be  had  recourse  to  if  the  habit  of  rolling  is  inveterate.  "  The  horse,"  says  Mr. 
Castley,  in  the  Veterinarian,  "  should  be  tied  with  length  enough  of  collar  to  lie  down, 
but  not  to  allow  of  his  head  resting  on  the  ground ;  because,  in  order  to  roll  ovei',  a  horse 
is  obliged  to  place  his  head  quite  down  upon  the  ground." 


We  have  briefly  treated  of  the  cause  of  this  vice  at  page  77,  and  observed  that  while 
it  is  often  the  result  of  cowardice,  or  playfulness,  or  want  of  work,  it  is  at  other  times  the 
consequence  of  a  defect  of  sight.  It  has  been  remarked,  and  we  believe  very  truly, 
that  shying  is  oftener  a  vice  of  half  or  quarter-bred  horses,  than  of  those  who  have  in 
them  more  of  the  genuine  racing  blood. 

In  the  treatment  of  shying  it  is  a  great  importance  to  distinguish  between  that 
which  is  the  consequence  of  defective  sight,  and  that  wliich  results  from  fear,  or  new- 
ness of  objects,  or  from  mere  affectation  or  sldttishness.  For  the  first,  the  nature  of 
which  we  have  explained  at  page  77,  every  allowance  must  be  made,  and  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  fear  of  correction  be  not  associated  witli  the  imagined  existence  of  some 
terrifying  object.  The  severe  use  of  the  whip  and  the  spur  cannot  do  good  here,  and  are 
likely  to  aggravate  the  vice  tenfold.  A  word  half  encouraging  and  half  scolding,  with 
a  gentle  pressure  of  the  heel,  or  a  slight  touch  of  the  spur,  will  tell  the  horse  that  there 
was  nothing  to  fear,  and  will  give  him  confidence  in  his  rider  on  a  future  occasion.  It 
should  be  remembered,  however,  that  although  a  horse  that  shies  from  defective  sight 
may  be  taught  considerable  reliance  on  his  rider,  he  can  never  have  the  cause  of  the 
habit  removed.  We  may  artificially  strengthen  the  hujnan  sight,  but  the  horse's  must  be 
left  to  itself. 

The  shying  from  skittishness  or  affectation  is  quite  a  different  affair,  and  must  be  con- 
quered :  but  now?  Severity  is  out  of  place  even  here.  If  he  is  forced  up  to  the  object 
by  dint  of  correction,  the  dread  of  punishment  will  afterwards  be  associated  with 
that  object,  and  on  the  next  occasion,  his  startings  will  be  more  frequent  and  more  dan- 
gerous. The  way  to  cure  him  is  to  go  on,  turning  as  little  as  possible  out  of  the  road, 
giving  the  animal  a  harsh  word  or  two,  and  a  gentle  touch  with  the  spur,  and  then  taking 
no  more  notice  of  the  matter.  After  a  few  times,  whatever  may  have  been  the  object 
which  he  chose  to  select  as  the  pretended  cause  of  affright,  he  will  pass  it  almost  with- 
out notice. 

In  page  176,  under  the  head  "breaking in,"  we  have  described  how  the  colt  may  be 
cured  of  the  habit  of  shying  from  fear  or  newness  of  objects,  and  if  he  then  be  accustomed 
as  much  as  possible  to  the  objects  among  which  his  services  will  be  required,  he  will  not 
possess  this  annoying  vice  when  he  grows  to  maturer  age. 

Mr.  John  Lavwence,  in  his  last  pleasing  work  on  the  Horse,  says,  "These  animals 
generally  fix  on  some  particular  shying  butt ;  for  example,  I  recollect  having,  at  differ- 
ent periods,  three  hacks,  all  very  powerful ;  the  one  made  choice  of  a  wind-mill  for  the 


TKIPPING.  261 

object  or  butt,  the  other  a  tilted  wa^on,  and  the  last  a  pig:  led  in  a  string.  It  so  happen- 
ed, however,  that  I  rode  the  two  Ibrmer  when  amiss  from  a  violent  cold,  and  they  then 
paid  no  more  attention  to  either  windmills  or  tilted  wagons  than  to  any  other  objects, 
convincing  me  that  their  shying  when  in  health  and  spirits  was  pure  atFectation  ;  an  aJlec- 
tation,  however,  which  may  be  speedily  united  with  obstinacy  and  vice.  Let  it  be  treated 
with  marked  displeasure,  mingled  with  gentle,  but  decided  firmness,  and  the  habit  wiU 
be  of  short  endurance."* 

Shying  on  coining  out  of  the  stable  is  a  habit  that  can  rarely  or  never  be  cured.  It  pro- 
ceeds from  the  remembrance  of  some  ill-usage  or  hurt  which  the  animal  has  received  in 
the  act  of  proceeding  from  the  stable,  such  as  striking  his  head  against  a  low  door-w-ay, 
or  entangling  the  harness.  Coercion  will  but  associate  greater  fear  and  more  determined 
resistance  with  the  old  recollection.  Mr.  Castley,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  much 
that  is  valuable  on  the  subject  of  the  vices  of  the  horse,  gives  an  interesting  anecdote, 
which  tends  to  prove  that  while  severity  will  be  worse  than  useless,  even  kind  treatment 
will  not  break  a  confirmed  habit.  "  I  remember  a  very  fine  grey  mare  that  had  got  into 
this  habit,  and  never  could  be  persuaded  to  go  through  a  door- way  without  taking  an  im- 
mense jump.  To  avoid  this,  the  servants  used  to  back  her  in  and  out  of  the  stable;  but 
the  mare  happening  to  meet  with  a  severe  injury  of  the  spine,  was  no  longer  able  to 
back  ;  and  then  I  have  seen  the  poor  creature,  when  brought  to  the  door,  endeavoring  to 
balance  herself  with  a  staggering  moticn  upon  her  half-paralyzed  hind  extremities,  as  if 
making  preparation  and  summoning  up  resolution  for  some  great  eflbrt ;  and  then,  when 
urged,  she  would  plunge  headlong  forward  with  such  violence  of  exertion,  as  often  to 
lose  her  feet,  and  tumble  down  "  altogether  most  pitiable  to  be  seen."  "  This  I  merely 
mention,"  he  continues,  "  as  one  proof  how  inveterate  the  habits  of  horses  are.  They 
are  evils,  let  it  always  be  remembered,  more  easy  to  prevent  than  cure." 

SLIPPING   THE    COLLAR. 

This  is  a  trick  at  which  many  horses  are  so  clever  that  scarcely  a  night  passes  with- 
out their  getting  loose.  It  is  a  very  serious  habit,  for  it  enables  the  horse  sometimes  to 
gorge  himself  with  food,  to  the^  imminent  danger  of  staggers  ;  or  it  exposes  him,  as  he 
wanders  about,  to  be  kicked  and  injured  by  the  other  horses,  while  his  restlessness  will 
often  keep  the  whole  team  awake.  If  the  web  of  the  halter,  being  first  accurately  fitted  to 
his  neck,  is  suffered  to  slip  only  one  way,  or  a  strap  is  attached  to  the  halter  and  buckled 
round  the  neck,  but  not  sufficiently  tight  to  be  of  serious  inconvenience,  the  power  of 
slipping  the  collar  will  be  taken  away. 


He  must  be  a  skilful  practitioner  or  a  mere  pretender  who  promises'  to  remedy 
this  habit.  If  it  arises  from  a  heavy  forehand,  and  the  fore  legs  being  too  much  under 
the  horse,  no  one  can  alter  the  natural  frame  of  the  beast :  if  it  proceeds  from  tenderness 
of  the  foot,  grogginess,  or  old  lameness,  these  aliments  are  seldom  cured ;  and  if  it  is  to 
be  traced  to  habitual  carelessness  and  idleness,  no  whipping  will  rouse  the  drone.  A 
known  stumbler  should  never  be  ridden,  or  driven  alone,  by  any  one  who  values  his 
safety  or  his  life.  A  tight  hand  or  a  strong  bearing-rein  are  precautions  that  should  not 
be  neglected,  but  they  are  generally  of  little  avail ;  for  the  inveterate  stumbler  will  rarely 
try  to  save  himself,  and  this  tight  rein  may  sooner  and  farther  precipitate  the  rider.    If, 

*  "We  will  suppose  a  case,  a  very  common  one,  an  every-day  one.  A  man  is  riding 
a  young  horse  upon  the  high-road  in  the  country,  and  meets  a  stage-coach.  What  with 
the  noise,  the  bustle,  the  imposing  appearance  altogether,  an^  the  slashing  of  the  coach- 
man's whip,  the  animal  at  its  approach  erects  his  head  and  crest,  pricks  his  ears,  looks 
affrighted,  and  no  sooner  comes  alongside  of  the  machine  than  he  suddenly  starts  out  of 
the  road.  His  rider,  annoyed  by  this,  instantly  commences  a  round  of  castigation  with 
whip,  spur,  and  curb,  in  which  he  persists  until  the  horse,  as  well  as  himself,  has  lost  his 
temper ;  and  then  one  whips,  spurs  and  pulls,  and  the  other  jumps,  plunges,  frets,  and 
throws  up  his  head,  until  both,  pretty  well  exhausted  by  the  conflict,  grow  tranquil  again, 
and  proceed  on  their  journey,  though  not  for  some  time  afterwards  in  their  former  mutual 
confidence  and  satisfaction.  Should  they  in  their  road,  or  even  on  a  distant  day,  meet 
with  another  coach,  what  is  the  consequence  ?  That  the  burse  is  not  only  more  alarmed 
than  before  ;  but  now,  the  moment  he  has  started,  being  conscious  of  his  fault,  and  ex- 
pecting chastisement,  jumps  about  in  fearful  agitation,  making  plunges  to  strike  into  a 
fallop,  Euid  attempting  to  run  away.  So  that  by  this  correction,  instead  of  rendering  his 
orse  tranquil  during  the  passsge  of  a  coach,  the  rider  adds  to  the  evil  of  shying  that  of 
subsequently  plunging,  and  perhaps  ninning  away." — The  Veterinarian,  by  Messrs. 
Percival  and  Youatt,  vol.  i.  p.  96. 


262  THE  HORSE. 

after  a  trip,  the  horse  suddenly  starts  forward,  and  endeavors  to  break  into  a  canter,  the 
rider  or  driver  may  be  assured  that  others  before  him  have  fruitlessly  endeavored  to 
remedy  the  nuisance. 

If  the  stumbler  has  the  foot  kept  as  short  and  the  toe  pared  as  close  as  safety  will  per. 
mit,  and  the  shoe  be  rounded  at  the  toe,  or  have  that  shape  given  to  it  which  it  naturally 
acquires  in  a  fortnight  from  the  action  of  such  a  horse,  the  animal  may  not  stumble  quite 
so  much  ;  or  if  the  disease  which  produced  the  habit  can  be  alleviated,  some  triding 
good  may  be  done,  but  in  almost  every  case  a  stumbler  should  be  got  rid  of,  or  put  to 
slow  and  heavy  work.  If  the  latter  alternative  be  adopted,  he  may  trip  as  much  as  he 
pleases,  for  the  weight  of  the  load  and  tlie  motion  of  the  other  horses  will  keep  him 
upon  his  legs. 

WEAVING. 

This  consists  in  a  motion  of  the  head,  neck,  and  body,  from  side  to  side,  like  the  shut- 
tle of  a  weaver  passing  through  the  web,  and  hence  the  name  which  is  given  to  this  pe- 
culiar and  incessant  action.  It  indicates  an  impatient,  irritable  temper;  and  a  dislike  to 
the  confinement  of  the  stable;  and  a  horse  that  is  thus  iftcessantly  on  the  fret  will  seldom 
carry  flesh,  or  be  safe  to  ride  or  drive.  There  is  no  cure  for  it,  but  the  close  tying  up 
of  the  animal,  except  at  feeding  time. 


CHAPTER    XX. 


THE  GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE 

HORSE. 

This  is  a  most  important  part  of  our  subject,  even  as  it  regards  the  farmer,  although 
there  are  comparatively  few  glaring  errors  in  the  treatment  of  the  agricultural  horse : 
but  it  comes  more  especially  home  to  the  gentleman,  who  is  too  often  and  too  implicitly 
under  the  guidance  of  an  idle,  and  ignorant,  and  designing  groom. 

We  will  arrange  the  most  important  points  of  general  management  under  the  follow- 
ing heads : 


A  supply  of  pure  air  is  necessary  to  the  existence  and  health  of  man  and  beast.  In 
some  agricultural  stables,  the  supply,  if  not  too  great,  is  carelessly  and  injudiciously  ad- 
mitted :  for  the  wind  blows  in  from  every  quarter,  and  beats  dii-ectly  upon  the  animal. 
When  he  has  been  well  seasoned  to  this,  it  seems  to  do  him  little  harm,  except  that  he 
has  an  unthrifty  coat  and  is  out  of  condition.  The  common  error,  however,  is  to  ex- 
clude as  much  as  possible  every  breath  of  air,  and  to  have  the  atmosphere  of  the  stable, 
hot,  contaminated,  and  unwholesome.  The  effect  of  several  horses  being  shut  up  in 
the  same  stable  is,  to  render  the  air  unpleasantly  hot.  A  person  coming  from  without 
cannot  breathe  it  many  minutes  without  profuse  perspiration.  The  horse  stands  hour 
after  hour  in  it,  and  sometimes  clothed ;  and  then  his  covering  is  suddenly  stripped  off, 
and  he  is  led  into  the  open  air,  the  temperature  of  which  is  thirty  or  forty  degrees  below 
that  of  the  stable.  Patting  the  humanity  of  the  thing  for  a  moment  out  of  the  question, 
we  ask,  must  not  the  animal,  thus  unnaturally  and  absurdly  treated,  be  subject  to  rheu- 
matism, catarrh,  and  ijiflammation  of  the  lungs  ?  It  has  been  replied,  that  the  horse 
keeps  himself  warm  by  exercise  while  he  is  thus  exposed,  and  that  a  man,  using  strong 
exertion,  cares  little  about  the  quanity  of  clothing  upon  him.  Is  the  horse  constantly 
in  motion  after  his  great  coat  and  all  his  body  clothes  have  been  stripped  from  him,  and 
he  has  been  turned  out  naked,  when  the  mercury  in  the  thermometer  is  below  the 
freezing  point  ?  Does  he  not  often  stand,  hour  after  hour,  in  the  road  or  the  street,  while 
his  owner  is  warming  himself  within,  and  this  perhaps  after  every  pore  has  been  opened 
by  a  brushing  gallop  ;  and  his  susceptibility  to  the  painful  and  the  injurious  influence 
of  cold  has  been  excited  to  the  utmost  ? 

It  is  not  so  generally  known  as  it  ought  to  be,  that  the  return  to  a  hot  stable  is  quite  as 
dangerous  as  the  change  from  a  heated  atmosphere  to  a  cold  and  biting  air.     Majjy  a 


AIR.  263 

horse,  that  has  travelled  without  harm  over  a  bleak  country,  has  been  suddenly  seized 
v^^ith  inflammation  and  fever  when  he  has,  immediately  at  the  end  of  his  journey,  been 
surrounded  with  heated  and  foul  air.  It  is  the  sudden  change  of  temperature,  whether 
from  heat  to  cold,  or  from  cold  to  heat,  that  does  the  mischief,  and  yearly  destroys  a 
multitude  of  horses. 

The  stable  should  be  as  large,  compared  with  the  number  of  horses  which  it  is  destined 
to  contain,  as  circumstances  will  allow.  A  stable  for  six  horses  should  not  be  less  than 
forty  feet  in  length,  and  thirteen  or  fourteen  feet  wide.  If  there  be  no  loft  above,  the 
inside  of  the  root  should  always  be  plastered,  to  prevent  direct  currents  of  air  and  occa- 
sional droppings  from  brokeji  tiles  ;  and  the  heated  and  foul  air  should  escape,  and  cool 
and  pure  air  be  admitted,  by  elevation  of  the  central  tiles ;  or  by  large  tubes  carried 
through  the  roof,  with  caps  a  little  above  them  to  prevent  the  beating  in  of  the  rain  ;  or 
by  gratings  placed  high  up  in  the  walls.  These  latter  apertures  should  be  as  far  above 
the  norses  as  they  can  conveniently  be  placed,  by  which  means  all  injurious  draught  will 
be  prevented. 

If  there  is  a  loft  above  the  stable,  the  ceiling  should  be  plastered  in  order  to  prevent 
the  foul  air  from  penetrating  to  the  hay  above,  and  injuring  both  its  taste  and  its  whole- 
someness  ;  and  no  openings  should  be  allowed  above  the  racks,  through  which  the  hay 
may  be  thrown  into  the  rack,  for  they  also  will  permit  the  foul  air  to  ascend  to  the  pro- 
vender, and,  in  the  act  of  filling  the  rack,  and  while  the  horse  is  eagerly  gazing  upward 
for  his  food,  many  a  grass-seed  has  fallen  into  his  eye,  and  produced  considerable  in- 
flammation ;  while  at  other  times,  when  the  careless  groom  has  left  open  tlie  trap-door, 
a  stream  of  cold  air  beats  down  on  the  head  of  the  horse. 

The  stable  with  a  loft  over  it  should  never  be  less  than  twelve  feet  high,  and  proper 
ventilation  should  be  secured  either  by  tubes  carried  up  through  the  loft  to  the  roof,  or 
by  gratings  close  to  the  ceiling.  These  gratings  or  openings  should  be  enlarged  or  con- 
tracted by  means  of  a  covering  or  shutter,  so  that  during  spring,  summer,  and  autumn,  the 
stable  should  possess  nearly  the  same  temperature  with  the  open  air,  and,  in  winter,  a  tem- 
perature not  more  than  ten  degTces  above  that  of  the  external  atmosphere.  A  hot  stable 
has,  in  the  mind  of  the  groom,  been  long  connected  with  a  glossy  coat.  The  latter,  it  is 
thought,  cannot  be  attained  without  the  former.  To  this  we  should  reply  that,  in  winter, 
a  thin,  glossy  coat  is  not  desirable.  Nature  gives  to  every  animal  a  warmer  clothing 
when  the  cold  weather  approaches.  The  horse  acquires  a  thicker  and  a  lengthened  coat, 
in  order  to  defend  him  from  the  surrounding  cold.  Man  puts  on  an  additional  and  a 
warmer  covering,  and  his  comfort  is  increased  and  his  health  preserved  by  it.  He  who 
knows  any  thing  of  the  horse,  or  cares  any  thing  for  his  enjoyment,  will  not  object  to  a 
coat  a  little  longer  and  a  little  roughened,  when  the  wintry  wind  blows  bleak.  The  coat, 
however,  need  not  be  so  long  as  to  be  unsightly ;  and  warm  clothing,  even  in  a  cool 
stable,  will,  with  plenty  of  honest  grooming,  keep  the  hair  sufficiently  smooth  and  glossy 
to  satisfy  the  most  fastidious.  The  over-heated  air  of  a  close  stable  saves  much  of  this 
grooming,  and  therefore  the  idle  attendant  unscrupulously  sacrifices  tlie  health  and  saiety 
of  the  horse. 

If  the  stable  is  close,  the  air  will  not  only  be  hot,  but  foul.  The  breathing  of  every 
animal  contaminates  it ;  and  when,  in  the  course  of  the  night,  with  every  aperture,  even 
the  key-hole,  stopped,  it  passes  again  and  again  through  the  lungs,  the  blood  cannot  undergo 
its  proper  and  healthy  change ;  digestion  cannot  be  so  perfectly  performed,  and  all  me 
functions  of  life  are  injured  Let  the  owner  of  the  valuable  horse  think  of  his  passing 
twenty  or  twenty-two  out  of  the  twenty-four  hours  in  this  debilitating  atmosphere.  Na- 
ture does  wonders  in  enabling  eveiy  animal  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  situation  in 
which  it  is  placed,  and  the  horse  that  lives  in  the  stable-oven  sutlers  less  from  it  than 
would  scarcely  be  conceived  possible  ;  but  he  does  not,  and  cannot,  possess  the  power  and 
the  hardihood  which  he  would  acquire  under  other  circumstances. 

The  air  of  the  improperly  close  stable  is  still  further  contaminated  by  the  urine  and 
dung,  which  rapidly  ferment  in  the  heat,  and  give  out  stimulating  and  unwholesome  va- 
pors. When  a  person  first  enters  an  ill-inanaged  stable,  and  especially  early  in  the 
morning,  he  is  annoyed  not  only  by  the  heat  of  tlie  confined  air,  but  by  a  pungent  smell, 
resembling  hartshorn ;  and  can  he  wonder  at  the  inflammation  of  the  eyes,  and  the  chroruc 
cough,  and  the  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  with  which  the  animal,  who  has  been  shut  up 
in  this  vitiated  atmosphere  all  night,  is  often  attacked  ;  or  if  glanders  and  farcy  should 
occasionally  break  out  in  such  stables  ?  It  has  been  ascertained  by  chemical  experiment, 
that  the  urine  of  the  horse  contains  in  it  an  exceedingly  large  quantity  of  hartshorn  ;  and 
not  only  so,  but  that,  influenced  by  the  heat  of  a  crowded  stable,  and  possibly  by  other 
decompositions  that  are  going  forward  at  the  same  time,  this  ammoniacal  vapor  begins 
to  be  rapidly  given  out  almost  immediately  after  the  urine  is  voided. 

When  disease  begins  to  appear  among  the  inhabitants  of  these  ill-ventilated  places,  is 
it  wonderful  that  it  should  rapidly  spread  among  them,  and  that  the  plague-spot  should 
be,  as  it  were,  placed  on  the  door  of  such  a  stable  ?    When  distemper  appears  in  spring 


264  THE  HORSE. 

or  in  autumn,  it  is  in  ve^  many  cases  to  be  traced  first  of  all  to  such  a  pest-house.  It  is 
peculiarly  fatal  there.  The  horses  belonging  to  a  small  establishment,  and  rationally 
treated,  have  it  comparatively  seldom,  or  have  it  lightly ;  but,  among  the  inmates  of  a 
crowded  stable,  it  is  sure  to  display  itself,  and  there  it  is  most  of  all  fatal.  The  experience 
of  every  veterinary  surgeon,  and  of  every  large  proprietor  of  horses,  will  corroborate  this 
statement.  Agriculturists  should  bring  to  tlieir  stables  the  common  sense  which  directs 
them  in  the  usual  concerns  of  life  ;  and  should  begin,  when  their  pleasures  and  their  pro- 

f)erty  are  so  much  at  stake,  to  assume  that  authority,  and  to  enforce  that  obedience,  to  the 
ack  of  which  is  to  be  attributed  the  greater  part  of  bad  stable-management  and  horse- 
disease.  Of  nothing  are  we  more  certain,  than  that  the  majority  of  Sie  maladies  of  the 
horse,  and  those  of  the  worst  and  most  fatal  character,  are  directly  or  indirectly  to  be  at- 
tributed to  the  unnatural  heat  of  the  stable,  and  the  sudden  change  of  the  animal  from  a 
high  to  a  low,  or  from  a  low  to  a  high  temperature. 


Having  spoken  of  the  vapor  of  hartshorn,  which  is  so  rapidly  and  so  plentifully  given 
out  from  the  urine  of  a  horse  in  a  heated  stable,  we  take  next  into  consideration  the  sub- 
ject of  litter.  The  first  caution  is  frequently  to  remove  it.  The  early  extrication  of  gas 
shows  the  rapid  putrefaction  of  the  urine  ;  and  the  consequence  of  which  will  be  the  rapid 
putrefaction  of  the  litter  that  has  been  moistened  by  it.  Every  thing  hastening  to  decom- 
position should  be  carefully  removed  where  life  and  health  are  to  be  preserved.  Every 
portion  of  the  litter  that  has  been  much  wetted,  or  at  all  softened  by  the  urine,  and  is  be- 
ginning to  decay,  should  be  swept  away  every  morning :  the  greater  part  of  the  remainder 
may  then  be  piled  under  the  manger,  a  little  being  left  to  prevent  the  painful  and  injurious 
pressure  of  the  feet  on  the  hard  pavement  during  the  day.  The  soiled  and  macerated 
portion  of  that  which  was  left  should  be  removed  at  night. 

No  heap  of  fermenting  dung  should  be  suifered  to  remain  during  the  day  in  the  comer 
or  in  any  part  of  the  stable.  With  regard  to  this,  the  directions  oi  the  master  should  be 
peremptory. 

The  stable  should  be  so  contrived  that  the  urine  shall  quickly  run  off,  and  the  offensive 
and  injurious  vapor  from  the  decomposing  urine  and  the  litter  will  tlius  be  materially 
lessened :  if,  however,  the  urine  be  carried  away  by  means  of  a  gutter  running  along  the 
stable,  the  floor  of  the  stalls  must  slant  toward  that  gutter,  and  the  dechvity  will  some- 
times be  so  great  as  to  strain  the  back  sinews,  and  become  an  occasional,  although  unsus- 
pected cause  of  lameness.  Mr.  R.  Lawrence  well  observes  that  "  if  the  reader  will  stand 
for  a  few  minutes  with  his  toes  higher  than  his  heels,  the  pain  he  will  feel  in  the  calves 
of  his  legs  will  soon  convince  him  of  the  truth  of  this  remark.  Hence,  when  a  horse  is 
not  eating,  he  always  endeavors  to  find  his  level,  either  by  standing  across  the  stall,  or 
else  as  far  bacjc  as  his  halter  will  permit,  so  that  his  hind  legs  may  meet  the  ascent  of  the 
other  side  of  the  channel." 

This  direction  of  the  stall  is  also  a  frequent  cause  of  contraction  of  the  heels  of  the 
foot,  by  throwing  too  great  a  proportion  of  the  weight  upon  the  toe,  and  removing  that 
pressure  on  the  heels  vdiich  tends  most  to  keep  them  open.  Care  therefore  must  be  taken 
that  the  slanting  of  the  floor  of  the  stalls  shall  be  no  more  than  is  sufficient  to  drain  off 
the  urine  with  tolerable  rapidity.  Stalls  of  this  kind  certainly  do  best  for  mares  ;  but  for 
horses  we  much  prefer  those  with  a  grating  in  the  centre,  and  an  inclination  of  the  floor 
on  every  side  towards  the  middle.  A  short  branch  may  communicate  with  a  larger  drain, 
by  means  of  which  the  urine  may  be  carried  off  to  a  reservoir  outside  the  table.  Traps 
are  now  contrived,  and  may  be  procured  at  little  expense,  by  means  of  which  neither  any 
offensive  smell  nor  current  of  air  can  pass  through  the  grating. 

The  farmer  should  not  lose  any  of  the  urine.  It  is  from  the  dung  of  the  horse  that  he 
derives  a  principal  and  the  most  valuable  part  of  his  manure.  It  is  that  which  earliest 
takes  on  the  process  of  putrefaction,  and  forms  one  of  the  strongest  and  most  durable  dres- 
sings. That  which  is  most  of  all  concerned  with  the  rapidity  and  the  perfection  of  the 
decomposition,  is  the  urine. 

The  reasons  why  the  horse  should  always  stand  on  litter  have  been  given  at  page  227. 
Humanity  and  interest,  as  well  as  the  appearance  of  the  stable,  will  induce  the  general 
m-oprietor  of  the  horse  to  place  a  moderate  quantity  of  litter  under  him  during  the  day. 
The  farmer  who  wants  to  convert  every  otherwise  useless  substance  into  manure  will 
have  additional  reason  for  adopting  this  practice ;  especially  as  he  does  not  confine  him- 
self to  that  to  which  in  towns  and  in  gentlemen's  stables  custom  seems  to  have  limited 
the  bed  of  the  horse.  Pea  and  bean-haum,  and  potatoe-top,  and  heath,  occupy  in  the 
stable  of  the  farmer,  during  a  part  of  the  year,  tlie  place  of  wheaten  and  oaten  straw.  It 
should,  however,  be  remembered,  that  these  substances  are  disposed  more  easily  to  fer- 
ment and  putrefy  than  straw,  and  therefore  should  be  more  carefully  examined,  and  ofteuer 
removed.    It  is  the  faulty  custom  of  some  farmers  to  let  the  bed  accumulate  until  it 


GROOMING.  265 

reaches  almost  to  the  horse's  belly,  and  the  bottom  of  it  is  a  mass  of  dung.  If  there 
were  not  often  many  a  hole  and  cranny  through  which  the  wind  can  enter,  and  disperse 
the  foul  air,  tlie  health  of  tlie  animal  would  suiter. 


This  neglected  branch  of  stable-management  is  of  far  more  consequence  than  is  gen- 
erally imagined  ;  and  it  is  particularly  neglected  by  those  for  whom  these  treatises  are 
principally  designed.  The  farmer's  stable  is  frequently  destitute  of  any  glazied  window  ; 
and  has  only  a  shutter,  which  is  raised  in  warm,  and  shut  down  in  cold  weather.  When 
the  horse  is  in  the  stable  only  during  a  few  hours  of  the  day,  this  is  not  of  so  much  con- 
sequence ;  nor  of  so  much,  probably,  to  horses  of  slow  work  ;  but  to  carnage  horses  and 
hackneys,  so  far  at  least  as  the  eyes  are  concerned,  a  dark  stable  is  little  less  injurious 
than  aibul  and  heated  one.  To  illustrate  this,  reference  may  be  made  to  the  unpleasant 
feehng  and  the  utter  impossibility  of  seeing  distinctly,  when  a  man  suddenly  emerges 
from  a  dark  place  into  the  full  blaze  of  day.  The  sensation  of  mingled  pain  and  gidduiess 
is  not  soon  Ibrgotten  ;  and  some  minutes  pass  before  the  eye  can  accommodate  itself  to 
the  increased  light.  If  this  were  to  happen  every  day,  or  several  times  in  the  day,  the 
sight  would  be  irreparably  injured  :  or  possibly,  blindness  would  ensue.  Can  we  won- 
der, then,  that  the  horse  taken  from  a  dark  stable  into  a  glare  of  light,  and  feeling,  prob- 
ably, as  we  should  do  under  similar  circumstances,  and  unable  for  a  considerable  time  to 
see  any  thing  around  him  distinctly,  should  become  a  starter,  or  that  the  frequently  re- 
peated violent  effect  of  sudden  light  should  induce  intiamniation  of  the  eye,  so  intense  as 
to  terminate  in  blindness  ?  There  is,  indeed,  no  doubt  that  horses  kept  in  a  dark  stable 
are  frequently  notorious  starters,  and  that  starting  has  been  evidently  traced  to  this  cause. 

Farmers  Icnow,  and  should  profit  by  the  knowledge,  that  the  darkness  of  the  stable  is 
not  unfrequently  a  cover  for  great  uncleanliness.  A  glazed  window,  with  leaden  divi- 
sions between  tlie  small  panes,  would  not  cost  much,  and  would  admit  a  degree  of  light 
somewhat  more  approaching  to  that  of  day ;  and  at  the  same  time,  would  render  the 
concealment  of  gross  inattention  and  want  of  cleanliness  impossible. 

If  plenty  of  light  be  admitted,  the  walls  of  the  stable,  and  especially  that  portion  of 
them  which  is  before  the  horse's  head,  must  not  be  of  too  glaring  a  color.  The  constant 
reflection  from  a  white  wall,  and  especially  if  the  sun  shines  into  the  stable,  will  be  as 
injurious  to  the  eye  as  the  sudden  changes  from  darkness  to  light.  The  perpetual  slight 
excess  of  stimulus  will  do  as  much  mischief  as  the  occasional,  but  more  violent  one,  whea 
the  animal  is  taken  from  a  kind  of  twilight  to  the  blaze  of  day.  The  color  of  the  stable 
therefore,  should  depend  on  the  quantity  of  light.  Where  much  can  be  admitted,  the 
walls  should  be  of  a  grey  hue.  Where  darkness  would  otherwise  prevail,  frequent 
whitewashing  may  in  some  degree  dissipate  the  gloom. 

For  another  reason  it  will  be  evident  that  the  stable  should  not  possess  too  glaring  a 
light.  It  is  the  resting-place  of  the  horse.  The  work  of  the  farmer's  horse,  indeed,  is 
confined  principally  to  the  day,  but  the  labors  of  others  ai-e  demanded  at  all  periods. 
The  hour  of  the  exertion  having  passed,  the  animal  returns  to  his  stable  to  feed  and  to 
repose,  and  die  latter  is  as  necessary  as  the  rormer,  in  order  to  prepare  him  lor  renewed 
work.  Something  approaching  to  the  dimness  of  twilight  is  requisite,  to  induce  the  ani- 
mal to  compose  himself  to  sleep.  This  half-light  more  particularly  suits  horses  of  heavy 
work,  and  who  draw  almost  as  much  by  the  weight  ot  carcass  which  they  can  throw  into 
the  collar,  as  by  the  degree  of  muscular  energy  of  w^hich  they  are  capable.  In  the  qui- 
etness of  a  dimly-lighted  stable  they  obtain  repose,  and  accumulate  flesh  and  fat.  Dealers 
are  perfectly  aware  of  this.  They  have  their  darkened  stables,  in  which  the  young 
horse,  with  little  or  no  exercise,  and  fed  upon  mashes  and  ground  corn,  is  made  up  for 
sale.  The  round  and  plump  appearance,  however,  which  may  delude  the  unwary,  soon 
vanishes  with  altered  treatment,  and  the  animal  is  found  to  be  unfit  for  hard  work,  and 
predisposed  to  every  inflammatory  disease.  The  circumstances,  then,  under  which  a 
stable  somewhat  darkened  may  be  allowed,  will  be  easily  determined  by  the  owner  of 
the  horse  ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  dark  stables  are  unfriendly  to  cleanliness,  and  the  fi'e- 
quent  cause  of  the  vice  of  starting,  and  of  the  most  serious  diseases  of  the  eyes. 


Of  this  much  need  not  be  said,  since  custom,  and,  apparerrtly  without  ill  effect,  has 
allotted  so  little  of  the  comb  and  the  brush  to  the  farmer's  horse.  The  animal  that  is 
worked  all  day,  and  turned  out  at  night,  requires  little  more  to  be  done  to  him  than  to 
have  the  dirt  brushed  off'  his  limbs.  Regular  grooming,  by  rendering  his  skin  more  sen- 
sible to  the  alteration  of  temperature,  and  the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  would  be  pre- 
judicial.   The  horse  that  is  altogether  turned  out  needs  no  grooming.    The  dandrilf  or 

34 


266  THE  HORSE. 

scurf  which  accumulates  at  the  roots  of  the  hair  is  a  provision  of  nature  to  defend  him 
from  the  wind  and  the  cold. 

It  is  to  the  stabled  horse,  highly  fed,  and  little  or  irregularly  worked,  that  grooming  is 
of  so  much  consequence.  Good  rubbing  with  the  brush  or  the  currycomb  opens  the  pores 
of  the  skin,  and  circulates  the  blood  to  the  extremities  of  the  body  and  through  the  minute 
vessels  of  the  skin,  and  produces  free  and  healthy  perspiration,  and  stands  in  the  room 
of  exercise.  No  horse  will  carry  a  fine  coat  without  eitlier  heat  or  dressing.  They  both 
effect  the  same  purpose ;  they  both  increase  the  insensible  perspiration ;  but  the  first 
does  it  at  the  expense  of  health  and  strength,  while  the  second,  at  the  same  time  that  it 
produces  a  glow  on  the  skin,  and  a  determination  of  blood  to  it,  rouses  all  the  energies  of 
the  frame.  It  would  be  well  for  the  proprietor  of  the  horse  if  he  were  to  insist  upon  it, 
and  to  see  that  his  orders  are  really  obeyed,  that  the  fine  coat  in  which  he  and  his  groom 
so  much  delight,  is  produced  by  honest  rubbing,  and  not  by  a  heated  stable  and  thick  clo- 
thing, and  most  of  all,  not  by  stimulating  or  injurious  spices. 

When  the  weather  will  permit  the  horse  to  be  taken  out,  he  should  never  be  groomed 
in  the  stable.  Without  dwelling  on  the  want  of  cleanliness,  when  the  scurf  and  dust 
that  are  brushed  from  the  horse  lodge  in  his  manger,  and  mingle  with  his  food,  experience 
teaches,  that  if  the  cold  is  not  too  great,  the  animal  is  braced  and  invigorated  from  being 
dressed  in  the  open  air,  to  a  degree  that  cannot  be  attained  in  the  stable.  There  is  no  ne- 
cessity, however,  for  half  the  punishment  which  many  a  groom  inflicts  upon  the  horse  in 
the  act  of  dressing ;  and  particularly  on  one  whose  skin  is  thin  and  sensible.  The  curry- 
comb should  at  all  times  be  lightly  applied.  With  many  horses  its  use  may  be  almost  dis- 
pensed with  ;  and  even  the  brush  need  not  be  so  hard,  nor  the  points  of  the  bristles  so 
irregular  as  they  often  are.  A  soft  brush,  with  a  little  more  weight  of  the  hand,  will  be 
equally  effectual,  and  a  great  deal  more  pleasant  to  the  horse.  A  hair  cloth,  while  it  will 
seldom  irritate  and  tease,  will  be  almost  sufficient  with  horses  tliat  have  thin  hair,  and  that 
have  not  been  neglected. 

Whoever  would  be  convinced  of  the  benefit  of  friction  to  the  horse's  skin,  and  to  the 
horse  generally,  need  only  observe  the  effect  produced  by  well  hand-rubbing  the  legs  of 
a  tired  horse.  While  every  enlargement  subsides,  and  the  painful  stiffness  disappeeu's, 
and  the  legs  attain  their  natural  warmth,  and  become  fine,  the  animal  is  evidently  and 
rapidly  reviving ;  he  attacks  his  food  with  appetite,  and  tlien  quietly  lies  down  to  rest. 


Our  observations  on  this  important  branch  of  stable-management  must  have  only 
slight  reference  to  the  agricultural  horse.  His  work  is  usually  regular  and  not  exhaust- 
ing. He  is  neither  predisposed  to  disease  by  idleness,  nor  worn  out  by  excessive  exer- 
tion. He,  like  his  master,  has  enough  to  do  to  keep  him  in  health,  and  not  enough  to 
distress  or  injure  him :  on  the  contrary,  the  regularity  of  his  work  prolongs  life  to  an 
extent  rarely  witnessed  in  the  stable  of  the  gentleman.  Our  remarks  on  exercise,  then, 
must  have  a  general  bearing,  or  have  principal  reference  to  those  persons  who  are  in  the 
middle  stations  of  life,  who  contrive  to  keep  a  horse  for  business  or  pleasure,  but  cannot 
afford  to  maintain  a  servant  for  the  express  purpose  of  looking  after  it.  The  first  rule  we 
would  lay  down  is,  that  every  horse  should  have  daily  exercise.  The  horse  that,  with 
the  usual  stable  feeding,  stands  idle  for  three  or  four  days,  as  is  the  case  in  many  esta- 
blishments, must  suffer.  He  is  disposed  to  fever,  or  to  grease,  or,  most  of  all,  to  diseases 
of  the  foot ;  and  if,  after  these  three  or  four  days  of  inactivity,  he  is  ridden  fast  and  far,  is 
almost  sure  to  have  inflammation  of  the  lungs  or  of  the  feet. 

A  gentleman  or  tradesman's  horse  suffers  a  great  deal  more  from  idleness  than  he  does 
from  work.  A  stable-fed  horse  should  have  two  hours'  exercise  every  day,  if  he  is  to  be 
kept  free  from  disease.  Nothing  of  extraordinary  or  even  of  ordinary  labor  can  be 
effected  on  the  road  or  in  the  field  without  sufficient  and  regular  exercise.  It  is  this  alone 
which  can  give  energy  to  the  system,  or  develop  the  powers  of  any  animal. 

How  then  is  tliis  exercise  to  be  given  ?  As  much  as  possible  by,  or  under  the  superin- 
tendence of,  the  owner.  The  exercise  given  by  the  groom  is  rarely  to  be  depended 
upon.  It  is  ineflicient,  or  it  is  extreme.  It  is  in  many  cases  both  irregular  and  injurious. 
It  is  dependent  on  the  caprice  of  him  who  is  performing  a  task,  and  who  will  render  that 
task  subservient  to  his  own  pleasure  or  purposes. 

In  training  the  hunter  and  the  race-horse  regular  exercise  is  the  most  important  of  all 
considerations,  however  it  maybe  forgotten  in  the  usual  management  of  the  stable.  The 
exercised  horse  will  discharge  his  task,  and  sometimes  a  severe  one,  with  ease  and  plea- 
sure, while  the  idle  and  neglected  one  will  be  fatigued  ere  half  his  labor  be  accomplished, 
and  if  he  be  pushed  a  little  too  far,  dangerous  inflammation  will  ensue.  How  often, 
nevertheless,  cfoes  it  happen,  that  the  horse  that  has  stood  inactive  in  the  stable  three  or 
four  days,  is  ridden  or  driven  thirty  or  forty  miles  in  the  course  of  a  single  day  ?  This 
rest  is  often  purposely  given  to  prepare  for  exti-a-exertion ; — to  lay  in  a  stock  of  strength 


FOOD.  267 

for  the  performance  of  the  task  required  by  him  :  and  then  the  owner  is  surprised  and 
dissatisfied  if  the  animal  is  fairly  knocked  up,  or  possible  becomes  seriously  ill.  No- 
thing is  so  common  and  so  preposterous,  as  for  a  person  to  buy  a  horse  from  a  dealer's 
stable,  where  he  has  been  idly  fattenin}^  for  sale  for  many  a  day,  and  immediately  to  give 
him  a  long  run  after  the  hounds,  and  complain  bitterly,  and  think  that  he  has  been  im- 
posed upon,  if  the  animal  is  exhausted  before  the  end  of  the  chase,  or  is  compelled  to  be 
fed  home  suffering  from  violent  inflammation.  Regular  and  gradually  increasing  exer- 
cise would  have  made  the  same  horse  appear  a  treasure  to  hie  owner. 

Exercise  should  be  somewhat  proportioned  to  the  age  of  the  horse.  A  young  horse 
requires  more  than  an  old  one.  Nature  has  given  to  young  animals  of  every  Kind  a 
disposition  to  activity ;  but  the  exercise  must  not  be  violent.  A  great  deal  depends 
upon  the  manner  in  which  it  is  given.  To  preserve  the  temper,  and  to  promote  health,  it 
should  be  moderate,  at  least  at  the  beginning  and  the  termination.  The  rapid  trot, 
or  even  the  gallop,  may  be  resorted  to  in  the  middle  of  the  exercise,  but  the  horse  must 
be  brought  in  cool.  If  the  owner  would  seldom  intrust  his  horse  to  boys,  and  would 
insist  on  the  exercise  being  taken  within  sight,  or  in  the  neighborhood  of  his  residence, 
many  an  accident  and  irreparable  injuiy  would  be  avoided.  It  should  be  the  owner's 
pleasure,  and  is  his  interest,  personally  to  attend  to  all  these  things.  He  manages  every 
other  part  of  his  concerns,  and  he  may  depend  on  it,  that  he  suffers  when  he  neglects, 
or  is  in  a  manner  excluded  from  his  stables. 


The  system  of  manger-feeding  is  becoming  general  among  farmers.  There  are  few 
horses  that  do  not  habitually  waste  a  portion  of  their  hay ;  and  by  some  the  greater  part 
is  pulled  down  and  trampled  under  foot,  in  order  first  to  cull  the  sweetest  and  best  locks, 
and  which  could  not  be  done  while  the  hay  was  enclosed  in  the  rack.  A  good  feeder 
will  afterwards  pick  up  much  of  that  which  was  thrown  down  ;  but  some  of  it  must  be 
soiled  and  rendered  disgusting,  and,  in  many  cases,  one-third  of  this  divison  of  their 
food  is  wasted.  Some  of  the  oats  and  beans  are  imperfectly  chewed  by  all  horses, 
and  scarcely  at  all  by  hungry  and  greedy  ones.  The  appearance  of  the  dung  will  suffi- 
ciently evince  this. 

The  observation  of  this  induced  the  adoption  of  manger-feeding,  or  of  mixing  a  por- 
tion of  chaff  with  the  corn  and  beans.  By  this  means  the  animal  is  compelled  to  chew 
his  food  ;  he  cannot,  to  any  great  degree,  bolt  the  straw  or  hay  ;  and  while  he  is  forced 
to  grind  that  down,  the  oats  and  beans  are  ground  with  it,  and  yields  more  nourishment ; 
the  stomach  is  more  slowly  filled,  and  therefore  acts  better  on  its  contents,  and  is  not  so 
likely  to  be  overloaded  ;  and  the  increased  quantity  of  saliva  thrown  out  in  the  lengthened 
grinding  of  the  food,  softens  it,  and  renders  it  more  fit  for  digestion. 

If,  when  considerable  provender  was  wasted,  the  horse  maintained  his  condition, 
and  was  able  to  do  his  work,  it  was  evident  that  much  might  be  saved  to  the  farmer, 
when  he  adopted  a  system  by  which  the  horse  ate  all  that  was  set  before  him  ;  and  by  de- 
grees it  was  found  out  that  even  food  somewhat  less  nutritious,  but  a  great  deal  cheaper, 
and  which  the  horse  either  would  not  eat,  or  would  not  properly  grind  down,  in  its  natural 
state,  might  be  added,  while  the  animal  would  be  in  quite  as  good  plght,  and  always 
ready  for  work 

Chaff  may  be  composed  of  equal  quantities  of  clover  or  medow  hay,  and  wheaten, 
oaten,  or  barley  straw,  cut  into  pieces  of  a  quarter  or  half  an  inch  in  length,  and  mingled 
well  together ;  the  allowance  of  oats  or  beans  is  afterwards  added,  and  mixed  with  the 
chaff.  Many  farmers  very  properly  bruise  the  oats  or  beans.  The  whole  oat  is  apt  to 
slip  out  of  the  chaff  and  be  lost;  but  when  it  is  bruised,  and  especially  if  the  chaff  is  a 
little  wetted,  it  will  not  readily  separate  ;  or,  should  a  portion  of  it  escape  the  grinders, 
it  will  be  partly  prepared  for  'digestion  by  the  act  of  bruising.  The  prejudice  against 
bruising  the  oats  is,  so  far  as  the  farmer's  horse,  and  the  wagon  horse,  and  every  horse 
of  slow  draught  is  concerned,  altogether  unfounded.  The  quantity  of  straw  in  the  chaff 
will  always  counteract  any  supposed  purgative  quality  in  the  bruised  oats.  Horses  of 
quicker  draught,  except  they  are  naturally  disposed  to  scour,  will  thrive  better  with 
bruised  than  with  whole  oats  ;  for  a  greater  quantity  of  nutriment  will  be  extracted  from 
the  food,  and  it  will  always  be  easy  to  apportion  the  quantity  of  straw  or  beans  to  the 
eflfect  of  the  mixture  on  the  bowels  of  the  horse.  The  principal  alteration  tliat  should 
be  made  in  the  horse  of  harder  and  more  rapid  work,  such  as  the  post  horse,  and  the 
stage-coach  horse,  is  to  increase  tlie  quantity  of  hay,  and  diminish  that  of  straw.  Two 
trusses  of  hay  may  be  cut  with  one  of  straw. 

Some  gentlemen,  in  defiance  of  the  prejudice  and  opposition  of  the  coachman  or  the 

froom,  have  introduced  this  mode  of  feeding  into  the  stables  of  their  carriage  horses  and 
ackiieys,  and  with  manifest  advantage.    There  has  been  no  loss  of  condition  or  power. 


268  THE  HORSE. 

and  considerable  saving  of  provender.  Tliis  system  is  not,  however,  calcidated  for  the 
hunter  or  the  race  horse.  Their  food  must  be  in  .smaller  bulk,  in  order  that  the  action 
of  the  Iimgs  may  not  be  impeded  by  the  distention  of  the  stomach  ;  yet  many  hunters 
have  cone  well  over  the  field,  who  have  been  manger-fed,  the  proportion  of  corn,  how- 
ever, being  materially  increased. 

For  the  agriculturaJ  and  cart  horse,  eight  pounds  of  oats  and  two  of  beans  should  be 
added  to  eveiy  twenty  pounds  of  chalf ;  and  thirty-four  or  thirty-six  pounds  of  the  mix- 
ture will  be  sufficient  for  any  moderate  sized  horse,  witli  fair,  or  even  hai-d  work.  The 
dray  and  wagon-horse  may  require  forty  pounds.  Hay  in  tlie  rack  at  night  is,  in  this 
case,  supposed  to  be  omitted  altogetlier.  The  rack,  however,  may  remain,  as  occasion- 
ally useful  for  the  sick  horse,  or  to  contain  tares  or  other  green  meat. 

In  order  to  prevent  some  horses  from  turning  much  of  the  chalf  out  of  the  manger  in 
their  search  for  the  oats,  small  iron  bars  may  be  placed  across  it,  and  the  provender  plen- 
tifully .sprinkled  with  water,  but  the  water  should  be  applied  only  at  the  time  of  feeding, 
for  the  wetted  mixture  would  soon  become  sour  and  mouldy. 

Horses  are  very  fond  of  tliis  provender.  The  majority  of  them,  after  having  been  ac- 
customed to  it,  will  leave  the  best  oats  given  to  them  alone,  for  the  sake  of  the  mingled 
chalf  and  corn.  We  would,  however,  caution  the  farmer  not  to  set  apart  too  much 
damaged  hay  for  the  manufacture  of  the  chaff.  The  horse  may  be  thus  induced  to  eat 
that  which  he  would  othertvise  refuse;  but  if  the  nourishing  property  of  the  hay  has 
been  impaired,  or  it  iuu  acquired  an  injurious  principle,  the  horse  will  either  lose  condi- 
tion, or  become  diseased.  More  injury  is  done  by  the  eating  of  damaged  hay  or  musty 
oats  than  is  generally  imagined.  There  will  be  sufficient  saving  in  the  diminished  cost 
of  the  provender  by  the  introduction  of  the  straw,  and  in  the  improved  condition  of  the 
horse,  without  poisoning  him  with  the  refuse  of  the  farm. 

While  the  mixture  of  chaff  with  the  corn  prevents  the  corn  from  being  too  rapidly 
devoured,  and  a  portion  of  it  swallowed  whole,  and  therefore  the  stomach  is  not  too 
loaded  with  that  on  which,  as  containing  the  most  nutriment,  its  chief  digestive  power 
should  be  exerted,  yet,  on  the  whole,  a  great  deal  of  time  is  gained  by  this  mode  of  feed- 
ing, and  more  is  left  for  rest.  When  a  horse  comes  in  wearied  at  the  close  of  the  day,  it 
occupies,  after  he  has  eaten  his  corn,  two  or  three  hours  to  clear  his  rack.  On  the  sys- 
tem of  manger-feeding,  the  chaff  being  already  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  the  beans  and 
oats  bruised,  he  is  able  fully  to  satisfy  his  appetite  in  an  hour  and  a  half.  Two  addi- 
tional hours  are  therefore  devotetl  to  rest.  This  is  a  circumstance  deserving  of  much 
consideration  even  in  the  farmer's  stable,  and  of  immense  consequence  to  the  postmaster, 
the  stage-coach  proprietor,  and  the  owner  of  every  hard-worked  horse. 

Manger  food  will  be  the  usual  support  of  the  farmer's  horse  during  the  winter,  and 
while  at  constant  or  occasional  hard  work ;  but  from  the  middle  or  end  of  April  to  the 
end  of  July,  he  may  be  fed  with  this  mixture  in  the  day,  and  turned  out  at  night,  or  he 
may  remain  out  during  every  rest  day :  a  team  in  constant  employ  should  not,  nowever, 
be  suffered  to  be  out  at  night,  after  the  end  of  July. 

The  farmer  should  take  care  that  the  pasture  is  thick  and  good  ;  and  that  the  distance 
from  the  yard  is  not  too  great,  nor  the  fields  too  large,  otherwise  a  very  considerable 
portion  of  time  will  be  occupied  in  catching  the  horses  in  the  morning.  He  will  like- 
wise have  to  take  into  consideration  the  sale  he  would  have  for  his  hay,  and  the  necessity 
for  sweet  and  untrodden  pasture  for  his  cattle.  On  the  whole,  however,  turning  out 
in  this  way,  when  circumstances  will  admit  of  it,  will  be  found  to  be  more  beneficial  for 
the  horse,  and  cheaper  than  soiling  in  the  yard. 

The  small  farmer's  horse  is  sometimes  fed  on  hay  or  grass  alone,  and  the  animal, 
although  he  rarely  gets  a  feed  of  corn,  maintains  himself  intolerable  condition,  and  does 
the  work  that  is  required  of  him  ;  but  hay  and  grass  alone,  however  good  in  quality,  or 
in  whatever  quantity  administered,  will  not  support  the  horse  under  hard  work ;  and 
therefore  other  substances,  containing  a  larger  proportion  of  nutriment  in  a  smaller  com- 
pass, have  been  added.  We  will  briefly  enumerate  them,  and  consider  their  comparative 
value.  In  almost  every  part  of  Great  Britain,  the  Oat  has  been  selected  as  that  portion 
of  the  food  which  is  to  afford  the  principal  nourishment.  It  contains  seven  hundred  and 
forty-three  parts?  out  of  a  thousandof  nutritive  matter.  The  oat  should  be  old,  heavy,  dry, 
and  sweet.  The  new  oat  will  weigh  ten  or  fifteen  per  cent,  more  than  the  old  oat ;  but 
the  difference  consists  principally  in  watery  matter,  which  is  gradually  evaporated.  The 
new  oat  is  not  so  readily  ground  down  by  the  teeth  as  the  old  one,  and  forms  a  more 
glutinous  mass,  difficult  to  digest,  and,  when  eaten  in  considerable  quantities,  is  apt  to 
occasion  colic  and  even  staggers.  The  old  oat  forms,  when  chewed,  a  smooth  and 
uniform  mass,  which  readily  dissolves  in  the  stomach,  and  yields  the  nourishment  which 
it  contains,  and  perhaps  some  chemical  change  may  have  been  slowly  effected^n  the  old 
oat,  disposing  it  to  be  more  readily  assimilated.  Oats  should  be  plump,  bright  in  color, 
and  free  from  unpleasant  smell  or  taste.  The  musty  smell  of  wetted  or  damaged  corn  is 
caused  by  a  fungus  which  grows  upon  the  seed,  and  which  has  an  injurious  enect  on  the 


FOOD.  269 

nrinaiy  organs,  and  often  on  the  intestines,  producing  profuse  staling,  inflammation  of 
tile  Icidney  or  colic,  and  inflammation  of  the  bowels. 

Tliis  musty  smell  is  removed  by  kiln-drjnng  the  oat,  but  care  is  here  requisite  that 
too  great  a  degree  of  heat  is  not  employed.  It  should  be  sufficient  to  destroy  the  fungus 
without  injuring  the  life  of  the  seed.  The  kiln-burnt  oat,  however,  is  not  so  grateful  to 
the  animal  :  it  acquires  a  heating  quality — causes  increased  discharge  of  mine,  and  not 
unfrequently  produces  inflammation  of  the  eyes,  and  mangy  atlections  of  tlie  skin. 

Of  the  quantity  of  oats  in  the  chart'  we  have  already  spoken.  An  improvement 
would  be  ertected,  by  cutting  the  unthreshed  oat  straw  into  chaff.  The  expense  of 
threshing  would  be  saved.  6at  straw  is  better  than  barley  straw,  but  docs  not  contain 
so  much  nourishment  as  that  of  wheat. 

When  the  horse  is  fed  on  hay  and  oats,  the  quantity  of  the  oats  must  vary  with  his  size 
and  the  work  to  be  performed,  la  winter,  four  feeds,  or  nine  or  ten  pounds  of  oats  a  day, 
will  be  a  fair  allowance  for  a  horse  of  fifteen  hands  one  or  two  inches  high,  and  Ihat  has 
moderate  work.     In  summer,  half  the  quantity,  with  green  food,  will  be  sufficient. 

Oatmeal  will  form  a  poultice,  more  stimulating  than  one  composed  of  linseed  meal 
alone — or  they  may  be  mingled  in  diflerent  proportions  as  circumstances  may  require.  In 
the  form  of  gruel  it  constitutes  one  of  the  most  important  articles  of  diet  for  the  sick  horse — 
not  indeed  forced  upon  him,  but  a  pail  containing  it  being  slung  in  his  box,  and  of  \^  hich 
he  will  soon  begin  to  drink  when  water  is  denied.  In  cases  of  poisoning,  or  of  over 
purging,  it  is  useful  whether  administered  by  the  mouth,  or  as  an  injection. 

White-water,  made  by  stirring  a  pint  of  oatmeal  into  a  pail  of  vrater,  the  chill  being 
taken  from  it,  is  an  excellent  beverage 'for  the  thirsty  and  tired  horse. 

Barley  is  a  common  food  of  the  horse  on  various  parts  of  the  continent,  and,  until  the 
introduction  of  the  oat,  seems  to  have  constituted  almost  his  only  food.  It  is  more  nutii- 
tious  than  oats,  containing  nine  hundred  and  twenty  parts  of  nutritive  matter  in  every 
thousand.  There  seems,  liowever,  to  be  something  necessary  besides  a  great  proportion 
of  nutritive  matter,  in  order  to  render  any  substance  wholesome,  strengthening,  or  fatten- 
ing. Except  where  horses  are  very  hardly  worked,  barley  does  not  seem  in  our  country 
to  agree  with  them  so  well  as  oats.  They  are  more  subject  to  inflammatory  complaints, 
and  particularly  to  surfeit  and  mange.  When  barley  is  given,  the  quantity  should  not 
exceed  a  peck  daily.  It  should  be  always  bruised,  and  the  chatf  should  consist  of  equal 
quantities  of  hay  and  barley-straw,  and  not  cut  too  short.  If  the  farmer  has  a  quantity 
of  spotted  or  unsaleable  barley  which  he  wishes  tlius  to  get  rid  of,  he  must  very  gradually 
accustom  his  horses  to  it,  or  he  will  probably  produce  serious  illness  among  them.  For 
horses  that  are  recovering  from  illness,  barley,  in  the  form  of  malt,  is  often  serviceable,  as 
tempting  the  appetite  and  recruiting  the  strength.  It  is  best  given  in  mashes  ;  water, 
considerably  below  the  boiling  heat,  being  poured  upon  it,  and  the  vessel  or  pail  kept 
covered  for  half  an  hour. 

Grains  fresh  from  the  mash-tub,  either  alone,  or  mixed  with  oats  or  chaff,  or  both,  may 
be  occasionally  given  to  horses  of  slow  work ;  they  would,  however,  aflbrd  very  insuffi- 
cient nourishment  for  horses  of  quicker  or  harder  work. 

Wheal  is  in  Great  Britain  more  rarely  given  than  barley.  It  contains  nine  hundred  and 
fifty-five  parts  of  nutritive  matter.  When  farmers  have  a  damaged  or  unmarketable 
sample  of^  wheat,  they  sometimes  give  it  to  their  horses,  and,  being  at  first  used  in  small 
quantities,  the  horse  becomes  accustomed  to  it,  and  thrives  and  works  well.  It  must,  how- 
ever, always  be  bruised  and  given  in  chafl^.  Wheat  contains  a  greater  proportion  of  gluten, 
or  sticky  adhesive  matter,  than  any  other  kind  of  grain ;  it  is  difficult  of  digestion,  and 
apt  to  cake  and  form  obstructions  in  the  bowels.  This  will  oftener  be  the  case  if  the 
horse  is  suffered  to  drink  much  water  soon  after  feeding  upon  wheat ;  for  the  water  pass- 
ing rapidly  through  the  stomach  and  small  intestines,  in  its  way  to  the  ccecum,  (see  page 
162,)  carries  off  with  it  all  the  starch,  which  is  the  most  nourisliing,  and  leaves  this  sticky 
mass  behind,  which  accumulates  and  hardens,  and  obstructs  the  intestines,  and  often  de- 
stroys the  horse.  A  horse  that  is  fed  on  wheat  should  have  very  little  hay.  The  propor- 
tion should  not  be  more  than  one  truss  of  hay  to  two  of  straw.  Wheaten  flour,  boiled  in 
water  to  the  thickness  of  starch,  is  given  with  good  effect  in  over  purging,  and  especially 
if  combined  with  chalk  and  opium. 

Beans. — These  form  a  striking  illustration  of  the  principle,  that  the  nourishing  or 
strengthening  effects  of  the  difierent  articles  of  food  depend  more  upon  some  peculiar 
property  which  they  have,  or  some  combination  which  they  form,  than  on  the  actual 
quantity  of  nutritive  matter.  Beans  contain  but  five  hundred  and  seventy  parts  of  nutri- 
tive matter,  yet  they  add  materially  to  the  vigor  of  the  horse.  There  are  many  horses 
that  will  not  stand  hard  work  without  beans  being  mingled  with  their  food,  and  these  not 
horses  whose  tendency  to  purge  it  may  be  necessaiy  to  restrain  by  the  astringenCy  of  the 
bean.  There  is  no  traveller  who  is  not  aware  of  the  difference  in  the  spirit  and  continu- 
ance of  his  horse  if  he  allows  or  denies  him  beans  on  his  journey  They  afford  not  merely 
a  temporaiy  stimulus,  but  they  laay  be  daily  used  without  losing  their  power,  or  producing 


270  THE  HORSE. 

exhaustion.  Two  pounds  of  beans  may,  with  advantage,  be  mixed  with  the  chaff  of  the 
agricultural  horse,  during  the  winter.  In  summer,  the  quantity  may  be  lessened,  or  the 
beans  altogether  discontinued.  Beans  are  generally  given  whole.  This  is  very  absurd  ; 
for  the  young  horse,  whose  teeth  are  strong,  seldom  requires  them  ;  while  the  old  horse, 
to  whom  they  are  in  a  manner  necessary,  is  scarcely  able  to  masticate  them,  swallows 
many  of  them  whole  which  he  is  unable  to  break,  and  drops  much  corn  from  his  mouth  in 
the  ineffectual  attempt  to  break  them.  Beans  should  not  be  merely  split,  but  crushed  ; 
they  will  even  then  give  sufficient  employment  to  the  grinders  of  the  animal.  Some  post- 
mastei-s  use  chaff  with  beans  instead  of  oats.  With  hardly-worked  horses  they  may  pos- 
sibly be  allowed ;  but  in  general  cases,  the  beans,  without  oats,  would  be  too  binding  and 
stimulating,  and  would  produce  costiveness,  and  probably  megrims  or  staggers. 

Peas  are  occasionally  given.  They  appear  to  be  in  a  slidit  degree  more  nourishing 
than  beans,  and  not  so  heating.  They  contain  five  hundred  and  seventy-four  parts  oi 
nutritive  matter.  For  horses  of  slow  work  they  may  be  used  ;  but  tlie  quantity  of  chaff 
should  be  increased,  and  a  few  oats  added.  They  have  not  been  found  to  answer  with 
horses  of  quick  draught.  It  is  essential  that  they  should  be  crushed  ;  otherwise  on  ac- 
count of  their  globular  form,  they  are  apt  to  escape  from  the  teeth,  and  many  are  swallowed 
whole.  Exposed  to  warmth  and  moisture  in  the  stomach,  they  swell  very  much,  and  may 
painfully  and  injuriously  distend  it. 

Many  horses  have  died  after  gorging  themselves  with  peas,  and  the  stomach  has  been 
found  to  have  been  burst  by  their  swelling.  If  a  small  phial  is  filled  with  peas,  and  warm 
water  poured  on  them,  and  the  bottle  tightly  corked,  it  will  burst  in  a  few  hours. 

Herba"-e,  green  and  dry,  constitutes  a  principal  part  of  the  food  of  the  horse.  There 
are  few  tilings  with  regard  to  which  the  farmer  is  so  careless  as  the  mixture  of  grasses 
on  both  his  upland  and  meadow  pasture.  Hence  we  find,  in  the  same  field,  the  ray  grass, 
coming  to  perfection  only  in  a  loamy  soil,  not  fit  to  cut  until  the  middle  or  latter  part  of 
July,  and  yielding  little  aftermath ;  the  meadow  fox-tail,  best  cultivated  in  a  clayey  soil, 
fit  for  the  scythe  in  the  beginning  of  June,  and  yielding  a  plentiful  aftermath ;  the  glaucus 
fescue  grass,  ready  at  the  middle  of  June,  and  rapidly  deteriorating  in  value  as  its  seeds 
ripen  ;  and  the  fertile  meadow  grass,  increasing  in  value  until  the  end  of  July.  These 
are  circumstances,  the  importance  of  which  wiU,  at  no  distant  period,  be  recognized.  In 
the  mean  time,  Sinclair's  account  of  the  different  grasses,  or  the  condensation  of  the  most 
important  part  of  his  work  in  Sir  Humphry  Davy's  Agricultural  Chemistry,  are  well  de- 
serving of  the  diligent  perusal  of  the  farmer. 

Were  there  not  too  many  proofs  that  the  very  refuse  of  the  farm  is  often  devoted  to  the 
keep  of  the  aoricultural  horse,  it  would  be  needless  to  repeat  that  the  animal  that  works 
constantly  an3  hard  should  have  the  best  food,  and  plenty  of  it.  Old  hay,  as  having  longer 
undergone  that  slow  process  of  fermentation  by  which  the  sugar  that  it  contains  is  de- 
veloped, is  far  more  nutritive  and  wholesome  than  new  hay.  Mowburnt  hay  is  more 
injurious  to  horses  than  to  any  other  of  the  domestic  animals,  and  is  a  fruitful  source  of 
disease. 

Where  the  manger  system  of  feeding  is  not  adopted,  or  where  hay  is  still  given  at  night, 
and  chaff  and  corn  in  the  day,  there  is  no  error  into  which  the  farmer  is  so  apt  to  fall  as  to 
give  an  undue  quantity  of  hay,  and  that  generally  of  the  worst  kind.  If  the  manger  sys- 
tem is  good,  there  can  be  no  necessity  for  hay,  or  only  for  a  small  quantity  of  it ;  but  if  the 
rack  is  overloaded,  the  greedy  horse  will  be  eating  all  night,  instead  of  taking  his  rest ; 
and  when  the  time  for  the  morning  feed  arrives,  his  stomach  will  be  already  filled,  and  he 
will  be  less  capable  of  work,  from  the  want  of  sleep,  and  from  the  long-continued  disten- 
tion of  tlie  stomach  rendering  it  impossible  for  the  food  to  be  properly  digested. 

It  is  a  good  practice  to  sprinkle  the  hay  with  water  in  which  salt  has  been  dissolved. 
It  is  evidently  more  palateable  to  the  animal,  who  will  have  the  best  unsalted  hay  for  that 
of  an  inferior  quality  that  has  been  moistened  with  brine  ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  salt  very  materially  assists  the  process  of  digestion.  The  preferable  way  of  salting 
the  hay  would  be  to  sprinkle  it  over  the  different  layers  as  the  rick  is  formed.  From  its 
attraction  for  water,  it  would  combine  with  that  excess  of  moisture  which,  in  wet  seasons, 
is  the  cause  of  too  rapid  and  violent  fermentation,  and  of  the  hay  becoming  mowburnt, 
or  the  rick  sometimes  catching  fire,  and  it  would  become  more  incorporated  with  tlie  hay. 
The  only  objection  to  its  being  thus  used  is,  that  the  color  of  the  hay  is  not  so  bright ;  but 
this  would  be  of  little  consequence  for  home  consumption. 

Of  the  value  of  Tares,  as  forming  a  portion  of  the  late  spring  and  summer  food  of  the 
stabled  and  agricultural  horse,  there  can  be  no  doubt.  They  are  very  nutritive,  and  they  act 
as  a  kind  of  medicine.  When  surfeit-lumps  appear  on  the  skin,  and  the  horse  begins  to 
rub  himself  against  the  divisions  of  the  stall,  and  the  legs  swell,  and  the  heels  threaten  to 
crack,  a  few  tares,  cut  up  with  the  chaff,  or  given  instead  of  a  portion  of  the  hay,  will  of- 
ten afford  immediate  and  perfect  relief.  Ten  or  twelve  pounds  may  be  given  daily,  and 
half  that  weight  of  hay  subtracted.  It  is  an  erroneous  notion,  that,  given  in  moderate 
quantities,  they  eitlier  roughen  the  coat  or  lessen  tlie  capability  for  hard  work. 


FOOD.  271 

Rye  Grass  affords  a  valuable'  article  of  foa',  but  is  inferior  to  the  tare.  It  is  not  so 
nutritive  ;  it  is  apt  to  scour ;  and  occasionally,  and  late  in  the  spring,  it  has  appeared  to 
become  injurious  to  tlie  horse. 

Clover,  lor  soiling  the  horse,  is  inferior  to  the  tare  and  the  rye  grass,  but,  nevertheless, 
is  useful  when  they  cannot  be  obtained.  Clover  hay  is,  perhaps,  preferable  to  meadov? 
hay  for  chaff;  it  will  sometimes  tempt  the  sick  horse,  and  may  be  given  with  advantage 
to  those  of  slow  and  hea\y  work ;  but  custom  seems  properly  to  have  forbidden  it  to  the 
hunter  and  the  hackney. 

Lucern,  where  it  can  be  obtained,  is  preferable  even  to  tares,  and  sainf-foin  is  su- 
perior to  lucern.  Although  tliey  contain  but  a  small  quantity  of  nutritive  matter,  that  is 
easily  digested,  and  perfectly  assimilated  :  they  speedily  put  botli  muscle  and  fat  on  the 
horse  that  is  worn  down  by  labor,  and  they  are  almost  a  specific  for  hide-bound.  Some 
farmei-s  have  thought  so  highly  of  lucern  as  to  substitute  it  for  oats.  This  may  do  for  the 
agricultural  horse  of  slow  and  not  hard  work ;  but  he  from  w'hom  speedy  action  is  sometimes 
required,  and  the  horse  of  all  work,  must  have  a  proportion  of  hard  meat  within  him. 

The  Swedish  Turnip  is  an  article  of  food  the  value  of  which  has  not  been  sufficiently 
appreciated,  and  paiiicularly  for  agricultural  horses.  Although  it  is  far  from  containing 
the  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  which  has  been  supposed,  that,  like  the  nutiiment  of  the 
saint-foin  ajid  the  lucern,  seems  to  be  capable  of  easy  and  complete  digestion.  It  should 
be  sliced  with  chopped  straw,  and  without  hay.  Thirty  pounds  of  the  turnip,  with  two 
or  three  quarterns  of  oats,  and  six  pounds  of  straw,  will  be  sufficient  for  a  horse  of  mod- 
erately hard  work.     Hackneys  have  been  kept  on  them  with  a  less  quantity  of  oats. 

Carrots. — The  virtues  of  tliis  root  are  not  sutficiently  known,  whether  as  contributing 
to  the  strength  ajid  endurance  of  the  healthy  horse,  or  the  rapid  recovery  of  the  sick  one. 
To  the  healthy  horse  they  should  be  given  sliced  in  his  chatf.  Half  a  bushel  will  be  a 
fair  daily  allowance,  and  the  two  pounds  of  beans,  and  three  pounds  of  the  oats,  may  be 
withdrawn.  There  is  little  provender  of  which  the  horse  is  fonder.  Some  farmers  allov? 
a  bushel  of  can-ots  with  chaff,  and  witliout  any  oats ;  and  the  horses  are  said  to  be  equal 
to  all  agricultural  or  slow  work 

Potatoes  have  been  given,  and  with  advantage,  in  their  raw  state,  sliced  with  the  chaff; 
but  where  it  has  been  convenient  to  boil  or  steam  them,  the  benefit  has  been  far  more  evi- 
dent. Some  have  given  boiled  potatoes  alone,  and  horses,  instead  of  rejecting  them, 
have  soon  preferred  them  even  to  the  oat ;  but  it  is  better  to  mix  them  with  the  usual 
manger  feed,  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  of  potatoes  to  two  and  a  half  pounds  of  the 
other  ingredients.  The  use  of  the  potato  must  depend  on  its  cheapness,  and  the  facility 
for  boiling  it.  Half  a  dozen  horses  would  soon  repay  the  expense  of  a  steaming  boiler 
in  the  saving  of  provender,  without  taking  into  the  account  their  improved  condition  and 
capability  for  work.  A  horse  fed  on  potatoes  should  have  his  quantity  of  water  materially 
curtailed. 

Furze  has  sometimes  been  given  during  the  winter  months.  There  is  considerable 
trouble  attending  the  preparation  of  it,  although  its  plentifulness  and  little  value  for  other 
purposes  would,  on  a  large  farm,  well  repay  that  trouble.  The  furze  is  cut  down  at  about 
three  or  four  years'  growth  ;  the  green  branches  of  that  and  the  peceding  year  are  cut 
off,  and  bruised  in  a  mill,  and  then  given  to  the  horses  in  the  state  in  which  they  come 
from  the  mill,  or  cut  up  with  the  chatf.  Horses  are  very  fond  of  it.  If  twenty  pounds 
of  the  furze  be  given,  five  pounds  of  straw,  the  beans,  and  three  pounds  of  the  oats,  may 
be  withdrawn. 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  conclude  this  catalogue  of  the  different  articles  of  horse 
food  with  a  list  of  the  quantities  of  nutritive  matter  contained  in  each  of  them ;  for 
although  these  quantities  cannot  be  considered  as  expressing  the  actual  value  of  each,  be- 
cause other  circumstances  besides  the  simple  quantity  of  nutriment  seem  to  influence  their 
effect  in  supporting  the  strength  and  condition  of  the  horse,  yet  many  a  useful  hint  may 
be  derived  when  the  farmer  looks  over  the  produce  of  his  soil,  and  inquires  what  other 
grasses  or  vegetables  might  suit  his  soil.  The  list  is  partly  taken  from  Sir  Humphry  Da- 
vy's Agricultural  Chemistry  : — 1000  parts  of  wheat  contain  95-5  parts  of  nutritive  mat- 
ter; barley,  920  ;  oats,  743  ;  peas,  574  ;  beans,  570 ;  potatoes,  230  ;  red  beet,  148  :  pars- 
nips, 99  ;  carrots,  98.  Of  the  grasses,  1000  parts  of  the  meadow  cat's  tail  contain  at  the 
time  of  seeding  98  parts  of  nuti-itive  matter ;  narrow-leaved  meadow  grass  in  seed,  and 
sweet-scented  soft  grass  in  flower,  95 ;  narrow-leaved  and  flat-stalked  meadow  grass  in 
flower,  fertile  meadow-grass  in  seed,  and  tall  fescue  in  flower,  93 ;  fertile  meadow-grass, 
meadow-fescue,  reed-like  fescue,  and  creeping  soft  glass  in  flower,  78 ;  sweet-scented 
soft  grass  in  flower,  and  the  aftermath,  77  ;  florin,  cut  in  winter,  76 ;  tall  fescue,  in  the  af- 
termath, and  meadow  soft  grass  in  flower,  74  ;  cabbage,  73  ;  crested  dog's  tail  and  brome 
flowering,  71 ;  yellow  oat,  in  flower,  66;  Swedish  turnips,  64 ;  narrow-leaved  meadow 
grass,  creeping  beet,  round-headed  cocksfoot,  and  spiked  fescue,  59  ;  roughish  and  fertile 
meadow-grass,  flowering,  56 ;  florin,  in  summer,  54 ;  common  turnips,  42 ;  saint-foin,, 
and  broad-leaved  and  long-rooted  clover,  39  ;  white  clover,  32 ;  and  lucern,  23. 


272  THE  HORSE. 

The  times  of  feeding  should  be  as  equally  divided  as  convenience  will  permit ;  and 
when  it  is  likely  that  the  horse  will  be  kept  longer  than  usual  from  home,  the  nose-bag 
should  invariably  be  taken.  The  small  stomach  of  tlie  horse  is  emptied  in  a  few  hours; 
and  if  he  is  suffered  to  remain  hungry  much  beyond  his  accustomed  time,  he  will  after- 
wards devour  his  food  so  veraciously  as  to  distend  the  stomach  and  endanger  an  attack 
of  staggers.  When  tliis  disease  appears  in  the  Au-mcr's  stable,  he  may  attribute  it  to  va- 
rious causes  ;  the  true  one,  in  the  majoritj'  of  instances,  is  irregularity  in  feeding.  If  the 
reader  will  turn  back  to  page  82,  he  will  be  convinced  that  Siis  deserves  more  serious 
attention  than  is  generally  given  to  it. 

When  extra  work  is  required  from  the  animal,  the  system  of  management  is  often  in- 
judicious ;  for  a  double  feed  is  put  before  him,  and  as  soon  as  he  has  swallowed  it,  he  is 
started.  It  would  be  far  better  to  give  him  a  double  feed  on  the  previous  evening,  which 
will  be  digested  before  he  is  wanted,  and  then  he  may  set  out  in  the  morning  after  a  very 
small  portion  of  corn  has  been  given  to  him,  or  perhaps  only  a  little  hay.  One  of  the 
most  successful  methods  of  enabling  a  horse  to  get  well  through  a  long  journey  is  to  give 
him  only  a  little  at  a  time  while  on  the  road,  and  at  night  to  give  him  a  double  feed  of 
corn  and  a  full  allowance  of  beans. 

Water. — This  is  a  part  of  stable  management  little  regarded  by  the  farmer.  He  lets 
his  horses  loose  morning  and  night,  and  they  go  to  the  nearest  pond  or  brook  and  drink 
their  fill,  and  no  harm  results ;  lor  they  obtain  that  kind  of  water  which  nature  designed 
them  to  have,  in  a  manner  prepared  for  them  by  some  unknown  influence  of  the  atmos- 
phere, as  well  as  by  the  deposition  of  many  saline  admixtures.  The  difference  between 
nard  and  soft  water  is  known  to  every  one.  In  hard  water  soap  will  curdle,  vegetables 
will  not  boil  soft,  and  tlie  saccharine  matter  of  the  malt  cannot  be  fully  obtained  in  the 
process  of  brewing.  There  is  nothing  in  which  the  different  effect  of  hard  and  soft  water  is 
so  evident  as  in  the  stomach  and  digestive  organs  of  the  horse.  Hard  water,  drawn  fresh 
fi'om  the  well,  will  assuredly  make  the  coat  of  a  horse  unaccustomed  to  it  stare,  and  it 
will  not  unfrequently  gripe  and  otherwise  injure  him.  Instinct  or  experience  has  made 
even  the  horse  liimseU  conscious  of  this,  for  he  will  never  drink  hard  water  if  he  has  ac- 
cess to  sort :  he  will  leave  the  most  transparent  and  pure  water  of  the  well  for  a  river, 
although  the  water  may  be  turbid,  and  even  for'the  muddiest  pool.*  He  is  injured,  how- 
ever, not  so  much  by  the  hardness  of  the  well-water  as  by  its  coldness — ^pai-ticularly  by 
its  coolness  in  summer,  and  when  it  is  many  degrees  below  the  temperature  of  the  atmos- 
phere. The  water  in  the  broolc  and  the  pond  being  warmed  by  long  exposure  to  the  air, 
as  well  as  having  become  soft,  the  horse  drinks  freely  of  it  without  danger. 

If  the  hoi-se  were  watered  three  times  a  day,  and  especially  in  summer,  he  would 
often  be  saved  from  the  sad  torture  of  thirst,  and  from  many  a  disease.  Whoever  has 
observed  the  eagerness  with  which  the  overworked  horse,  hot  and  tired,  plunges  his  muz- 
zle into  the  pail,  and  the  difficulty  of  stopping  him  until  he  has  drained  the  last  drop, 
may  form  some  idea  of  what  he  had  previously  suffered,  and  will  not  wonder  at  the  vio- 
lent spasms,  and  inflammation,  and  sudden  death,  that  often  result. 

There  is  a  prejudice  in  tlie  minds  of  many  people  against  tlie  horse  being  fairly  sup- 

Elied  with  water.  They  think  that  it  injiu-ies  his  wind,  and  disables  him  for  quick  and 
ard  work.  If  he  is  gallopped,  as  he  too  often  is,  immediately  after  drinking,  his  wind 
may  be  irreparably  injured ;  but  if  he  were  oftener  suttered  to  satiate  his  thirst  at  the 
intervals  of  rest,  he  would  be  happier  and  better.  It  is  a  fact  unsuspected  by  those  who 
have  not  carefully  observed  the  horse,  tliat  if  he  has  frequent  access  to  water  he  will  not 
drink  so  much  in  the  course  of  the  day,  as  another  who,  to  cool  his  parched  mouth, 
swallows  as  fast  as  he  can,  and  knows  not  when  to  stop. 

On  a  journey  a  horse  should  be  liberally  supplied  with  water.  When  he  is  a  little 
cooled,  two  or  three  quarts  of  water  may  be  given  to  him,  and  after  that  his  feed.  Be- 
fore he  has  finished  his  corn  two  or  three  quarts  more  may  be  offered.  He  will  take  no 
harm  if  tliis  be  repeated  three  or  four  times  during  a  long  and  hot  day. 

It  is  a  judicious  rule  with  ti-avellers,  that  when  a  horse  begins  to  refuse  his  food,  he 
should  be  pushed  no  farther  that  day.  It  may,  however,  be  worth  while  to  try  whether 
this  may  not  proceed  from  thirst,  as  much  as  from  exhaustion,  for  in  many  instances  his 
appetite  and  his  spirits  will  return  soon  after  he  has  partaken  of  the  refreshiu]^  draught. 

Management  of  the  feet. — This  is  the  only  division  of  stable  management  that  remains 
to  be  considered,  and  one  sadly  neglected  by  the  carter  and  gioom.  The  feet  should  be 
carefully  examined  every  morning :  for  the  shoes  may  be  loose,  and  the  horse  would 
have  been  stopped  in  the  middle  of  his  work  ;  or  the  clenches  may  be  raised,  and  endan- 

fer  the  wounding  of  liis  legs;  or  the  shoe  may  begin  to  press  upon  the  sole  or  heej,  and 
raise  of  the  sole,  or  corn,  may  be  tlie  result ;  and,  the  horse  having  stood  so  long  in  the 

*  Some  trainers  have  so  much  fear  of  hard  or  strange  water,  that  they  cany  witJi 
them  to  the  different  courses  the  water  that  the  animal  has  been  accustomed  to  drink, 
and  that  they  know  agrees  with  it. 


UNSOUNDNESS.  273 

stable,  every  little  increase  of  heat  in  the  foot,  or  lameness,  will  be  more  readily  detect- 
ed, and  serious  disease  may  probably  be  prevented. 

When  the  hoi-se  comes  in  at  night,  and  after  the  harness  has  been  taken  off  and  stowed 
away,  the  heels  should  be  well  brushed  out.  Hand-rubbing  will  be  preferable  to  wash- 
ing, especially  in  the  agricultural  horse,  whose  heels,  covered  with  long  hair,  can  scarcely 
be  dried  again.  If  the  dirt  be  suffered  to  accumulate  in  tliat  long  hair,  the  heels  will 
become  sore,  and  grease  will  follow  ;  and  if  the  heels  are  washed,  and  particularly  during 
the  winter,  grease  will  result  from  the  coldness  occasioned  by  the  slow  evaporation  of 
the  moisture.  The  feet  shovdd  be  stopped — even  the  feet  of  the  farmer's  horse,  if  he 
remains  in  the  stable.  No  clay  stopping  should  be  used,  for  it  will  get  hard  and  press 
upon  the  sole  :  cowdung  is  the  best  stopping  to  preserve  the  feet  cool  and  elastic  ;  but 
before  the  stopping  is  applied,  the  picker  must  be  run  round  the  whole  of  the  foot,  be- 
tween the  shoe  and  the  sole,  to  detect  any  stone  which  may  have  insinuated  itself  there, 
or  a  wound  on  any  other  part  of  tlie  sole.  For  tlie  hackney  and  hunter,  stopping  is  in- 
dispensable. Alter  several  days'  hard  work  it  will  allbrd  veiy  great  relief  to  take  the 
shoes  ortj  having  put  plenty  of  litter  under  the  horse,  or  to  turn  him,  if  possible,  into  a 
loose  box ;  and  the  shoes  of  every  horse,  whether  hardly  worked  or  not,  should  be  re- 
moved or  changed  once  a  month. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 


ON   SOUNDNESS,    AND    THE   PURCHASE    AND 
SALE    OF    HORSES. 

There  are  few  sources  of  greater  annoyance  both  to  the  buyer  and  the  seller  of  the 
horse,  than  disputes  with  regard  to  tlie  soundnes  of  the  animal.  Although,  in  describing 
the  various  parts  of  the  horse,  we  have  glanced  at  the  connection  of  certain  natural  con- 
formations, and  some  alterations  of  structure,  and  accidents,  and  diseases,  with  the  ques- 
tion of  soundness  and  unsoundness,  it  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  those  for  whom  our 
work  was  designed,  if  we  now  bring  into  one  point  of  view  the  substance  of  that  which 
has  been  scattered  over  many  pages. 

That  horse  is  sound  in  whom  there  is  no  disease,  nor  any  alteration  of  structure  in  any 
part  which  impairs,  or  is  likely  to  impair  his  natural  usefulness.  That  horse  is  unsound 
that  labours  under  disease,  or  that  has  some  alteration  of  structure  that  does  interfere,  or 
is  likely  to  interfere  with  his  natural  usefulness.  The  term  '' natural  xisefuhiess''  must  be 
borne  in  mind.  One  horse  may  possess  great  speed,  but  is  soon  knocked  up  ;  another 
will  work  all  day,  but  cannot  go  beyond  a  snail's  pace:  one  with  a  heavy  forehead  is 
liable  to  stumble,  and  is  continually  putting  to  hazard  the  neck  of  his  rider ;  another, 
with  an  irritable  constitution  and  a  washy  make,  loses  his  appetite  and  begins  to  scour 
if  a  Uttle  extra  work  is  exacted  from  him.  The  term  unsoundness  cannot  be  applied  to 
either  of  these  ;  it  would  be  opening  far  too  widely  a  door  to  disputation  and  endless 
wrangling.  The  buyer  can  discern,  or  ought  to  know,  whether  the  form  of  the  horse  is 
that  which  will  render  him  likely  to  suit  his  purpose,  and  he  should  try  him  sufficiently 
to  ascertain  his  natural  strength,  endurance,  and  manner  of  going.  Unsoundness,  we 
repeat,  has  reference  only  to  disease,  or  to  that  alteration  of  structure  which  is  connected 
with,  or  will  produce  disease,  and  lessen  the  usefulpess  of  the  animal. 

These  principles  will  be  best  illustrated  by  a  brief  consideration  of  the  usual  supposed 
causes  of  unsoundness. 

Broken-knees  certainly  do  not  constitute  unsoundness  aiter  the  wounds  are  healed, 
unkss  they  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  joint,  for  the  horse  mav  have  fallen  from 
mere  accident,  or  through  the  fault  of  the  rider ;  but  no  person  would  buy  a  horse  with 
broken-knees  until  he  had  thoroughly  tiied  him,  and  satisfied  himself  as  to  his  form  and 
action. 

Capped  Hocks  may  be  produced  by  lying  on  an  unevenly  paved  stable  with  a  scanty- 
supply  of  litter,  or  by  kicking,  in  neither  of  which  ca^es  would  they  constitute  unsound- 
ness, though  in  the  latter  they  would  be  an  indication  of  vice ;  but  in  the  majority  of 
instances,  they  are  either  the  consequence  of  sprain  of  the  hock,  and  accompanied  by 
enlargement  of  it,  when  they  would  be  unsoundness.  A  special  warranty  should  always 
be  taken  against  capped  hocks. 

Cmtractton  is  a  considerable  deviation  from  the  natural  form  of  the  foot,  but  not  ne- 

35 


274  THE  HORSE. 

cessarily  constituting  unsoundness  ;  it  requires,  however,  a  most  careful  examination  on 
the  part  of  the  purchaser  or  veterinary  surgeon,  to  ascertain  that  there  is  no  heat  ahout 
the  quarter,  or  ossification  of  the  cartilage  ;  that  the  frog  altliough  diminished  in  size,  is 
not  diseased ;  that  the  horse  does  not  step  short  and  go  as  if  the  foot  were  tender,  and 
that  there  is  not  the  slightest  trace  of  lameness.  Unless  these  circumstances,  or  some 
of  them,  are  detected,  a  horse  must  not  be  pronounced  to  be  unsound  because  his  feet 
ai'e  contracted,  for  many  horses  with  strangely  contracted  feet,  are  never  lame  :  a  special 
warranty,  however,  should  be  required  where  the  feet  are  at  all  contracted. 

Corns  manifestly  constitute  unsoundness.  The  portion  of  the  foot  in  which  they  are 
situated  will  not  bear  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the  shoe  ;  and  any  accidental  additional 
pressure  from  the  growing  down  of  the  horn,  or  the  introduction  of  dirt  or  gravel,  will  cause 
serious  lameness.  They  render  it  necessary  to  wear  a  thick  and  heavy  shoe,  or  a  bar  shoe 
to  protect  the  weakened  and  diseased  pait ;  and  corns  are  very  seldom  radically  cured. 

Cough. — This  is  a  disease,  and  consequently  unsoundness.  However  slight  may  be 
its  degree,  and  of  whatever  short  standing  it  is,  although  it  may  sometimes  seem  scarcely 
to  interfere  with  the  usefulness  of  the  horse,  a  change  of  stabling,  or  slight  exposure  to 
wet  and  cold,  or  the  least  over-exertion,  may  at  other  times  cause  it  to  degenerate  into 
many  dangerous  complaints.  A  horse,  therefore,  should  never  be  purchased  with  a  cough 
upon  him  without  an  especial  warranty ;  or  if,  the  cough  not  being  observed,  he  is  pur- 
ceased  under  a  general    warranty,  he  may  be  returned  as  soon  as  it  is  discovered. 

Roaring,  Wheezing,  Whistling,  High-blowing,  and  Grunting,  being  the  result  of  alter- 
ation of  structure  or  disease  in  some  of  the  air  passages,  and  interfering  with  the  perfect 
freedom  of  breathing,  and  especially  when  the  horse  is  put  on  his  speed,  without  doubt 
constitute  unsoundness.  There  are  decisions  to  the  contrary,  which  are  now  universally 
admitted  to  be  erroneous.     Broken  wind  is  still  more  decidedly  unsoundness. 

Crib-biting. — Although  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  among  veterinary  surgeons 
on  this  point,  crib-biting  must  be  regarded  as  unsoundness,  This  unnatural  sucking  in 
of  the  air  must  be  to  a  certain  degree  injurious  to  digestion,  must  dispose  to  colic,  and 
so  interfere  with  the  strength,  and  usefulness,  and  health  of  the  horse.  Some  crib-biters 
are  good  goers,  but  they  probably  would  have  possessed  more  endurance  had  they  not 
acquired  this  habit ;  and  it  is  a  fact  well  estabhshed,  that  as  soon  as  a  horse  begins  to 
become  a  crib-biter,  he,  in  more  than  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  begins  to  lose  condition 
He  is  not,  to  the  experienced  eye,  the  horse  he  was  before.  It  may  not  lead  on  to  abso- 
lute disease,  or  it  may  rarely  do  so  to  any  considerable  degree  ;  but  a  horse  that  is  defi- 
cient in  condition,  must,  to  that  extent,  have  his  capability  for  extraordinary  work 
diminished,  although  not  so  often  as  to  be  apparent  in  ordinary  work,  and  so  far,  the  horse 
is  unsound.  Were  there  no  other  consideration,  the  wear  of  the  front  teeth,  and  even 
the  frequent  breaking  of  them,  make  a  horse  old  before  his  time,  and  sometimes  render 
it  difficult  or  almost  impossible  for  him  to  graze,  when  the  state  of  the  animal  or  the 
convenience  of  the  owner  require  that  he  should  be  turned  out. 

Curb  constitutes  unsoundness  while  it  lasts,  and  perhaps  while  the  swelling  remains 
although  the  inflammation  may  have  subsided ;  for  a  horse  that  has  once  thrown  out  a 
curb,  is,  for  a  while  at  least,  very  liable  to  do  so  again  on  the  slightest  extra  exertion. 
A  horse,  however,  is  not  returnable  if  he  should  spring  a  curb  five  minutes  after  the  pur- 
chase, for  it  is  done  in  a  moment,  and  does  not  necessarily  indicate  any  previous  un- 
soundness or  WfcoJiness  of  the  part. 

Catting,  as  rendering  a  horse  liable  to  serious  injury  of  the  legs,  and  indicating  that  he 
is  either  weak,  or  has  an  awkwardness  of  gait  inconsistent  with  safety,  should  be  consid- 
ered as  unsoundness.  Many  horses  go  lame  for  a  considerable  period  after  cutting  them- 
selves severely ;  and  others  have  dropped  from  the  sudden  agony,  and  endangered  them- 
selves and  their  riders.  As  some  doubt,  however,  exists  on  this  subject,  and  as  it  is  a 
very  material  objection  to  a  horse,  cutting,  when  evident,  should  have  its  serious  conse- 
quences provided  against  by  a  special  warranty. 

Enlarged  Glands. — The  enlargement  of  the  glands  under  the  jaw  has  not  been  so  much 
considered  as  it  ought,  in  our  estimate  of  the  soundness  of  the  horse.  Simple  catarrii 
will  occasionally,  and  severe  affection  of  tht  chest  will  generally  be  accompanied  by 
sweUing  of  these  glands,  and  which  does  not  subside  lor  a  considerable  time  after  the 
cold  or  fever  has  apparently  been  cured.  To  a  slight  tnlEirgement  of  the  glands  under  the 
jaw  much  attention  need  not  be  paid  ;  but  if  they  are  of  considerable  size,  and  especially 
if  they  are  tender,  and  the  gland  at  the  root  of  the  eai  partakes  of  the  enlargement,  and 
the  membrane  of  the  nose  is  redder  than  it  should  be,  we  should  hesitate  in  pronouncing 
that  horse  to  be  sound.  We  should  fear  the  commencement,  or  the  insidious  lurking  of 
disease. 

Enlarged  Hock. — A  horse  with  enlarged  hock  is  unsound.  The  structure  of  this  com- 
plicated joint  being  so  materially  affected,  that  although  the  horse  may  appear  for  a  con- 
siderable time  to  do  ordinary  work  well,  he  will  occasionally  fail  even  as  to  that,  and  a  few 
days'  hard  work  will  always  lame  him. 


UNSOUNDNESS.  276 

T)ie  Eyes. — That  inflammation  of  the  eye  of  the  horse  which  usually  terminates  in 
blindness  of  one  or  both  eyes,  has  the  peculiar  character  of  remitting  or  disappearing  for 
a  time,  once  or  twice,  or  thrice,  before  it  fully  runs  its  course.  The  eye,  after  an  attack 
of  inflammation,  regains  so  nearly  its  former  natural  brilliancy,  that  a  man  well  acquainted 
with  horses  will  not  always  recognise  the  traces  of  former  disease.  After  a  time,  how- 
ever, the  inflammation  returns,  and  the  result  is  unavoidable.  A  horse  from  four  to  six 
years  of  age  that  has  had  one  attack  of  this  complaint,  is  long  afterwards  unsound,  how- 
ever perfect  the  eye  may  seem  to  be,  because  he  carries  about  with  him  a  disease  that 
will  again  break  out,  and  eventually  destroy  the  sight.  Whether,  therefore,  he  may  be 
returned  or  not,  depends  on  the  possibility  of  proving  an  attack  of  inflammation  of  the 
eye,  prior  to  the  purchase.  Next  to  direct  evidences  of  tliis  are  appearances  about  the 
eye,  of  which  the  veterinary  surgeon  at  least  ought  not  to  be  ignorant.  They  have  been 
described  at  page  90.  They  consist  chiefly  of  a  puckering  of  the  lids  towards  the  inner 
corner  of  one  or  both  eyes — a  difference,  although  perhaps  only  a  slight  one,  and  not  dis- 
covered except  it  be  looked  for,  in  the  size  of  the  eyes  ;  a  gloominess  of  the  eye,  a  dullness 
of  the  iris,  a  little  dullness  of  the  transparent  part  of  the  eye  generally  ;  a  minute,  faint, 
dusky  spot,  deep  in  the  eye,  and  generally  with  little  radiations  of  white  lines  proceeding 
from  it:  if  these  symptoms,  or  the  majority  of  tliem,  were  observed  at  the  time  of  pur- 
chase, the  animal  had  assuredly  been  diseased  before,  and  is  unsound.  Starting  is  an 
equivocal  proof.  It  is  usually  an  indication  of  defective  sight,  but  it  is  occasionally  a 
trick.  Connected,  however,  with  the  appearances  just  described,  it  is  a  very  strong  cor- 
roborative proof. 

If  a  man  buys  a  horse  actually  blind,  he  may  repent  of  his  bargain,  but  he  cannot  get 
rid  of  it.  He  should  be  more  careful,  and  the  law  will  not  protect  him  if  he  does  not  use 
common  precaution. 

Lameness,  from  whatever  cause  arising,  is  unsoundness.  However  temporary  it  may 
be,  or  however  obscure,  it  lessens  the  utility  of  the  horse,  and  renders  him  unsound  for 
the  time.  How  far  his  soundness  may  be  afterwards  affected,  must  depend  on  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case.     A  lame  horse  is  for  the  time  an  unsound  one. 

Neurotomy. — A  question  has  arisen  how  far  a  horse  that  has  undergone  the  operation 
of  the  division  of  the  nerve  of  the  leg  (see  page  87,)  and  has  recovered  from  the  lame- 
ness with  which  he  was  before  affected,  and  stands  his  work  well,  may  be  considered  to 
be  sound.  In  our  opinion  there  cannot  be  a  doubt  about  the  matter.  Does  the  operation 
of  neurotomy  render  a  horse  as  capable  of  work  as  he  was  before  he  became  aiJ'ected 
with  the  disease  on  account  of  which,  and  to  relieve  him  from  the  torture  of  which,  the 
nerve  was  divided .'  Is  the  operation  of  neurotomy  so  invariably  followed  by  capability, 
and  continued  capability  of  ordinaiy  and  even  extraordinaiy  work,  tliat  they  may  regularly 
be  considered  as  cause  and  effect  ?  The  most  strenuous  defenders  of  the  nerve  operation 
cannot  affirm  this.  They  can  only  say  that  they  partially  succeed  in  almost  every  fair 
case  ;  that  they  perfectly  succeed  in  the  majority  of  cases  ;  but  they  cannot  deny  that  the 
horse  will  batter  and  bruise  that  foot,  when  he  has  lost  sensation  in  it,  which  should  have 
been  tenderly  used ;  that  even  the  hoof  will  sometimes  be  lost,  after  operations  performed 
with  the  greatest  judgment ;  that  the  lameness  will  sometimes  return,  after  tlie  animal 
has  gone  sound,  one,  two,  or  three  yeai'S ;  and  that,  after  all,  there  is  a  little  unpleasant- 
ness, and  even  unsafeness  in  the  action  of  the  horse,  from  the  peculiar  manner  in  which 
the  foot  meets  the  ground  when  its  feeling  is  destroyed ;  and  that  the  horse  is  more  liable 
to  accidents,  for  he  will  travel  on  without  warning  his  rider  of  the  evil,  after  a  piece  of 
glass  has  penetrated  his  foot,  or  a  stone  has  insinuated  itself  between  the  sole  and  the 
shoe  ;  and  thus  irreparable  mischief  will  be  done,  before  the  cause  of  it  can  possibly  be 
detected.  A  horse  on  whom  this  operation  has  been  performed  may  be  improved — may 
cease  to  be  lame,  may  go  well  for  many  years  ;  but  there  is  no  certainty  of  his  continu- 
ing to  do  so,  and  he  is  unsound. 

Ossification  of  the  lateral  cartilages  constitutes  unsoundness,  as  interfering  with  the 
natural  expansion  of  the  foot,  and  in  horses  of  quick  work  almost  invariably  producing 
lameness. 

Pumiced-fool. — When  the  union  between  the  horny  and  sensible  lamellae,  or  little  plates 
of  the  foot  (see  p.  224,^  is  weakened,  and  the  coffin-bone  is  let  down',  and  presses  upon 
the  sole,  which  yields  to  this  unnatural  weight,  and  becomes  rounded,  and  comes  in  con- 
tact with  the  ground,  and  gets  bruised  and  injured,  that  horse  must  be  unsound,  and 
unsound  for  ever,  because  tliere  are  no  means  by  which  we  can  lift  up  the  coffin-bone 
again  into  its  place. 

Quidding. — If  the  mastication  of  the  food  gives  pain  to  the  animal,  in  consequence  of 
soreness  of  the  mouth  or  throat,  he  will  drop  it  before  it  is  perfectly  chewed.  This,  as  an 
indication  of  disease,  constitutes  unsoundness.  Quidding  sometimes  arises  from  irregu- 
larity in  the  teeth,  which  wound  the  cheek  with  their  sharp  edges;  or  a  protruding  tooth 
renders  it  impossible  for  the  horse  to  close  his  jaws  so  as  to  cnew  his  food  tlioroughly. 
Quidding  is  unsoundness  for  the  time  ;  but  the  unsoundness  wiU  cease  when  tlie  teeth 


276  THE  HORSE. 

are  properly  filed,  or  the  catarrh  relieved,  or  the  cause  of  this  imperfect  chewing  re- 
moved. 

QiUttor  is  unsoundness. 

Ring-bone. — Although  when  the  bony  tumour  is  small,  and  on  one  side  only,  there  is 
little  or  no  lameness,  and  there  are  a  few  instances  in  which  a  horse  with  rin^-bone  has 
worked  for  many  years  without  lameness  ;  yet,  from  the  action  of  the  foot,  and  the  stress 
upon  the  part,  the  inflammation  and  the  formation  of  bone  have  such  a  tendency  rapidly 
to  spread,  that  we  must  pronounce  the  slightest  enlargement  of  the  pasterns  or  around  the 
coronet,  to  be  a  cause  of  unsoundness. 

Sandcrack  is  manifestly  unsoundness  ;  but  it  may  occur  without  the  slightest  warning, 
and  no  horse  can  be  returned  for  one  that  is  sprung  after  purchase.  Its  usual  cause  is 
too  great  brittleness  of  the  crust  of  the  hoof;  but  there  is  no  infallible  method  of  detecting 
this,  or  the  degree  in  which  it  must  exist  to  constitute  unsoundness.  When  the  horn 
round  the  bottom  of  the  foot  has  chipped  off  so  much  that  only  a  skilful  smith  can  fasten 
the  shoe  without  pricking  the  horse,  or  even  when  there  is  a  tendency  in  fee  horn  to 
chip  and  break  olf  in  a  much  less  degree  than  this,  the  horse  may  probably  be  returned 
as  unsound,  for  this  brittleness  of  the  crust  is  a  disease  of  the  part,  or  it  is  such  an  cdtered 
structure  of  it  as  to  interfere  materially  with  the  usefulness  of  the  animal. 

Spavin  is  unsoundness,  whether  tiie  bony  or  the  blood-spavin.  In  the  first,  lameness 
is  produced,  at  least  at  starting,  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred,  and  there  is  en- 
largement of  the  hock,  which  rapidly  spreads  with  quick  and  hard  work,  although  the 
horse  may  be  capable  of,  and  may  even  get  better  at  slow  work.  If  there  be  no  lameness, 
we  would  yet  reject  a  spavined  horse,  because  the  bony  enlargement  is  too  near  a  very 
important  and  complicated  joint,  and  on  the  least  injury  or  sprain  of  that  joint,  would 
spread  over  it,  and  materially  interfere  with  its  motion. 

Blood-spavin  is  unsoundness,  because,  although  it  may  not  be  productive  of  lameness 
at  slow  work,  the  rapid  and  powerful  action  of  the  hock  in  quicker  motion  will  produce 
permanent,  cdthough  not  considerable  lameness,  and  which  can  scarcely  ever  be  with 
certainty  removed. 

Spleiit. — It  depends  entirely  on  the  situation  of  the  bony  tumour  on  the  inside  of  the 
shank-bone,  whether  it  is  to  be  considered  as  unsoundness.  If  it  is  not  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  any  joint,  so  as  to  interfere  with  its  action,  and  if  it  does  not  press  upon  any  liga- 
ment or  tendon,  it  can  be  no  cause  of  unsoundness,  although  it  is  often  very  unsightly. 
It  does  not  lessen  the  capabihty  and  vcJue  of  the  animal.  Of  this  we  have  treated  at 
length  at  pages  188  and  226. 

Stringhalt. — This  singular  and  very  unpleasant  action  of  the  hind  leg  cannot  be  term- 
ed unsoundness.  It  is  an  irregular  communication  of  nervous  energy  to  some  muscle  of 
the  thigh,  observable  when  the  horse  first  comes  from  the  stable,  and  gradually  ceasing 
on  exercise,  and  has  usually  been  found  in  those  horses  that  have  a  more  than  common 
degree  of  strength  and  endurance. 

Thickening  of  the  Back  Sinews. — Sufficient  attention  is  not  always  paid  to  the  fineness 
of  the  legs  of  the  horse.  If  the  flexor  tendons  have  been  sprained  so  as  to  produce  con- 
siderable thickening  of  the  cellulai-  substance  in  which  tlieir  sheaths  are  enveloped,  they 
will  long  afterwards,  or  perhaps  ever  after,  be  liable  to  sprain  from  causes  by  which 
they  would  otherwise  be  scarcely  affected.  The  continuance  of  any  considerable  thick- 
ness around  the  sheaths  of  the  tendons  indicates  previous  and  violent  sprain.  This  very 
thickening  will  fetter  the  action  of  the  tendons,  and  after  much  quick  work  will,  from 
the  very  friction,  occasionally  renew  the  inflammation  and  the  lameness ;  therefore, 
such  a  horse  cannot  be  sound.  It  requires,  however,  a  little  discrimination  to  distinguish 
this  from  the  gumminess  or  roundness  of  leg,  peculiar  to  some  breeds.  There  should  be 
an  evident  difference  between  the  injured  leg  and  the  others. 

Thoroughpin,  except  it  be  of  great  size,  is  rarely  productive  of  lameness,  and  therefore 
cannot,  when  unaccompanied  by  lameness,  be  termed  unsoundness ;  but  as  it  is  the  con- 
sequence of  hard  work,  and  now  and  then  does  produce  leuneness,  the  hock  should  be 
most  carefully  examined,  and  there  should  be  a  special  warranty  against  it. 

Thrush. — There  are  various  cases  on  recoid  of  actions  on  account  of  thrushes  in  horses, 
and  tlie  decisions  have  been  much  at  variance,  or  perfectly  contradictory.  Tlurush  has 
not  been  considered  by  legal  men  as  unsoundess :  it  seemed  to  be  necessary  to  prove  lame- 
ness, or  probable  injury  to  the  foot.  We  confess,  however,  that  we  are  inchned  to  con- 
sider tlirush  as  unsoundness.  We  are  compelled  to  consider  it  so  according  to  our  defini- 
tion, that  every  disease  is  unsoundness.  It  is  inflammation  of  the  lower  surface  of  the 
inner  or  sensible  frog,  and  the  secretion  or  tfurowing  out  of  pus,  almost  invariably  accom- 
panied by  a  slight  degree  of  tenderness  of  the  frog  itself,  or  of  the  heel  a  httle  above  it 
and  if  neglected,  leading  to  diminution  of  the  substance  of  the  frog,  and  separation  of 
the  horn  from  the  parts  beneath,  and  undermining,  and  the  production  of  fungus  and  can- 
ker, and  ultimately  a  diseased  state  of  tlie  foot,  destructive  of  the  present,  and  danaMX)US 
to  the  future  usefulness  of  the  horse.  1^ 


WARRANTY.  277 

Windgalls. — There  are  few  horses  perfectly  free  from  windgalls,  but  they  do  not  in- 
terfere with  the  action  of  tlie  fetlock,  or  cause  lameness,  except  when  they  are  numerous 
or  large.  They  constitute  unsoundness  only  when  they  cause  lameness,  or  are  so  large 
and  numerous  as  to  render  it  likely  that  they  will  soon  cause  it. 

In  the  purchase  of  a  horse  the  buyer  usually  receives,  embodied  in  the  receipt,  what 
is  termed  a  warranty.     It  should  be  thus  expressed  : — 

"  Received  of  A.  B.  forty  pounds  for  a  grey  riare,  warranted  only  five  years  old,  sound, 
free  from  vice,  and  quiet  to  ride  cind  diive. 

£40.  C.  D." 

A  receipt,  including  merely  the  word  'warranted,'  extends  only  to  soundness, — 'war- 
ranted sound,  extends  no  further;  the  age,  freedom  from  vice,  and  quietness  to  ride  and 
drive,  should  be  especially  named.  This  warranty  extends  to  every  cause  of  unsound- 
ness that  can  be  detected,  or  that  lurks  in  the  constitution  at  the  time  of  sale,  and  to  every 
vicious  habit  which  the  animal  has  hitherto  shown.  To  establish  a  breach  of  the  warranty, 
and  to  be  enabled  to  return  the  horse  or  recover  the  price,  the  purchaser  must  prove  that 
it  was  unsound  or  viciously  disposed  at  tlie  time  of  sale.  In  case  of  cough,  the  horse 
"must  have  been  heard  to  cough  previous  to  the  purchase,  or  as  he  was  led  home,  or  as 
soon  as  he  had  entered  the  stables  of  the  jiurchaser.  Coughing,  even  on  the  following 
morning,  will  not  be  suflicient ;  for  it  is  possible  that  he  might  have  caught  cold  by 
change  of  stabling.  If  he  is  lame,  it  must  be  proved  to  arise  from  a  cause  that  could  not 
have  occurred  after  the  animal  was  in  the  purchaser's  possession.  No  price  will  imply  a 
warranty,  or  be  equivalent  to  one  ;  there  must  be  an  express  warranty.  A  fraud  must 
be  proved,  in  the  seller,  in  order  that  the  buyer  may  be  enabled  to  return  the  horse  or 
maintain  the  action  for  the  price.  The  wananty  should  be  given  at  the  time  of  sale.  A 
warranty,  or  a  promise  to  warrant  the  horse,  given  at  any  period  antecedent  to  the  sale, 
is  invalid ;  for  the  horse  is  a  very  perishable  commodity,  and  his  constitution  and  his 
usefulness  may  undergo  a  considerable  change  in  a  few  days.  A  warranty  after  tlie  sale 
is  invalid,  for  it  is  given  without  any  legal  consideration.  In  order  to  complete  the  pur- 
chase, there  must  be  a  transfer  of  the  animal,  or  a  memorandum  of  agreement,  or 
the  payment  of  earnest-money  ;  the  least  sum  w  ill  suffice  for  eai-nest.  No  verbal  pro- 
mise to  buy  or  to  sell  is  bindmg  without  one  of  these  ;  and  the  moment  either  of  these 
is  effected,  the  legal  transfer  of  property  or  delivery  is  made,  and  whatever  may  happen 
to  the  horse,  the  seller  retains  or  is  entitled  to  the  money.  If  the  purchaser  exercise  any 
act  of  ownership,  by  using  the  animal  without  leave  of  the  vendor,  or  by  having  any 
operation  performed  or  done  to  hun,  or  medicines  given,  he  makes  him  his  own.  The 
wan-anty  of  a  servant  is  considered  to  be  binding  on  the  master.* 

If  the  horse  should  be  afterwards  discovered  to  have  been  unsound  at  the  time  of  war- 
ranty, the  buyer  may  return  it.  Although  not  legally  compelled  to  give  notice  to  the 
seller  of  the  discovered  unsoundness,  it  will  be  better  for  it  to  be  done.  The  animal  should 
then  be  tendered  at  the  house  or  stables  of  the  vendor.  If  he  refuses  to  receive  him,  it  is 
cruel  to  tie  up  the  poor  beast  in  the  street,  and  leave  him  to  the  tender  mercies  of  the 
other  party ;  it  will  be  more  advisable  to  send  the  animal  to  a  livery-stable,  for  an  action 
(the  horse  having  been  tendered)  may  be  brought  for  ex-penses  as  well  as  for  price.  The 
keep,  however,  can  be  recovered  only  for  the  time  that  necessarily  intervened  between 
the  tender  and  the  determination  of  the  action.  Is  it  not  legally  necessary  to  return  the 
horse  as  soon  as  the  unsoundness  is  discovered.  The  animal  may  be  kept  for  a  reasona- 
ble time  afterwards,  and  even  proper  medical  means  used  to  remove  the  unsoundness  ; 
but  courtesy,  and  indeed  justice,  will  require  that  the  notice  should  be  given  as  soon  as 
possible.  Although  it  is  stated,  on  the  authority  of  Lord  Loughborough,  that  "no  len"-th 
of  time  elapsed  alter  the  sale  will  alter  the  nature  of  a  contract  originally  false ;"  yet 
there  are  cases  on  record  in  which  the  plaintiff  was  non-suited  because  he  did  not  give 
notice  of  the  unsoundness  in  a  reasonable  time.  The  extent  of  this  reasonable  time  must 
depend  on  many  circumstances.  It  used  to  be  supposed  that  the  buyer  had  no  right  to 
have  the  horse  medically  treated,  and  that  he  would  vitiate  the  warranty  by  doing  so. 
The  question,  however,  would  be,  has  he  injured,  or  diminished  the  value  of  the  horse 
by  this  treatment  ?  It  will  generally,  however,  be  prudent  for  him  to  refrain  from  all 
medical  treatment,  because  the  means  adopted,  however  skilfully  employed,  may  have  an 
unfortunate  effect,  or_.what  he  does  may  be  misrepresented  by  ignorant  or  interested  ob- 
servers. 

When  a  horse  is  returned,  and  an  action  brought  for  the  price,  it  will  be  indispensable 
that  in  every  other  respect,  except  the  alleged  unsoundness,  the  animal  shall  be  as  perfect 
and  valuable  as  when  bought. 

The  purchaser,  possibly,  may  like  the  horse  notwithstanding  his  discovered  defect,  and 
he  may  retain  and  bring  his  action  for  the  depreciation  in  value  on  account  of  the  un- 

*  The  weight  of  authority  decides  that  the  master  is  bound  by  the  act  of  the  servant. 
Lord  Kenyon,  however,  had  some  doubt  on  the  subject. 


278  THE  HORSE. 

soundness.  Few,  however,  will  do  this,  because  the  detention  of  the  horse  will  cause  a 
suspicion  that  the  defect  was  of  no  great  consequence,  and  will  give  rise  to  much  cavil 
about  the  quantum  of  damages,  and,  after  all,  very  slight  damages  will  probably  be  ob- 
tained.f 

Where  there  is  no  warranty,  an  action  may  be  brought  on  the  ground  of  fraud,  but  this 
is  very  difficult  to  be  maintained,  and  few  possibly  will  hazard  it.  It  will  be  necessary  to 
prove  that  the  dealer  knew  the  defect,  and  that  the  purchaser  was  imposed  upon  by  his 
false  representation  ;  and  that,  too,  in  a  case  in  which  a  person  of  ordinary  circumspec- 
tion might  have  been  imposed  upon.  If  the  defect  was  evident  to  every  eye,  the  pur- 
chaser has  no  remedy — he  should  have  taken  more  care ;  but  if  a  warranty  was  given, 
it  extends  to  all  unsoundness,  palpable  or  concealed.  Although  a  person  should  ignorantly 
or  carelessly  buy  a  blind  horse,  warranted  sound,  he  may  return  it — the  warranty  is 
his  guard,  and  prevents  him  from  so  closely  examining  the  horse  as  he  otherwise  would 
have  done ;  but  if  he  buys  a  blind  horse,  thinking  him  to  be  sound,  and  without  a  war- 
ranty, he  has  no  remedy.  The  law  supposes  every  one  to  exercise  common  circumspec- 
tion and  common  sense. 

A  man  should  have  a  more  perfect  knowledge  of  horses  than  falls  to  the  lot  of  most, 
and  a  perfect  kno\vledge  of  the  vendor  too,  who  ventures  to  buy  a  horse  without  a 
waiTanty. 

If  a  person  buys  a  horse  warranted  sound,  and  discovering  no  defect  in  him,  and  rely- 
ing on  the  warranty,  resells  him,  and  the  unsoundness  is  discovered  by  the  second  pur- 
chaser, and  the  horse  returned  to  the  first  purchaser,  or  an  action  commenced  against  him, 
he  has  his  claim  on  the  first  seller,  and  may  demand  of  him  not  only  the  price  of  the 
horse,  or  the  difference  in  value,  but  everj'  expense  that  may  have  been  incurred. 

Exchanges,  whether  of  one  horse  absolutely  for  another,  or  a  sum  of  money  being 
paid  in  addition  by  one  of  the  parties,  stand  on  the  same  ground  as  simple  sales.  If  there 
IS  a  warranty  on  either  side,  and  that  is  broken,  the  exchange  is  vitiated ;  if  there  be  no 
warranty,  deceit  must  be  proved. 

The  subject  of  trial  is  a  very  intricate  one,  and  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  the  dealer 
is  often  very  ill-used.  It  is  well  known  that  a  horse  from  a  dealer's  stable  is  seldom  or 
never  fit  for  hard  work  until  he  has  undergone  some  preparation  and  training.  It  is  right 
that  the  purcha.ser  should  have  a  trial  of  him,  but  he  should  try  him  in  a  fair  way— in  a 
way  consistent  with  the  state  in  which  the  animal  is.  If  a  horse  from  a  dealer's  stable 
is  galloped  far  and  fast,  it  is  probable  that  he  will  soon  show  distress  ;  and  if  he  is  pushed 
farther,  inflammation  and  death  may  ensue.  The  dealer  rarely  gets  recompensed  for 
this ;  and  if  it  should  occur  soon  after  the  sale,  the  horse  is  returned,  or  an  action  is 
brought  for  its  price.  When  accidents  have  arisen  in  the  fair  trial  of  a  horse,  the  de- 
cisions of  the  courts  of  law  have  been  strangely  contradictory ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  often 
difficult  to  determine  whether  the  fault  rests  with  tlie  horse  or  the  rider.  If  the  horse  be 
detained  after  the  specified  time  of  trial,  he  is  supposed  to  be  sold,  and  with  all  his  faults. 

In  London,  and  in  most  great  towns,  there  are  repositories  for  the  periodical  sale  of 
horses  by  auction.  They  are  of  great  convenience  to  the  seller,  who  can  at  once  get  rid 
of  a  horse  with  which  he  wishes  to  part,  without  waiting  month  after  month  before  he 
obtains  a  purchaser,  and  who  is  relieved  from  the  nuisance  or  fear  of  having  the  horse 
returned  on  account  of  breach  of  the  wairanty,  because  in  these  places  only  two  days  are 
allowed  for  the  trial,  and  if  the  horse  is  not  returned  vsdthin  that  period,  he  cannot  be 
returned  afterwards.  They  are  also  convenient  to  the  purchaser,  who  can  thus  in  a  large 
town  soon  find  a  horse  that  will  suit  him,  and  which,  from  this  restriction  as  to_  the 
returning  the  animal,  he  will  obtain  twenty  or  thirty  per  cent,  below  the  dealer's  prices. 
Although  an  auction  may  seem  to  offer  a  fair  open  competition,  theie  is  no  place  at  which 
it  is  more  necessary  for  a  person  not  much  accustomed  to  horses  to  take  with  him  an 
experienced  friend,  and  when  there  to  depend  on  his  own  judgment  or  that  of  his  friend, 

t  '•'  I  take  it  to  be  clear  law,  that  if  a  person  purchases  a  horse  that  is  warranted,  and  it 
afterwards  turns  out  that  the  horse  was  unsound  at  the  time  of  the  warranty,  the  buyer, 
may,  if  he  pleases,  keep  the  horse,  and  bring  an  action  on  the  warranty ;  in  which  he  vpill 
have  a  right  to  recover  the  difference  between  the  value  of  a  sound  horse,  and  one  with 
such  defects  as  existed  at  the  time  of  warranty ;  or  he  may  return  the  horse,  and  bring 
an  action  to  recover  the  full  money  paid  ;  but  in  the  latter  case,  the  seller  has  a  right  to 
expect  that  the  horse  shall  be  returned  to  him  in  the  same  state  he  was  when  sold,  and  not 
by  any  means  diminished  in  value  ;  for  if  a  person  keeps  a  warranted  article  for  any 
length  of  time  after  discovering  its  defects,  and  when  he  returns  it,  it  is  in  a  worse  state 
than  it  would  have  been  if  returned  immediately  after  such  discovery,  I  think  the  party 
can  have  no  defence  to  an  action  for  the  price  of  the  article  on  the  ground  of  non-compli- 
ance with  the  warranty,  but  must  be  left  to  his  action  on  the  warranty  to  recover  the 
difference  in  the  value  of  the  article  warranted,  and  its  value  when  sold." — Curtis  v.  Han- 
nay.  3  Esp.  83. 


THE  SKIN  AND  ITS  DISEASES.  279 

heedless  of  the  observations  oi*  majioeuvres  of  the  by-standers,  the  exaggerated  commen- 
dations of  some  horses,  and  the  thousand  faults  found  with  others.  There  are  always 
numerous  groups  of  low  dealers,  copers,  and  chanters,  whose  business  it  is  to  delude  and 
deceive. 

1  The  principal  repositories  in  London,  are  Tattersall's  at  Hyde  Park  Corner,  on  Mon- 
day and  Thursday,  at  one  o'clock,  for  racers,  hunters,  and  superior  horses  of  every  kind, 
although  many  that  are  good  for  nothing  find  their  way  there.  Young's  at  the  Bazaar 
in  King  Street,  Portman  Square,  on  Tuesday  and  Saturday,  at  twelve  o'clock,  for  horses 
of  eveiy  description  ;  and  where,  likewise,  horses  are  always  standing  for  private  sale. 
Dixon's,  in  Bajbican,  for  machiners  of  every  kind,  and  generally  the  best  of  them,  with 
occasionally  good  hackneys  ;  and  Morris's,  in  St.  Martin's  Lane,  for  draught  horses  and 
hackneys  of  every  grade  and  value.  Horses  should  be  sent  two  days  before  the  sale  ; 
and  it  should  be  so  contrived,  if  possible,  that  they  should  be  placed  about  or  beyond  the 
middle  of  the  catalogue  ;  so  that  they  may  be  brought  out  when  those  persons  who  lie 
abed  until  after  noon,  begin  to  appeal'.  If  the  horses  are  bought  in,  the  owner  will  have 
to  pay  3s  6d  per  night  for  their  keep,  and  6s.  for  the  offering  them  for  sale :  if  they  are 
sold,  he  will  be  charged  with  five  per  cent,  for  the  auction-duty,  five  per  cent,  for  com- 
mission, and  the  keep  ;  and  the  balance  may  be  received  the  day  after  the  period  of  tiial 
expires. 

One  of  the  regulations  at  the  Bazaar  is  exceedingly  fair,  both  with  regard  to  the  pre- 
vious owner  and  the  purchaser  :  viz. 

"  When  a  horse,  having  been  warranted  sound,  shall  be  returned  within  the  prescribed 
period,  on  account  of  unsoundness,  a  certificate  from  a  veterinary  surgeon,  particularly 
describing  the  unsoundness,  must  accompany  the  horse  so  returned ,  when,  if  it  be 
agreed  to  by  tlie  veterinary  surgeon  of  the  establishment,  the  amount  received  for  the 
horse  shall  be  immediately  paid  back  ;  but  if  the  veterinary  surgeon  of  the  establish- 
ment should  not  confirm  the  certificate,  then,  in  order  to  avoid  further  dispute,  one  of 
the  veterinaiy  surgeons  of  the  college  shall  be  called  in,  and  his  decision  shall  be  final, 
and  the  expense  of  such  umpire  shall  be  borne  by  tlie  party  in  error." 


CHAPTER   XXII. 
THE    SKIN    AND    ITS   DISEASES. 

The  skin  of  the  horse  differs  little  in  construction  from  that  of  other  animals.  It 
consists  of  three  pails,  the  cuticle  or  scarf  skin  externally — very  thin,  and  somewhat 
transparent,  as  is  proved  by  the  action  of  a  blister  when  tlie  cuticle  is  raised  from  the 
true  skin  beneath,  in  the  form  of  cdmost  pellucid  bladders.  The  dandrifl'or  scurf,  which 
is  brushed  out  in  grooming,  consists  of  scales  or  portions  of  the  cuticle  detached  in  the 
gradual  change  or  renewal  of  this  membrane.  The  parts  within  the  frame  as  they  are 
separated  are  carried  off  by  tlie  absorbents — the  outer  skin  is  more  readily  got  rid  of,  in 
the  form  of  scales.  The  cuticle  is  produced  by  the  true  skin,  and  is  perforated  by  aQ 
its  pores,  whether  exhalent  or  absorbent ;  and  it  adheres  to  the  true  skin  through  the 
medium  of  these  pores,  and  likewise  of  little  eminences  or  projections,  which  seem  to 
be  prolongations  of  the  nerves  of  the  skin. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  horse  possesses  to  any  considerable  degree  the  sense  of 
touch,  or  whether  he  is  able  to  ascertain  the  form  and  nature  of  bodies  by  impressions 
made  through  the  medium  of  the  nen^es  of  the  skin.  The  skin  is  thinner  about  the 
muzzle  than  at  other  parts,  because  it  is  devoid  of  hair,  but  we  never  see  this  animal 
examining  bodies  by  moving  or  rolling  them  about  vrith  his  muzzle.  He  seems  to  ex- 
amine them  simply  by  the  smell. 

Beneath  the  cuticle  is  a  thin  soft  substance,  through  which  the  pores  and  eminences 
of  the  true  skin  pass  ;  and  on  which  the  horse  depends  for  his  color.  The  dandriff  or 
scurf  of  a  black  horse  is  as  white  as  that  of  the  lightest  grey ;  and  the  skin  beneath  is 
of  the  same  hue  in  all.  The  soft  substance  is  called  the  rete  viucosum,  from  its  web-like 
structure,  and  its  soft  mucous  consistence. 

Under  this  is  the  true  skin,  very  different  in  different  breeds  ;  thin  and  highly  sensible 
in  the  blood  horse ;  thick,  and,  fortiuiately  for  the  animal,  endowed  with  far  less  sensi- 
bility, in  the  common  cart  horse.  Over  a  great  part  of  the  frame  it  lies  upon  a  very 
singular  muscle,  peculiar  to  quadrupeds,  and  more  extensive  and  powerful  in  thin-skin- 
ned and  thin-haired  animals  than  in  those  of  thicker  hides.    It  reaches  from  the  poll  over 


2S0  THE  HORSE. 

the  whole  of  the  carcass,  and  down  to  the  arm  before,  and  stifle  behind.  By  its  contrac- 
tion the  skin  is  puckered  in  every  direction ;  and  if  it  acts  strongly  and  rapidly,  the 
horse  is  not  only  enabled  to  skake  off  any  insect  or  fly  that  may  annoy  him,  but  some- 
times to  displace  a  great  part  of  his  harness  ;  and  we  have  seen  determinedly  vicious 
horses  shedce  themselves  so  violently  that  the  most  expert  rider  could  scarcely  keep  his 
seat.  This  muscle  also  assists  the  skm  in  bracing  that  part  of  the  frame  which  it  covers, 
and  perhaps  it  gives  additional  strength  to  the  muscles  beneath.  It  is  called  the  pannU 
calus  camosas  of  fleshy  pinnacle  or  covering. 

The  skin  answers  tiie  double  purpose  of  protection  and  strength.  Where  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  parts  should  be  bound  and  knit  together  it  adheres  so  tightly  that  we  can 
scarcely  raise  it.  Thus  the  bones  of  the  knees  and  the  pasterns  and  the  tendons  of  the 
legs,  on  which  so  much  stress  is  frequently  thrown,  are  securely  tied  down  and  kept  in 
their  places.  It  is  in  order  to  take  additional  advantage  of  this  binding  and  strengthening 
power  that  we  fire  the  legs  of  overworked  horses,  in  whom  tlie  sinews  have  begun  to 
start,  and  the  ligaments  ot  the  joints  to  swell,  or  be  displaced.  We  find  tlie  skin  tight 
along  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  loins,  and  down  the  yet  more  powerful  muscles  of  the 
quartei-s  ;  but  in  other  places  it  seems  to  be  destined  only  to  protect  the  parts  beneath, 
and  there  it  is  loosely  attached,  that  it  may  not  interfere  with  the  motions  of  the  animcil. 
About  the  brisket,  and  within  the  arms  and  at  the  flanks,  it  hangs  even  in  folds,  to  allow 
for  the  extraordinary  distension  of  those  parts  in  rapid  action. 

Of  its  strengtli  we  have  abundant  proof,  both  in  the  living  and  dead  animal.  Its 
fibres  are  interlaced  in  a  most  curious  and  intricate  manner,  so  as,  when  living,  to  be 
scarcely  lacerable.  It  olfers  considerable  resistance  even  to  the  knife,  and  is  converted 
into  leather  after  death. 

It  is  while  the  animal  is  alive,  one  of  the  most  elastic  bodies  with  which  We  are  ac- 
quainted, It  not  only  perfectly  adapts  itself  to  the  slow  grovsiii  or  decrease  of  the  body, 
and  appears  equally  to  fit,  whether  the  horse  is  in  the  plumpest  condition  or  reduced  to 
a  skeleton,  but  when  a  portion  of  it  is  distended  to  an  extraordinary  degree  in  the  most 

fiowerful  action  of  the  muscles,  it  in  a  moment  again  contracts  to  its  usual  dimensions, 
t  is  principally  indebted  for  this  elasticity  to  almost  innumerable  little  glands  which 
pour  out  an  oily  fluid  that  softens  and  supplies  it.  When  the  horse  is  in  health,  and 
every  organ  discharges  its  proper  functions,  a  certain  quantity  of  this  unctuous  mat- 
ter is  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  skin,  and  is  contained  in  all  the  pores  that  penetrate 
its  substance,  and  the  skin  is  pliable,  easily  raised  from  the  texture  beneath,  easily  dou- 
bled between  the  finger  and  thumb,  and  presenting  that  peculiar  yielding  softness  and 
elasticity  which  experience  has  proved  are  the  best  proofs  of  the  condition,  that  is,  the 
general  health  of  the  animal.  Then,  too,  from  the  oiliness  and  softness  of  the  skin, 
the  hair  lies  in  its  natural  and  proper  direction,  and  is  smooth  and  glossy — another 
proof  of  the  condition  of  the  horse.  When  the  system  is  deranged,  and  especi- 
ally the  digestive  system,  and  the  vessels  concerned  in  the  nourishment  of  the  animal 
cease  to  act,  or  act  feebly,  the  vessels  of  the  skin  immediately,  and  to  a  very  marked  de- 
gree, sympathize  ;  and  tnis  oily  secretion  is  no  more  thrown  out,  and  the  skin  loses  its 
pliancy,  and  it  is  difficult  or  almost  impossible  to  take  it  up  between  the  finger  and 
thumb,  and,  losing  its  pliancy,  it  seems  to  cling  to  the  animal,  and  we  have  that  pecu- 
liar feeling  which  we  call 

HIDE-BOUND. 

Hide-bound  is  not  so  much  a  diminution  of  the  cellular  or  fatty  substance  between  the 
ekin  and  the  muscles  and  bones  beneath,  as  it  is  an  alteration  in  the  skin  itself.  It  is 
a  hardness  and  unyieldingness  of  the  skin  from  the  want  of  the  oily  matter  on  its  surface, 
and  in  its  substance,  which  has  just  been  mentioned.  It  is  precisely  the  diflference 
which  is  presented  to  the  feeling  by  well-curried  and  supple  leattier,  and  that  which  has 
become  dry  and  unyielding. 

The  surface  of  the  skin  becoming  dry  and  hard,  the  scales  of  the  cuticle  no  longer  yield 
to  the  hau-,  but,  separating  themselves  in  every  direction,  turn  the  hair  various  ways,  and 
give  that  staring  coat  or  irregular  direction  of  the  hair  which  accompcuiies  want  of  con- 
dition. This  state  of  the  skin,  by  proving  the  impaired  functions  of  the  vessels  of  the 
skin,  shows  the  impaired  function  of  the  vessels]eveiy  where,  and  particularly  those  of  the 
stomach  and  bowels.  The  horseman  should  remember  that  hide-bound  is  not  so  much  a 
disease,  as  a  symptom  of  disease,  and  particularly  of  the  digestive  organs ;  and  our  reme- 
dies must  be  applied  not  so  much  to  the  skin,  (although  we  have,  in  friction  and  in 
warmth,  most  valuable  agents  in  producing  a  healthy  condition  of  the  integuments,)  as 
to  the  cause  of  the  binding  of  the  coat  and  the  state  of  the  constitution  generally. 
Every  disease  that  can  ailect  the  general  system  is  likely  to  produce  this  derangement 
of  the  functions  of  the  sldn.  Glanders,  when  become  constitutional,  is  strongly  charac- 
terised by  the  unthi-ifty  appearance  of  the  coat.     Chronic  cough,  grease,  faccy,  and 


PORES  OF  THE  SKIN.  281 

founder,  are  accompanied  by  hide-bound ;  and  diet  too  sparing,  and  not  adequate  to  the 
work  exacted,  is  an  unfailing  source  of  it.  If  the  cause  be  removed,  the  effect  will 
cease. 

Should  the  cause  be  obscure,  as  it  frequently  is — should  the  horse  wear  an  unthrifty 
coat,  and  his  hide  cling  to  his  ribs,  without  any  apparent  disease,  we  shall  be  warranted 
in  tracing  it  to  sympathy  with  the  actual,  although  not  demonstrable  suspension  of  some 
important  secretion,  and,  we  repeat,  generally  in  the  alimentary  canal :  therefore  a  few 
mashes,  and  a  mild  dose  of  physic,  are  first  indicated,  and,  simple  as  they  appear  to  be, 
they  often  have  a  very  beneficial  effect.  The  regular  action  of  the  bowels  being  re-esta- 
bUshed,  that  of  all  the  organs  of  the  frame  will  speedily  follow.  If  the  horse  cannot  be 
spared  for  physic,  alteratives  may  be  administered.  There  is  no  better  alterative  for 
being  hide-bound  and  having  an  unthrifty  coat  than  that  which  is  in  common  use,  and 
which  we  have  so  often  recommended,  levigated  antimony,  nitre,  and  sulphur ;  and 
given,  in  these  cases,  in  doses  of  two  drachms  of  the  first,  three  of  the  second,  and  four 
of  the  last,  and  repeated  every  night  in  a  mash,  or  in  the  form  of  ball.  The  peculiar 
effect  of  the  antimony  and  sulphur  on  the  skin,  of  the  sulphur  on  the  bowels,  and  of  the 
nitre  on  the  urinary  organs,  will  be  here  advantageously  combined. 

Should  the  horee  not  feed  well,  and  there  be  no  indication  of  fever,  a  slight  tonic  may 
be  added,  as  one  diachm  of  gentian,  and  half  a  drachm  of  ginger ;  but  In  the  majority 
of  cases  attended  by  loss  of  condition,  and  an  unthrifty  coat,  and  hide-bound,  tonics 
and  aromatics  should  be  carefully  avoided.  The  cause  of  the  impared  action  of  the 
vessels  being  removed,  the  powers  of  nature  will  generally  be  sufficient,  and  had  better 
be  let  alone.  There  are  not  any  more  dangerous  medicines  in  common  use  in  the  stable, 
and  especially  in  cases  like  these,  than  tonics  and  cordials.  They  often  arouse  to  fatal 
action  a  tendency  to  fever  that  would  otherwise  have  slept,  or  they  produce  a  state 
of  excitement  near  akin  to  fever,  and  apt  to  degenerate  into  it.  By  the  stimulus  of  a 
cordial  the  secretions  may  be  suddenly  roused,  and  among  them,  this  unctuous  secretion 
from  the  pores  of  the  skin,  so  necessary  to  apparent  condition  ;  but  the  effect  soon  passes 
over,  a  repetition  of  the  stimulus  is  necessary— the  habit  is  soon  formed — the  dose  must 
be  gradually  increased,  and  in  the  mean  time  the  animal  is  kept  in  a  state  of  dangerous 
excitement,  and  the  powers  of  nature  must  be  eventually  impaired. 

Friction  may  be  employed  with  advantage  in  the  removal  of  hide-bound.  It  has  re- 
peatedly been  shown  tliat  it  is  one  of  the  most  efficacious  instruments  we  can  use  to  call 
into  exercise  the  suspended  energies  either  of  the  absorbent  or  secreting  vessels. 
Warmth  may  likewise  be  employed,  not  warmth  of  stable,  which  has  been  shown  to  be 
so  injurious,  and  that  in  a  much  more  important  way  than  the  mere  want  of  condition, 
but  warmth  of  clothing.  But  before  tliis  can  be  fully  considered,  the  hair  by  which 
the  skin  is  covered  must  be  described. 

THE   HAIR. 

The  hair  is  the  natural  clotliing  of  all  our  domestic  quadrupeds.  It  is  some  protection 
from  violence,  and  more  so  from  cold  ;  and  it  varies  with  the  climate  in  which  they  live. 
It  springs  from  below  the  skin.  There  are  found  on  the  cellular  and  fatty  substance,  im- 
mediately in  contact  with  the  internal  surface  of  the  skin,  numerous  little  bulbs,  which 
penetrate  into  and  pass  through  the  true  skin,  and  which  ariiving  at  the  cuticle,  the  hair 
protrudes  from  the  summit  of  them.  The  hair  itself,  when  examined  through  a  micro- 
scope, is  seen  to  be  a  little  tube,  containing  a  pulpy  matter,  wliich  runs  through  the  whole 
length  of  it,  by  which  probably  the  hair  is  fed  and  rendered  pliant ;  and  the  loss  of 
which  under  disease  may  add  to  the  hard  and  unthrifty  feeling  of  the  coat  of  a  horse  out 
of  condition.  There  is  no  essential  difference  in  the  structure  of  the  hair  in  different 
parts,  as  the  mane,  the  tail,  and  the  body,  except  that  the  former  is  larger,  longer  and 
stronger. 

The  base  of  the  bulb  whence  the  hair  proceeds  being  beneath  the  true  skin,  it  is  easy 
to  perceive  that  the  hair  will  grow  again,  although  the  cuticle  may  have  been  desti'oyed. 
A  good  blister,  although  it  may  remove  the  cuticle,  and  seemingly  for  a  while  the  hair 
with  it,  leaves  no  lasting  blemish.  Even  firing,  lightly  and  skilfully  performed,  and  not 
penetrating  through  tlie  skin,  leaves  not  much  blemish ;  but  when,  in  broken  knees,  the 
true  skin  is  cut  through,  or  destroyed,  there  will  ever  remain  a  spot  devoid  of  hair.  The 
metliod  of  hastening  and  perfecting  the  reproduction  of  the  hair  has  been  described 
in  p.  189. 

POKES    OF    THE    SKIN. 

Beside  the  openings  already  mentioned  through  which  proceeds  this  unctuous  fluid  to 
supple  and  soften  the  skin,  there  are  others  more  numerous,  through  which  a  vast  quan- 
tity of  aqueous  fluid  escapes,  and  perspiration  is  carried  on ;  and,  as  in  the  human  being, 

36 


282  THE  HORSE. 

this  actually  exists  in  a  state  of  health  and  quietness,  although  imperceptible,  yet,  when 
the  animal  is  excited  by  exercise,  or  labors  under  some  stages  of  disease,  it  becomes 
visible,  and  appears  in  tlie  form  of  drops. 

This  process  of  perspiration  is  not,  however,  so  far  under  the  control  of  medicine  as 
in  the  human  being.  We  can,  indeed,  abate  those  profuse  perspirations  which  accom- 
pany want  of  conditioa,  or  moulting,  or  disease,  but  we  cannot  easily  produce  or  increase 
tile  visible  perspiration. 

We  are  not  aware  of  any  -nodicine  that  will  certainly  produce  it.  Warm  clothing 
seems  occasionally  to  effect  it,  but  this  is  more  in  appearance  than  reality.  The  insen- 
sible perspiration  cannot  escape  through  the  mass  of  clothing,  and  assumes  a  visible 
form.  This,  perhaps,  is  the  case,  even  when  sheep-skins  are  applied  over  the  back  and 
loins  in  "locked  jaw ;"  and  they  produce  a  good  effect,  acting  as  a  warm  poultice  over 
the  part,  and  so  contributing  to  relax  the  muscular  spasms.  There  are,  however,  some 
medicines,  as  antimony  and  sulphur,  which  have  an  evident  and  very  considerable  effect 
on  the  skin,  in  opening  its  pores  and  exciting  its  vessels  to  action. 

Of  the  existence  of  absorbent  vessels  on  the  skin,  or  those  which  take  up  some  fluid 
or  substance,  and  convey  it  into  the  circulation,  we  have  satisfactory  proof.  A  horse  is 
even  more  easily  salivated  than  the  human  being.  Salivation  has  been  produced  by 
rubbing  a  splint  with  mercurial  ointment,  previous  to  blistering  ;  and  a  very  few  drachms 
rubbed  on  the  inside  of  the  thighs  will  probably  produce  a  greater  effect  than  the  practi- 
tioner desires. 

From  some  parts  of  the  skin  there  are  peculiar  secretions,  as  that  of  grease  in  the 
heel,  and  mallenders  in  the  knee. 

MOULTING. 

Twice  in  the  year  the  hair  of  the  body  of  the  horse  is  changed.  The  hair  of  the 
main  and  tail  remains.  The  bulbous  root  of  the  hair  does  not  die,  but  the  pulpy  matter 
seems  to  be  removed  from  the  root  of  the  hair,  which,  thus  deprived  of  its  nourishment, 
perishes  and  drops  off,  and  a  new  hair  springs  at  its  side  from  tne  same  bulb.  As  this  is 
a  process  extending  over  the  whole  of  the  skin,  and  requiring  a  very  considerable  ex- 

;enditure  of  vital  power,  the  health  of  the  animal  is  generally  affected  at  these  times, 
'hat  energy  and  nervous  and  vital  influence,  which  should  support  the  whole  of  the 
frame,  is  to  a  great  degree  determined  to  the  skin,  and  the  animal  is  languid,  and  unequal 
to  much  hard  work.  He  perspires  greatly  with  the  least  unusual  exertion,  and  if  he  is 
pressed  beyond  his  strength  becomes  seriously  ill. 

The  treatment  which  the  groom  in  this  case  adopts  is  most  absurd  and  dangererous. 
The  horse,  from  the  deranged  distribution  of  vital  power,  is  disposed  to  fever,  or  he 
labors  under  a  slight  degree  of  fever,  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  increased  quickness 
of  pulse,  redness  of  nose,  and  heat  of  mouth.  The  lassitude  and  want  of  appetite 
which  are  the  accompaniments  of  this  febrile  state,  are  mistaken  for  debility  ;  and  cor- 
dials of  v£irious  kinds,  some  of  them  exceedingly  stimulating,  are  unsparingly  adminis- 
tered. Common  sense  would  require,  that  in  this  deranged  distribution  of  power,  exci- 
tants should  be  scrupulously  avoided ;  not  only  no  cordiaJs  should  be  given,  but  the  usual 
quantity  of  food  should  be  diminished — bran  mashes  should  be  given — a  little  fever  or 
alterative  medicine  should  be  administered,  such  as  that  which  we  have  just  described, 
and  the  horse  should  be  a  little  more  warmly  clothed,  and  sudden  or  too  great  exposure 
to  cold  should  be  guarded  against.  There  is  no  doubt  that  spices  hasten  the  process 
of  moulting.  The  old  hair  is  evidently  more  speedily  thrown  off,  and  the  new  produced, 
but  this  at  the  expense  of  greater  derangement  of  the  constitution — greater  fever — and 
no  little  danger,  if,  during  this  process  ot  moulting,  and  while  nature  is  thus  unnaturally 
forced  on,  disease  of  a  (ebrile  character  should  attack  the  animal.  Friction  may  be 
allowed,  to  assist  the  falling  off  of  the  old  hair,  and  to  loosen  the  cuticle  for  the  appear- 
ance of  the  new  hair,  but  it  should  be  gentle.  The  currycomb  should  by  no  means  be 
used — even  the  brush  should  not  be  applied  too  hard  or  too  long.  The  old  hair  must  not 
be  forced  off  before  the  young  hair  is  ready  to  take  its  place.  The  exercise  should  be 
moderate — the  clothing  rather  warmer  than  usual,  and  the  water  chilled.  Nature  adapts 
the  coat  to  the  climate  and  to  the  season.  The  Sheltie  has  one  cis  long  and  as  thick  as 
that  of  a  bear;  and  as  the  summer  is  short  and  cold  too  in  those  northern  islands,  the 
coat  is  rough  and  shaggy  during  the  whole  of  the  year.  In  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  where 
the  winter  is  rarely  cold,  the  coat  remains  short  and  glossy  throughout  the  year.  In  our 
climate,  the  short  covering  of  summer  is  succeed  in  autumn  by  one  of  considerably 
greater  length  and  thickness ;  and  that  in  its  turn  yields  in  the  spring  to  the  lighter  cloth- 
ing which  summer  requires.  As  a  thin  and  glossy  coat  adds  to  the  beauty  of  the  horse, 
and  is  identified,  to  a  great  degree  improperly,  with  his  condition,  an  artificial  system  has 
been  adopted,  by  which  tiie  coat  shall  remain  of  nearly  the  same  length,  and  that  a  short 
one,  during  the  year.    Nature  changes  it  with  the  change  of  season ;  man  contrives  that 


COLOR.  283 

there  shall  be  no  change  of  season  in  the  stablo.  It  is  always  summer  there — always 
sufficiently  hot  to  make  a  lon^  coat  useless,  and  therefore  nature,  who  accommodates 
herself  to  circumstances,  does  not  give  it  The  exposure  to  cold  during  the  few  hours 
of  exercise  may  roughen  the  coat  lor  a  little  while,  but  tlie  hot  clothing  and  the  hot  air 
of  more  than  twenty  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four,  give  the  character  to  the  covering 
which  nature  bestows  on  such  an  animal.  This  system  is  not  now  carried  to  tlie  inju- 
rious extent  that  it  used  to  be,  but  it  yet  partakes  too  much  of  absurdity  and  danger. 
The  inflammatory  complaints  to  which  these  hot-house  animals  are  subject,  and  the 
average  shortness  of  their  lives,  are  sufficient  proofs  of  the  error  of  the  practice. 

The  farmer  has,  or  should  have,  little  to  do  with  this  artificial  management  of  the  coat, 
and  he  may  be  assured  that  his  hackney,  or  his  hunter,  if  he  does  occasionally  venture 
to  follow  the  hounds,  will,  with  his  winter  hair  upon  him,  be  to  all  intents  and  purposes 
in  as  full  condition,  and  as  sti-ong  and  as  stout,  as  the  glossiest-coated  horse  in  the  field, 
if  he  has  been  sufficiently  and  properly  fed  and  trained  for  the  purpose. 

Hunters  that  are  summered  out,  as  reason  and  humanity  demand,  sliould,  however,  if 
they  ai-e  to  wear  the  short  fashionable  coat,  be  taken  up  before  the  end  of  June,  not  only 
because  the  grass  may  then  begin  to  fail,  and  the  ground  to  grow  hard,  and  the  flies  to 
annoy,  but  that  they  may  be  accustomed  to  the  warmth  of  the  stable  by  day  and  by  night, 
for  a  sufficient  time  before  the  moulting  season  commences,  and  that  the  coat  may  be 
accommodated  to  that  warmth  ;  for  if  they  are  sulfered  to  remain  out  until  the  autumnal 
coat  begins  to  grow,  no  grooming  will  remove  it  until  the  following  spring. 


As  to  the  newly  invented  practices  of  clipping,  and  its  supposed  improvement,  shaving 
the  horse,  and  especially  the  hunter,  such  deviations  from  nature  rarely  come  to  any  good. 
There  may  not  be  so  much  perspiration  hanging  about  the  hair  when  the  hunter,  warmed 
by  a  long  burst,  comes  to  a  check  on  a  piercing  day,  and  therefore  the  cooling  process  of 
evaporation  in  such  a  situation  may  not  be  so  long  continued  ;  but  let  it  be  remembered 
that  this  cold  must  be  abundantly  more  intense,  when  the  frosty  air  comes  in  immediate 
contact  with  the  heated  sldn.  It  is  during  these  pauses  of  action  that  the  animal  wants 
clothing  to  protect  him  from  the  chilling  injurious  eflfect  of  the  piercing  blast  upon  the 
opened  steaming  pores  of  the  skin.  While  the  animal  is  in  action,  a  sulficient  supply  of 
heat  is  obtained  by  the  effect  of  that  action  on  tlie  capillaries,  and  the  increased  develope- 
mentof  temperature  ;  but  when  tlie  action  is  suspended,  some  clothing,  natural  or  arti- 
ficial, something  through  which  the  animal  heat  shall  not  escape,  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  prevent  tlie  chilling  of  the  frame,  the  exhaustion  of  vital  power,  and  the  dangerous 
reaction  of  fever. 


The  color  of  the  hair  admits  of  eveiy  variety,  and  each  color  becomes  in  turn  fash- 
ionable. The  color  of  the  hair,  like  that  of  the  skin,  is  influenced  by,  or  depends  on, 
that  of  the  mucous  mesh-work  under  the  cuticle.  There  are  comparatively  few  perfectly' 
white  horses  now  remaining.  The  snow-white  palirey,  with  its  round  carcass,  and  barb 
head,  originally  from  Spain,  or  perhaps  from  Barbary,  and  rarely  exceeding  the  size  of 
a  Galloway,  is  now  neai-ly  extinct.  Some  yet  remain  in  the  possession  of  the  Duke  of 
Montrose  They  are  of  good  constitution  and  pleasant  in  their  paces.  The  majority  of 
white  horses  are  those  that  have  become  so.  Light-grey  colts  begin  to  grow  white  before 
they  are  five  years  old,  especially  if  they  have  not  much  dark  mixture  about  the  joints. 

Grey  horses  are  of  diflijrent  shades,  from  the  lightest  silver  to  a  dark  iron  grey.  The 
silver  grey  reminds  the  observer  of  the  palfrey,  improved  by  an  admixture  of  Arab-blood. 
He  does  not  oiten  exceed  fourteen  hands  and  a  half  high,  and  is  round  carcassed — light 
legged — with  oblique  pasterns,  calculated  for  a  light  carriage,  or  for  a  lady's  riding ;  seldom 
subject  to  disease — but  not  very  fleet,  or  capable  of  hard  work. 

The  iron  grey  is  usually  a  larger  horse ;  higher  in  the  wuthers,  deeper  and  thinner  in 
the  carcass,  more  angular  in  all  his  proportions,  and  in  many  cases  a  little  too  long  in  the 
legs.  Some  of  these  greys  make  good  hackneys  and  hunters,  and  especially  the  Irish 
horses  ;  but  they  are  principall)-  used  for  the  carriage.  They  have  more  endurance  than 
the  flatness  of  the  chest  would  promise  ;  but  their  principal  defect  is  their  feet,  which  are 
liable  to  conti-action,  aaid  yet  that  contraction  not  so  often  accompanied  by  lameness  as  in 
many  other  horses. 

The  dappled  grey  is  generally  a  handsomer  and  a  better  horse  :  all  the  angular  points 
of  the  iron  grey  are  filled  up,  and  with  that  which  not  only  adds  to  symmetry,  but  to  use. 
AVhether  as  a  hackney,  or,  the  larger  variety,  a  carriage-horse,  there  are  few  better,  espe- 
cially since  his  form  has  been  so  materially  improved,  and  so  much  of  his  heaviness  gol 
rid  of,  by  the  free  use  of  foreign  blood.    Tliere  are  not,  however,  so  many  dappled  greys 


284  THE  HORSE. 

as  there  used  to  be,  since  the  bays  have  been  bred  with  so  much  care.  The  dappled  grey 
if  dark  at  first,  generally  retains  his  color  to  old  age. 

Some  of  the  greys  approach  to  a  nutmeg,  or  even  bay  color.  Many  of  these  are  hand- 
some, and  most  of  them  are  hardy. 

The  roans,  of  every  vaiiety  of  color  and  form,  are  composed  of  white  mixed  with  bay 
or  red,  or  black.  In  some  it  seems  to  be  a  natural  mixtrire  of  the  colors ;  in  others  it 
appears  as  if  one  color  was  powdered  or  sprinkled  over  another.  They  are  pretty  horses 
for  ladies  or  hght  carnages,  and  many  of  them  easy  in  their  paces,  but  they  do  not  usually 
display  much  blood,  nor  are  they  celebrated  for  endurance.  If  they  should  have  white 
fore  legs,  with  white  hoofs,  they  are  too  often  tender-footed,  or  become  so  with  even  a 
little  hard  work. 

The  strawberry  horse  is  a  mixture  of  sorrel  with  white  ;  usually  handsome  and  pleasant, 
but  more  celebrated  for  tliese  qualities  than  for  strength  and  endurance 

The  pied  horse  is  one  that  has  distinct  spots  or  patches  of  ditlerent  colors,  but  almost 
invariably  of  white  with  some  other  color.  They  are  not  liked  as  hackneys,  on  account 
of  their  peculiarity  of  color,  nor  in  teams  of  horses  ;  but  they  look  well  when  tolerably 
matched  in  a  phaeton  or  light  carriage.  Their  value  must  depend  on  their  breed;  but  of 
themselves  they  have  no  peculiar  character,  except  that  a  white  leg  and  foot  is  as  suspi- 
cious in  them  as  it  is  in  the  roan. 

The  dun,  of  the  Galloway  size,  and  with  considerable  blood,  is  often  attached  to  the 
curricle  or  the  phaeton  ;  but  the  larger  is  a  true  farmer's  or  miller's  horse,  with  no  great 
speed,  and  not  always  extraordinary  strength,  and  sometimes  a  little  of  a  drone,  yet  a  good- 
tempered,  good-feeding,  good-constitutioned,  useful  horse  enough.  Varieties  of  the  dun, 
shaded  with  a  darker  color,  or  dappled,  and  with  some  breeding,  and  not  standing  too  high, 
are  very  beautiful,  and  are  sought  after  for  light  carriages,  and  particularly  for  ladies  to 
drive. 

The  cream-color,  of  Hanoverian  extraction,  with  his  white  iris  and  red  pupil,  is  appro- 
priated to  royal  use.  Attached  to  the  state -carriage  of  the  monarch,  he  is  a  superb  animal. 
His  bulky,  yet  perfectly-formed  body,  his  swelling  crest,  and  his  proud  and  lofty  action, 
as  if  conscious  of  his  ofHce,  qualify  him  for  the  service  which  is  exacted  from  him,  but 
we  have  no  experience  how  far  he  would  suit  other  purposes. 

Of  the  chestnuts  there  are  three  varieties — the  lightest  red  or  the  sorrel,  usually  with 
white  about  them,  either  on  the  face  or  the  legs  ;  generally  lightly  made,  yet  some  of  them 
bulky  enough  for  the  heaviest  loads.  Their  color  is  generally  considered  objectionable. 
Many  of  them  have  no  breeding  at  all,  and  the  best  bred  are  supposed  to  be  somewhat 
deficient  in  endurance. 

The  light  chestnut,  with  less  red  and  a  little  more  bay  or  brown,  is  considered  as  a  pre- 
ferable horse,  especially  if  he  has  no  white  about  him,  or  only  a  small  portion  of  it ;  yet  even 
he,  although  pleasant  to  ride,  is  sometimes  irritable,  and  generally  weak.  We  must  except 
one  variety,  the  Suffolk  punch ;  a  heavy  horse,  and  adapted  for  slow  work,  but  perfect  in 
his  kind,  which  no  labor  can  daunt,  no  fatigue  overcome.  This  is  a  breed  now,  unfortu- 
nately, nearly  extinct.  The  present  vaiiety,  however  crossed,  is  not  equal  to  the  old 
Suffolk. 

The  dark  chestnut  is  as  different  a  horse  from  the  hackney-hght-chestnut  as  can  be  ea- 
sily imagined  ;  round  in  the  carcass,  powerful  in  the  quarters,  hut  rather  fine  in  the  legs  : 
possessed  of  great  endurance,  and  with  a  constitution  that  rarely  knows  an  ailment,  ex- 
cept that  the  feet  are  small  and  disposed  to  contraction,  and  that  accompanied  by  lame- 
ness, and  that  the  horse  is  too  often  of  a  hot  and  unmanageable  temper. 

Of  the  bays,  there  are  many  varieties,  and  they  include  the  veiy  best  of  our  horses  of 
every  description.  The  bright  yellow  bay,  although  very  beautiful,  and  especially  if  his 
mane  and  tail  are  black,  is  the  least  valuable,  because  the  lightness  of  his  color  seems  to 
give  him  some  tenderness  of  constitution.  The  proper  bay,  with  no  white  about  him, 
and  black  from  the  knees  and  the  hocks  to  tlie  feet,  is  tlie  most  desirable  of  all  colors ; 
he  has  generally  a  good  constitution,  naturally  good  feet,  and,  if  his  conformation  is  not 
faulty,  will  turn  out  a  valuable  horse  for  almost  every  purpose. 

As  we  approach  to  the  brown,  we  find  in  the  bay-brown  not  always  so  much  show 
and  action,  but  more  strength  and  endurance,  and  more  usefulness.  He  usually  has 
more  substance  than  the  lighter  bay,  and  more  depth  of  leg ;  and,  could  we  find  the 
same  degree  of  breeding,  he  would  be  as  handsome,  and  more  valuable.  A  good  bay- 
brown  or  a  brown  horse,  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  blood,  is  indeed  a  good  horse. 

When,  however,  we  arrive  at  the  browns,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  the  degree  of  breed- 
ing. This  color  is  not  so  fashionable,  and  therefore  these  horses  have  been  considerably 
neglected.  There  are  many  good  ones,  and  those  that  are  good  are  valuable  ;  but  many 
of  them  are  only  a  half  or  a  quarter  bred,  and  therefore  comparatively  coarse,  yet  useful 
for  the  saddle  and  for  harness,  for  slow  work,  and  occasionally  for  that  which  is  more 
rapid. 

The  black-brown  is  generally  more  neglected  so  far  as  its  breed  is  concerned,  and  de- 


MANGE.  285 

serves  to  be  examined  more  carefully.  It  frcquontlj^  however,  retains  much  of  the 
goodness  of  constitution  of  the  brown  and  bay-brown. 

Of  the  black  greater  care  has  been  taken.  The  heavy  black  of  Lincolnshire  and  the 
midland  counties  is  a  noble  animal,  and  would  be  almost  beyond  price  if  he  could  be 
rendered  more  active.  The  next  in  size  forni  the  majority  of  our  wagon-horses,  and 
perhaps  our  best ;  and  on  a  smaller  breed  still,  and  to  the  improvement  of  which  much 
attention  has  been  devoted  many  of  oiu-  cavalry  are  mounted.  A  few  black  thorough- 
bred horses  and  black  hunters  have  been  seen,  but  the  improvement  of  horses  of  tliis 
color  has  not  been  studied,  except  for  the  purposes  that  have  been  mentioned.  Their 
peculiar  high  action,  while  not  unobjectionable  lor  draught,  and  desirable  for  the  parade, 
woidd  be  unbearable  in  the  roadster  ;  and  some  have  said,  that  black  horses  are  more 
subject  to  vice,  disease  and  blindness,  than  any  other  color.  This  charge  is  not,  per- 
haps, true  to  its  full  extent,  but  there  certainly  aie  a  gieat  many  worthless  black  horses 
in  every  part  of  the  country. 

After  all,  tliere  is  an  old  saying,  that  a  good  horse  cannot  be  of  a  bad  color ;  and  it  is  far 
more  necessary  to  attend  to  the  conformation  and  points  of  the  horse  than  to  his  color. 
These  observations,  however,  although  they  admit  of  many  exceptions,  may  be  useful 
in  guiding  to  the  judicious  purchase  of  tlie  horse. 


Large  pimples  or  lumps  often  suddenly  appear  on  the  skin  of  the  horse,  and  especially 
in  the  spring;  and  occasionally  they  disappear  as  quickly  as  they  came.  Sometimes 
they  seem  to  be  attended  with  great  itching,  but  at  others  they  appear  not  in  the  least 
to  annoy  the  animal.  When  they  have  remained  a  few  days,  the  cuticle  frequently  peels 
off,  and  a  small  scaly  spot,  though  rarely  a  sore  is  left.  This  is  called  a  surfeit,  from  its 
resemblance  to  some  eruptions  on  the  skin  of  the  human  being,  when  indigestible  or  un- 
wholesome food  has  been  taken.  These  lumps  are,  in  some  cases,  confined  to  the  neck ; 
but  they  oftener  spread  over  the  sides,  back,  loins,  and  quarters.  The  cause  is  enveloped 
in  some  obscurity.  The  disease  most  frequently  appears  when  the  skin  is  iiTitable  du- 
ring or  after  the  process  of  moulting,  and  when  it  sympathises  most  with  any  disorder  of 
the  stomach  ;  therefore,  some  veterinary  surgeons  have  attiibuted  it  to  indigestion.  It  has 
been  known  to  follow  the  eating  of  poisonous  herbs  or  mow-burnt  hay,  but  much  of- 
tener it  is  to  be  traced  to  exposure  to  cold  when  the  skin  was  previously  irritable  and 
the  horse  heated  by  exercise  ;  it  has  also  been  attributed  to  the  immoderate  drinking  of 
cold  water  when  the  animal  was  hot.  It  is  obstruction  of  some  of  the  pores  of  the  skin 
and  swelling  of  the  surrounding  substance,  eitlier  from  primaiy  affection  of  the  skin,  or 
from  its  sympathy  with  the  digestive  organs. 

'  Bleeding  will  always  be  beneficial — from  three  to  five  quarts  may  be  taken,  according 
to  the  strength  of  the  horse,  the  extent  of  the  eruption,  and  the  degree  of  fever.  Physic 
never  does  good.  If  surfeit  be  connected  with  some  unhealthy  aiiection  of  the  stomach 
or  intestines,  it  is  that  which  the  nausea  or  subsequent  action  of  the  purgative  increases. 
Alteratives  will  be  found  useful — and  particularly  the  alterative  which  was  recom- 
mended for  hide-bound  (p.  280),  and  in  the  same  doses.  These  should  be  given  on 
several  successive  nights.  The  night  is  better  tlian  the  morning,  because  the  warmth 
of  the  stable  will  cause  the  antimony  and  sulphur  to  act  more  powerfully  on  the  skin. 
The  horse  should  be  warmly  clothed. — half  an  hour's  walking  exercise  should  be  given, 
an  additional  rug  having  been  thrown  over  him — such  green  meat  as  can  be  procured 
should  be  used  in  moderate  quantities,  and  the  chill  should  be  taken  fi-om  the  water.  _ 

Although  the  eruption  may  disappear  after  the  bleeding,  and  that  very  quickly,  it  will, 
if  the  horse  be  exposed  to  cold,  come  out  again  as  suddenly,  and  as  extensively  as  be- 
fore. It  will  rarely,  however,  be  advisable  to  repeat  the  bleeding. 
>•  Should  the  lumps,  after  several  of  these  alternate  appearances  and  disappearances, 
remain,  and  the  cuticle  and  the  hair  begin  extensively  to  peel  off,  a  worse  affection  is 
to  be  feared,  for  it  is  far  from  unusual  for  surfeit  to  precede  or  degenerate  into  mange. 
This  disorder,  therefore,  shall  next  be  considered. 


Is  a  pimpled  or  lumpy  eruption.  After  a  while  the  vesicle  breaks,  the  cuticle  and  the 
hair  fall  otf,  and  there  is,  as  in  obstinate  surfeit,  a  bare  spot  left  covered  with  sciurf ;  but 
some  fluid  oozes  from  the  skin  beneath,  and  this  scurfiness  changes  to  a  scab,  which 
likewise,  soon  peels  off,  and  leaves  a  wider  spot :  sometimes  another  scab  succeeds  to 
the  first,  but  oftener  a  mere  scaly,  greasy-feeling,  bare  spot  remains.  This  is  attended 
with  considerable  itching  and  tenderness,  and  thickening  of  the  skin,  which  soon  be- 
comes more  or  less  folded  or  puckered.  The  mange  generally  first  appears  on  the 
neck,  at  the  root  of  the  mane,  and  its  existence  may  be  pretty  truly  ascertained,  even 


286  THE  HORSE. 

before  the  blotches  appear,  and  when  there  is  only  considerable  ichiness  of  the  part,  by 
the  ease  with  wliich  the  short  hair  at  the  root  of  tlie  mane  is  plucked  out.  From  the 
neck  it  spreads  upward  to  the  head,  or  downwards  to  the  withers  cUid  back,  and  occa- 
sionally extends  over  the  whole  carcass  of  the  horse. 

One  cause  of  it,  although  an  unfrequent  one,  has  been  stated  to  be  neglected  or  inve- 
terate surfeit.  The  more  common  cause  is  contagion.  Amid  the  whole  list  of  diseases 
to  which  the  horse  is  exposed,  there  is  not  one  more  highly  contagious  than  mange.  If 
it  once  gets  into  a  stable,  it  spreads  through  it,  for  the  shghtest  contact  seems  to  be  suf- 
ficient lor  the  communication  of  this  noisome  complaint. 

If  the  same  brush  or  currycomb  be  used  on  all  the  horses,  the  propagation  of  mange 
is  assured ;  and  horses  feeding  in  the  same  pasture  with  a  mangy  one  rarely  escape, 
from  the  propensity  they  have  to  nibble  one  another.  Mange  in  cattle  has  been  propa- 
gated to  the  horse,  and  from  the  horse  to  cattle,  but  there  is  no  authenticated  instance 
of  tlie  same  disease  in  the  dog  being  communicated  to  the  horse.  There  is  as  much 
difference  in  the  character  and  appearance  of  mange  in  tlie  horse  and  dog,  as  between 
either  of  them  and  the  itch  in  the  human  subject ;  and  the  itch  has  never  been  commu- 
nicated to  the  quadruped,  nor  the  mange  of  the  quadruped  to  the  human  being. 

Mange  has  been  said  to  originate  in  want  oi  cleanliness  in  the  management  of  the 
stable.  The  comfort  and  the  health  of  the  horse  demand  the  strictest  cleanliness.  The 
eyes  and  tlie  lungs  frequentl}*  suffer  from  the  noxious  fumes  of  the  putrifying  dung  and 
urine  ;  but,  in  defiance  of  common  prejudice,  there  is  no  authentic  instance  of  mange 
being  the  result.  It  may,  however,  proceed  from  poverty.  When  the  animal  is  half- 
starved,  and  the  functions  of  digestion  and  the  powers  of  the  constitution  are 
weakened,  we  have  seen,  in  the  cases  of  liide-bound  and  surfeit,  that  the  skin 
soon  sympathises,  and  we  can  imagine  that  mange  may  occasionally  be  produced  instead 
of  surfeit  and  hide-bound.  Every  farmer  has  proof  enough  of  this  being  the  case.  If 
a  horse  is  turned  on  a  common,  where  there  is  scarcely  sufficient  herbage  to  satisfy  his 
appetite,  or  if  he  is  placed  In  one  of  those  straw-yards  which,  under  the  management  of 
mercenary  and  unfeeling  men,  are  the  very  abodes  of  misery,  the  animal  comes  up  a 
skeleton,  and  he  comes  up  mangy  too.  Poverty  and  starvation  ai-e  fruitful  sources  of 
mange,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  filth  has  much  to  do  with  it,  although  poverty  and 
filth  generally  go  hand  in  hand. 

The  propriety  of  bleeding  in  cases  of  mange  must  depend  on  the  condition  of  the 
patient.  If  mange  be  the  result  of  poverty,  and  the  animal  is  much  debilitated,  bleed- 
ing will  be  adding  power  to  the  cause  of  the  disease.  Physic,  however,  is  indis- 
pensable. It  is  the  first  step  in  the  progress  towards  cure.  A  mercurial  ball  will  be 
preferable  to  a  common  aloetic  one,  as  more  certain  and  effectual  in  its  operation,  and 
the  mercury  having  probably  some  influence  in  mitigating  the  disease.  In  this,  however, 
mange  in  the  horse  resembles  the  itch  in  the  human  being — that  medicine  alone  will 
never  effect  a  cure.  There  must  be  some  local  application.  There  is  this  further  simi- 
larity, that  that  which  is  most  effectual  in  curing  mis  disgraceful  complaint  in  man,  must 
form  the  basis  of  every  local  application  as  it  regards  the  horse.  Sulphur  is  indispensable 
in  every  unguent  for  mange,  it  is  the  sheet-anchor  of  the  veterinary  surgeon. 

In  an  early,  and  not  very  acute  state  of  mange,  one  ounce  of  the  flowers  of  sulphur 
should  be  well  rubbed  down  with  an  equal  quantity  of  ti-ain  oil,  and  half  an  ounce  of 
common  turpentine.  Farriers  are  fond  of  the  black  sulphur,  but  that  which  consists 
of  earthy  matter,  with  the  mere  dregs  of  the  sulphur,  cannot  be  so  effectual  as  the 
flowers,  which  are  pure  subUmed  sulphur.  A  tolerably  stout  brush,  or  even  a  curry- 
comb, lightly  applied,  should  be  used  wherever  there  is  any  appearance  of  mange,  to 
remove  the  dandriff  or  scurf.  After  that,  the  horse  should  be  washed  with  strong  soap 
and  water  as  far  as  the  disease  has  extended ;  and  when  he  has  been  thoroughly  dried, 
the  ointment  should  be  well  rubbed  in  with  the  naked  hand,  or  with  a  piece  of  flannel. 
More  good  will  be  done  by  a  little  of  the  ointment  being  well  rubbed  in,  than  by  a 
great  deal  merely  smeared  over  the  part.  The  rubbing  should  be  daily  repeated.  The 
sulphur  seems  to  have  a  direct  influence  on  the  disease — the  turpentine  has  an  indirect 
one,  by  exciting  some  irritation  on  the  skin  of  a  different  nature  to  that  produced  by  the 
mange,  and  under  the  influence  of  which  the  irritation  of  mange  will  be  diminished,  and 
the  disease  more  easily  combated.  During  the  application  of  the  ointment,  and  as  soon  as 
tlie  physic  has  set,  an  alterative  ball  or  powder  similar  to  those  recommended  for  the  other 
affections  of  the  skin,  should  be  daily  given.  If,  after  some  days  have  passed,  no  pro- 
gress should  appear  to  have  ceen  made,  half  a  pound  of  sulphur  may  be  well  mixed 
with  a  pint  of  oil  of  tar,  or,  if  that  is  not  to  be  obtained,  a  pint  of  Barbadoes  tar,  and 
the  affected  parts  rubbed  as  before.  On  every  fifth  or  sixth  day  the  ointment  should 
be  washed  off  with  warm  soap  and  water.  The  progress  towards  cure  will  be  ascertained 
the  skin  will  be  cleansed,  and  its  pores  opened,  for  the  more  effectual  application  of  the 
ointment. 

The  horse  should  be  well  supplied  with  nourishing,  but  not  stimulatine  food.    As 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE.  287 

much  green  meat  as  he  will  eat  should  be  given  him,  or,  what  is  far  better,  he  should  be 
turned  out  if  the  weather  is  not  too  cold.  It  may  be  useliil  to  add,  that,  after  the  hoise 
has  been  once  well  dressed  with  either  of  these  liniments,  the  danger  of  contagion  ceases. 
It  is  necessary,  however,  to  be  assured  that  eveiy  mangy  place  has  been  anointed. 

It  will  be  prudent  to  give  two  or  three  dressings  after  the  hoise  has  been  cured  ap- 
parently, and  to  continue  the  alteratives  for  ten  days  or  a  fortnight.  The  cure  being 
completed,  the  clothing  of  the  horse  should  be  well  soaked  in  water,  to  which  a  fortieth 
part  of  the  saturated  solution  of  the  chloride  of  lime  has  been  added ;  after  which,  it 
should  be  washed  with  soap  and  water,  and  again  washed  and  soaked  in  a  solution 
of  the  chloride  of  lime,  as  before.  E\ery  part  of  the  harness  should  undergo  a  similar 
purification.  The  currycomb  may  be  scoured,  but  the  brush  should  be  burnt.  The 
rack  and  manger,  and  partitions,  and  every  part  of  the  stable  which  the  horse  could 
possibly  have  touched,  should  be  well  w-ashed  with  a  hair  broom,  a  pint  of  the  chlo- 
ride of  lime  being  added  to  three  gallons  of  water.  All  tlie  wood-work  should  then 
be  scoured  Vvith  soap  and  water,  after  which  a  second  washing  of  the  chloride  of  lime 
and  water  will  render  all  secure.  Some  farmers  have  pulled  down  tlicir  stables  when 
they  have  been  thoroughly  infected  with  mange.  Tliis  is  being  unnecessarily  cautious. 
The  efficacy  of  the  chloride  of  lime  was  not  then  known  :  and  if  is  carefully  and  suffi- 
ciently applied  to  every  part  of  the  stable  and  its  furniture,  there  cannot  afterwards  be 
danger. 

Eveiy  case  of  itchiness  of  the  skin  should  be  regarded  with  suspicion.  When  a  horse 
is  seen  to  rub  the  root  of  his  tail,  or  his  head  or  neck,  against  the  manger,  the  parts  .should 
be  carefully  examined.  Some  of  the  hair  may  have  been  rubbed  or  torn  off,  but  if  the  roots 
remain  firmly  adherent,  and  there  be  only  redness  and  not  scurfiness  of  the  skin,  it  pro- 
bably is  not  mange,  but  only  inflammation  of  the  skin,  from  too  great  fulness  of  blood. 
A  little  blood  should  be  taken  away — a  purgative  administered,  and  the  alteratives 
given.  The  mange  ointment  cannot  do  harm,  and  may  possibly  prevent  this  heat  of  the 
skin  from  degenerating  into  mange,  or  stop  the  progress  of  mange,  if  it  has  commenced. 
If  a  scurfiness  of  skin  should  appear  on  any  of  the  points  that  are  pressed  upon  by  the 
collar  or  harness,  the  veterinary  surgeon  will  do  right  to  guard  against  danger,  by  altera- 
tive medicine  and  the  use  of  the  ointment. 


These  are  tumors  of  variable  size,  arising  first  from  the  cuticle,  and  afterwards  con- 
nected with  the  true  skin  by  means  of  the  vessels  which  supply  the  growth  of  the  tu- 
mors. They  are  found  sometimes  on  the  eye-lids,  on  various  parts  of  the  skin,  and  on 
the  prepuce.  They  must  be  removed  by  an  operation.  If  the  root  be  very  small,  it  may 
be  snipped  asunder  with  a  pair  of  scissors,  close  to  the  skin,  and  the  root  touched  with 
the  lunar  cautic.  If  the  pedicle  or  stem  be  somewhat  larger,  a  ligature  of  waxed  silk 
may  be  passed  firmly  round  it,  and  tightened  every  day.  The  source  of  nutriment  being 
thus  cut  off,  the  tumor  will,  in  a  few  days,  die  and  drop  off.  If  they  are  large,  or  in  con- 
siderable clusters,  it  will  be  necessary  to  cast  the  horse,  to  cut  them  off  close  to  the  skin, 
and  sear  the  root  with  a  red-hot  iron.  Unless  these  precautions  are  used,  the  warts  will 
speedily  sprout  again. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 

A  LIST  OF  THE  MEDICINES  USED  IN  THE  TREATMENT 
OF  THE  DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE. 

He  will  rarely  consult  his  own  interest,  who,  not  having  had  the  advantage  of  vete- 
rinary education,  undertakes  the  treatment  of  any  of  the  serious  diseases  of  his  horses. 
Many  of  the  maladies  of  the  horse  so  nearly  resemble  each  other — and  are  so  continu- 
ally varying  their  character,  and  require,  in  their  different  stages,  so  diiierent  a  treatment , 
and  in  the  plainest  case  not  only  the  characteristic  symptoms  of  disease  are  obscure,  but 
even  the  indications  of  returning  health,  or  increasing  danger,  cften  scarcely  ascertaina- 
ble—so  that  the  sick  horse,  as  well  as  the  human  being,  needs  the  care  of  one  whom  study 
and  experience  have  qualified  for  the  task.  A  list,  however,  of  the  drugs  generally  used 
with  a  sUght  account  of  their  liistoiy,  adulterations  and  medicinal  effects  v\  ill  be  interest- 


288  THE  HORSE. 

ing  to  the  horse-proprietor  as  well  as  to  the  veterinary  surgeon  ;  and  may  occasionally  be 
useful  when  professional  aid  cannot  be  obtained. 

Aloes. — There  are  two  kinds  used  in  horse  practice,  the  Barbadoes  and  the  Cape.  The 
Socotorine,  preferred  by  the  human  surgeon,  are  very  uncertain  in  their  effect  on  the 
horse.  Of  the  Barbadoes  and  the  Cape,  the  first  are  much  to  be  preferred.  The  Barba- 
does aloes  are  obtained  principally  from  the  island  of  Barbadoes,  and  are  the  juice  of  the 
large  leaves  of  the  aloe  boiled  to  a  considerable  thickness,  and  then  poured  into  gourds 
in  which  they  gradually  harden.  The  true  Cape  is  the  extract  of  a  species  of  aloes  chiefly 
cultivated  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  Socotorine  aloes  are  of  a  brown  color,  inclin- 
ing to  red,  and  brittle.  The  Barbadoes  aloes  are  black,  with  a  shade  of  brown,  of  an 
unctuous  feeling,  with  a  stronger  smell,  broken  with  difficulty,  and  the  fracture  dull.  The 
Cape  are  darker  colored,  stronger  smelling,  veiy  brittle,  and  the  fracture  perfectly  glossy. 
Every  person  who  uses  much  aloes  should  buy  them  in  the  mass,  and  powder  them  him- 
self, and  then,  by  attending  to  this  account  of  the  difference  of  the  three,  he  can  scarcely 
be  imposed  upon.  Aloes  purchased  in  powder  are  too  often  sadly  adulterated.  The  Cape 
may  be  powdered  at  all  times,  and  the  Barbadoes  in  frosty  weather,  when  enough  may 
be  prepared,  to  be  kept  in  closed  bottles,  for  the  year's  consumption.  They  may  also  be 
powdered  when  they  have  been  taken  from  the  gourd,  and  exposed  to  a  gentle  heat  for 
two  or  three  hours  before  they  are  put  into  the  mortar.  Fifteen  ounces  of  the  powder, 
mixed  with  one  ounce  of  powdered  ginger,  and  beaten  up  with  eight  ounces  of  palm  oil, 
and  afterwards  divided  into  the  proper  doses,  will  form  a  purging  mass  more  effectual,  and 
much  less  likely  to  gripe,  than  any  that  can  be  procured  by  melting  the  drug.  If  the 
physic  is  given  in  the  shape  of  ball,  it  more  readily  dissolves  in  the  stomach,  and  more 
certainly  and  safely  acts  on  the  bowels  when  made  up  with  some  oily  matter,  like  that 
just  recommended,  than  when  combined  with  synip  or  honey,  which  are  apt  to  ferment 
and  be  themselves  the  causes  of  gripes.  It  is  also  worse  than  useless  to  add  any  diuretic 
to  the  mass,  as  soap  or  carbonate  of  soda.  The  action  of  these  on  one  set  of  organs  will 
weaken  the  action  of  the  aloes  on  another.  A  physic  mass  should  never  be  kept  more 
tlian  two  or  three  months,  for  after  that  time  it  rapidly  loses  its  purgative  property. 

Directions  for  physicing,  will  be  found  at  p.  166.  We  will  only  add  that,  as  a  pro- 
moter of  condition,  the  dose  should  always  be  mild.  A  few  fluid  stools  will  be  sufficient 
for  every  good  purpose.     Violent  disease  will  alone  justify  violent  purging. 

Three  drachms  of  Barbadoes  aloes  will  have  as  much  purgative  power  as  four  of  the 
Cape,  exclusive  of  griping  less  and  being  safer.  If  the  horse  is  well  mashed,  and  care- 
fully exercised,  and  will  drink  plenty  of  warm  water,  the  Cape  may  be  ventured  on,  or 
at  least  mixed  with  equal  quantities  of  the  Barbadoes  ;  but  if  there  be  any  neglect  of 
preparation  for  physic,  or  during  the  usual  operation  of  the  physic,  the  Cape  are  not  to 
be  depended  upon,  and  may  be  dangerous. 

Some  persons  are  fond  of  what  are  called  half-doses  of  physic.  Three  or  four  drachms 
are  given  in  one  day,  and  three  or  four  on  the  following,  and  perhaps,  if  the  medicine 
has  not  operated,  as  in  this  divided  state  it  will  not  always,  two  or  three  additional 
drachms  are  given  on  the  third  day.  The  consequence  is,  that  the  bowels  having  been 
rendered  irritable  by  the  former  doses,  the  horse  is  over-purged,  and  inflammation  and 
death  not  unfrequently  ensue,  when  the  effect  of  the  three  becomes  combined.  In  phys- 
icing a  horse,  whatever  is  to  be  done  should  be  done  at  once.  Whatever  quantity  is  inten- 
ded to  be  given,  should  be  given  in  one  dose. 

The  system  of  giving  small  doses  of  aloes  as  alteratives  is  not  good.  These  repeated 
small  doses  lodging  in  some  of  the  folds  of  the  intestines,  and  at  length  uniting,  often  pro- 
duce more  effect  than  is  desirable  ;  and  it  is  never  safe  to  ride  a  horse  far  or  fast,  with  even 
a  small  dose  of  aloes  within  him. 

Most  of  all  objectionable  is  the  custom  of  giving  small  doses  of  aloes  as  a  nauseant,  in 
inflammation  of  the  lungs.  There  is  so  much  sympathy  between  the  contents  of  the  chest 
and  the  beUy  of  the  horse,  and  inflammation  of  one  part  is  so  likely  to  be  transferred  to 
another,  tiiat  it  is  treading  on  very  dangerous  ground,  when,  with  much  inflammation  of 
the  lungs,  that  is  given  which  will  stimulate  and  may  inflame  the  intestines. 

Aloes  are  most  commonly,  because  most  easily,  administered  in  the  form  of  ball,  but 
in  a  state  of  solution  their  effects  is  most  speedy,  effectual  and  safe.  Two  ounces  of 
aloes,  and  one  ounce  of  gum  (to  suspend  the  imj^erfectly  dissolved  portion  of  the 
aloes),  are  put  into  a  pint  of  boiling  water,  and  the  mixture  frequently  stirred.  When 
it  is  cold,  two  ounces  of  tincture  are  added,  as  an  ai'omatic,  to  prevent  the  griping  of 
the  aloes,  and  also  to  keep  the  mixture  from  fermenting.  The  aloes  must  not  be  boiled 
in  the  water ;  even  five  minutes'  boiling  would  take  away  much  of  the  purgative  effect 
of  the  drug.    The  dose  of  the  solution  should  vary  from  six  to  eight  ounces. 

Aloes  are  useful  in  the  form  of  tincture.  Eight  ounces  of  powdered  aloes,  and  one 
ounce  of  powdered  myrrh,  should  be  put  into  two  quarts  of  rectified  spirit,  diluted 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  water.  The  mixture  should  be  daily  well  shaken  for  a  fort- 
night, and  then  suffered  to  stand,  Uiat  the  undissolved  portion  may  fall  to  the  bottom. 


MEDICINES.  289 

This  will  constitute  a  veiy  excellent  application  for  wounds,  whether  recent  or  of  long 
standing,  and  indisposed  to  heal.  It  is  not  only  a  gentle  stimulant,  but  it  ibrms  a  ttiin 
crust  over  the  wound,  and  shields  it  from  the  action  of  the  air. 

The  principal  adulteration  of  aloes  is  by  means  of  resin,  and  the  alteration  of  color 
is  concealed  by  the  addition  of  charcoal,  or  lamp  black.  This  adulteration  is  easily 
enough  detected,  by  dissolving  the  aloes  in  hot  water.  All  aloes  contain  some  resinous 
matter,  which  the  water  will  not  dissolve,  and  which  has  very  slight  purgative  eliect. 
The  excess  of  this  resin  at  the  bottom  of  the  solution  will  mai'k  tne  degree  of  adulte- 
ration. 

Jllleralives  are  a  class  of  medicines  the  nat>n-e  and  effect  of  which  are  much  mis- 
understood, and  which  are  liable  to  much  abuse.  It  is  a  very  convenient  name  to  ex- 
cuse that  propensity  to  dose  tiie  horse  with  medicines,  which  is  the  disgrace  of  the  gi-oom, 
and  the  bane  of  the  stable.  By  alteratives  we  understand  those  drugs  which  ertect  some 
slow  change  in  the  diseased  action  of  certain  paits  without  interfering  with  the  lood  or. 
work  ;  but  by  common  consent  the  term  seems  to  be  confined  to  medicines  for  the  dis- 
eases of  the  ciiculation,  or  of  the  digestive  oigans,  or  of  the  skin.  If  a  horse  is  heavy 
and  incapable  of  work  from  too  good  keep,  or  if  he  is  off  his  food  from  some  temporaiy 
indigestion — or  if  he  has  matige  or  grease,  or  cracked  heels,  or  swelled  legs,  a  few 
alteratives  are  prescribed,  and  the  complaint  is  gradually  and  imperceptibly  removed. 
For  all  skin  atii^ctions  there  is  no  better  alterative  than  that  so  often  recommended  in 
tliis  treatise,  consisting  of  black  antimony,  nitre,  and  sulphur.  If  there  is  any  tendency 
to  grease,  two  drachms  of  resin  may  be  added  to  each  ball.  If  the  complaint  be  accom- 
panied by  weakness,  a  little  gentian  and  ginger  may  be  further  added,  but  we  enter  our 
protest  against  the  ignorant  use,  and  almost  against  the  use  in  the  most  skilful  hands,  of 
mercury  in  any  form,  or  any  of  the  mineral  acids  or  mineral  tonics,  or  heating  spices,  as 
alteratives.  We  indeed  should  be  pleased  if  we  could  banish  the  term  alterative  altoge- 
ther. The  mode  of  proceeding  which  reason  and  science  would  dictate  is  to  ascertain 
the  nature  and  degree  of  the  disease,  and  then  the  medicine  which  is  calculated  to  restore 
the  healthy  action  of  the  part,  or,  of  the  frame  generally. 

^luiii  is  occasionally  used  internally  in  cases  of  super-purgation  in  the  form  of  alum- 
whey,  two  drachms  of  the  powder  being  added  to  a  pint  of  hot  milk ;  but  there  are 
much  better  asbingents,  although  this  may  succeed  when  others  fail.  If  alum  is  added 
to  a  vegetable  astringent,  as  oak-bark,  the  power  of  both  is  diminished.  Its  principal 
use  is  external.  A  solution  of  two  drachms  to  a  pint  of  water  forms  alone,  or  with  a 
.scruple  of  white  vitriol,  a  very  useful  wash  for  cracked  heels,  and  for  grease  generally ; 
and  also  for  those  forms  of  swelled  legs  attended  with  exudation  of  moisture  through  the 
.skin.  Some  add  the  Goulard  lotion,  forgeting  the  chemical  decomposition  that  takes 
place  ;  the  result  of  which  is,  that  the  aluinine,  possessing  little  astringency,  is  detached, 
and  two  salts  with  no  astringency  at  all,  the  sulphate  of  lead  and  the  sulphate  of  pot- 
ash, are  formed. 

The  Burnt  Jllum  is  inferior  to  the  common  alum  for  the  purposes  mentioned,  and  we 
have  better  stimulants,  or  caustics,  to  apply  to  wounds. 

^Immonia,  is,  to  the  annoyance  of  the  horse,  and  the  injury  of  his  eyes  and  his  lungs, 
plentifully  extricated  from  the  putrefying  dung  and  urine  of  the  stable  ;  but,  when  com- 
bined with  water  in  the  common  form  of  hartshorn,  it  is  seldom  used  in  veterinary  prac- 
tice. It  has  been  given,  and  with  decided  benefit,  and  when  other  things  have  failed,  iu 
flatulent  colic;  and  is  best  administered  in  the  form  of  the  aromatic  spirit  of  ammonia, 
and  in  doses  of  one  or  two  ounces,  in  warm  water. 

Chloride  of  Avitnonia,  or  sal  ammoniac  is  scarcely  deserving  of  a  place  in  our  list.  It 
is  not  now  used  internally  ;  and  as  an  astringent  embrocation,  it  must  yield  to  several 
that  are  more  effectual,  and  less  likely  to  blemish. 

Jlnodynes. — Of  these  there  is  but  one  in  horse  practice.  Opium  is  the  only  drug  that 
will  lull  pain.  It  may  be  given  as  an  anodyne,  but  it  will  also  be  an  astringent  in  doses 
of  one,  two,  or  three  drachms. 

Antimony. — There  are  several  valuable  preparations  of  this  metal. 

The  Black  Svlphuret  of  Jntimouy,  a  compound  of  sulphur  and  antimony,  is  a  good 
alterative.  It  is  given  with  more  sulphur  and  with  nifa-e,  in  vaiying  doses,  according  to 
the  disease  and  the  slow  or  rapid  effect  intended  to  be  produced.  The  maximum  dose» 
and  especially  if  it  is  to  be  continued,  should  >iot  exceed  four  drachms.  It  should  never 
be  bought  in  powder,  whatever  trouble  there  may  be  in  levigating  it,  for  it  is  often 
grossly  adulterated  with  lead,  manganese,  forge-dust,  and  arsenic.  The  adulteration 
may  be  detected  by  placing  a  little  of  the  powder  on  a  red  hot  iron  plate.  The  pure 
sulphuret  will  evaporate  without  the  slightest  residue — so  will  the  arsenic,  but  there 
will  be  an  evident  smell  of  garlic  ;  a  portion  of  the  lead  and  the  manganese  will  be  left 
behind. 

Emetic  Tartar — the  tai'trate  of  potash  and  antimony,  or  a  combination  of  super-tar- 
trate  of  potash  and  oxide  of  antimony,  is  a  very  useful  nauseant,  and  has  considerable 
37 


290  THE  HORSE. 

effect  on  the  sWn.  It  is  particularly  valuable  in  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  and  in 
every  catarrhal  affection.  It  is  given  in  doses  of  one  drachm,  or  one  drachm  and  a 
half,  and  combined  with  nitre  and  digitalis.  It  is  also  beneficial  in  the  expulsion  of 
worms.  Here  it  must  be  given  in  doses  of  two  drachms,  and  with  some  mechanical 
vermifuge,  as  tin-filings,  or  ground-glass,  and  administered  on  an  empty  stomach,  and 
for  several  successive  days.  Although  it  may  sometimes  fail  to  expel  the  worm,  it  ma- 
terially improves  the  condition  of  the  horse,  and  produces  sleekness  of  the  coat.  To  a 
slight  degree  the  emetic  tartar  is  decomposed  by  the  action  of  light,  and  should  be  kept 
in  a  jar,  or  green  bottle.  It  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  arsenic,  which  is  detected  by 
the  garlic  smell  when  it  is  placed  on  hot  iron,  and  also  by  its  not  giving  a  beautiful  gold- 
colored  precipitate  when  sulphuret  of  ammonia  is  added  to  a  solution  of  it. 

Antimonial  Powder — Powder  of  oxide  of  antimony,  with  phosphate  of  lime.  This 
is  the  factitious  James's  powder,  and  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  that  medicine,  in  many 
diseases  of  a  febrile  character.  The  dose  is  from  one  to  two  drachms.  The  late  IVIr. 
Bloxam  used  to  trust  to  it  alone  in  the  treatment  of  epidemic  catarrh  in  the  horse,  and 
he  was  very  successful.  It  is,  however,  decidedly  inferior  to  the  emetic  tartai'.  This, 
too,  is  adulterated  with  chalk,  and  plaster  of  Peiris,  and  burnt  bones,  and  other  white 
powders,  and  that  to  so  shameful  a  degree,  that  little  dependence  can  be  placed  on  the 
antimonial  powder  usually  sold  by  druggists.  Muriatic  or  sulphuric  acid  will  detect 
most  of  these  adulterations. 

Chloride  of  antimony  is  formed  by  distilling  corrosive  subUmate  with  antimony.  The 
butter-like  matter  which  is  produced  (whence  the  common  name,  Butyr  of  Antimony) 
has  a  strong  affinity  for  water,  which  it  attracts  from  the  atmosphere,  and  thus  becomes 
converted  into  a  fluid.  The  less  water  it  is  suffered  to  attract  to  itself,  the  more  pow- 
erful it  remains,  and  therefore  it  should  be  kept  in  stopped  bottles ;  and  the  proof  of  its 
goodness  is  its  weight.  It  is  decidedly  the  best  liquid  caustic  we  have  ;  it  is  most  manage- 
able, and  its  effect  can  most  readily  be  ascertained.  As  soon  as  it  touches  any  muscular 
or  living  part,  a  change  of  color  is  perceived  on  the  part ;  and  the  effect  of  the  caustic 
can  be  fairly  judged  of  by  the  degree  of  change.  For  corns,  canker,  indisposition  in 
the  sole  to  secrete  good  horn,  wounds  in  the  foot  not  attended  by  healthy  action,  and  for 
every  case  where  the  superficial  application  of  a  caustic  is  needed,  the  chloride  of  anti- 
mony is  unrivalled. 

Antispasmodics. — Of  these  our  list  is  scanty,  for  the  horse  is  subject  only  to  a  few 
spasmodic  diseases,  and  there  are  fewer  medicines  which  have  an  anti-spasmodic  effect. 
Opium  stands  first  for  its  general  power,  and  that  exerted  particularly  in  locked  jaw ; 
and  oil  of  turpentine  as  almost  a  specific  for  spasm  of  the  bowels :  camphor,  assafcetida, 
and  various  others,  used  on  the  human  subject,  have  very  doubtful  effect  in  the  horse,  or 
may  be  considered  as  almost  inert. 

Arsenic. — Were  it  not  that  some  practitioners  continue  to  use  it  as  a  tonic,  in  doses  of 
from  ten  to  twenty  grains  daily,  and  others  use  it  to  core  out  old  ulcers,  we  would  not 
include  it  in  our  list,  for  we  have  little  faith  in  it.  There  are  better  and  safer  tonics,  and 
far  better  and  safer  caustics.  The  method  of  detecting  the  presejice  of  arsenic,  in  cases 
of  poisoning,  has  been  described  at  page  158. 

Astnngents  are  medicines  that  contract  the  living  fibres,  and  thus  close  the  mouths  of 
small  vessels,  and  restrain  inordinate  and  dangerous  discharges.  Opium,  alum,  and 
catechu  are  powerful  astringents  in  arresting  intestinal  and  urinary  evacuations ;  and 
alum  and  the  superacetate  ot  lead  are  astringents  applied  externally. 

Balls. — The  usual  and  the  most  convenient  mode  of  administering  many  medicines 
is  in  the  form  of  balls,  compounded  with  oil,  and  not  with  honey  or  syrup,  on  account  of 
their  longer  keeping  soft  and  more  easily  dissolving  in  the  stomach.  Balls  should  never 
weigh  more  than  an  ounce  and  a  half,  or  two  ounces,  otherwise  they  wiU  be  so  large  as 
to  pass  with  difficulty  down  the  gullet.  They  should  not  be  more  than  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter and  three  inches  in  lengtli.  The  mode  of  delivering  balls  is  not  difficult  to  acquire  ; 
and  the  balling  iron,  while  it  often  wounds  and  permanently  injures  the  bars,  occasions 
the  horse  to  struggle  more  than  he  otherwise  would  against  the  administration  of  tlie 
ball.  The  horse  should  be  backed  in  the  stall ; — ^the  tongue  should  be  drawn  gently  out 
with  the  left  hand  on  the  off-side  of  the  mouth,  and  there  fixed,  not  by  continuing  to 
pull  at  it,  but  by  pressing  the  fingers  against  the  side  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  bcdl,  be- 
ing now  talcen  between  me  tips  of  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  is  passed  rapidly  up  the 
mouth,  as  near  to  the  palate  as  possible,  until  it  reaches  the  root  of  the  tongue  ;  it  is  then 
dehvered  with  a  slight  jerk,  and  the  hand  being  immediately  withdrawn  and  the  tongue 
liberated,  the  ball  is  forced  through  the  pharynx  into  the  oesophagus.  Its  passage  should 
be  watched  down  the  left  side  of  the  throat ;  and  if  it  is  not  seen  going  down,  a  slight 
tap  or  blow  under  the  chin  will  generally  cause  the  horse  to  swallow,  or  a  few 
gulps  of  water  will  carry  it  down.  If  the  gullet  should  be  small,  or  strictured,  and  the 
ball  should  remain  in  some  part  of  it,  the  method  of  removijig  it  has  been  described  in 
page  128.    , 


MEDICINES.  291 

Blisters  ai'e  applications  to  the  skin  which  separate  the  cuticle  in  tlie  form  of  vesicles 
containing  a  serous  fluid.  They  excite  increased  action  in  the  vessels  of  the  skin,  by- 
means  of  which  this  fluid  is  thrown  out.  The  part  or  neighboring  parts  are  somewhat 
relieved  by  this  discharge,  but  more  by  the  inflammation  and  pain  which  are  produced, 
and  which  lessen  the  intlammation  and  pain  previously  existing  in  some  contiguous  part. 
On  this  principle  we  account  for  the  decided  relief  often  obtained  by  blisters  in  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lungs  ;  tlieir  efficacy  in  abating  deeply-seated  inflammation,  as  that  of  sprain  of 
the  tendons,  ligaments,  or  joints  ;  and  the  necessity  of  removing  first,  in  these  latter  cases, 
the  superficial  inflammation  caused  by  the  sprain,  that  inflammation  of  a  diflJerent  kind 
may  be  excited  instead  of  it,  to  which  the  deeply-seated  inflammation  of  the  part  will  be 
more  likely  to  yield.  The  blisters  used  in  horse-practice  are  composed  only  of  can- 
tharides  or  the  oil  of  turpentine,  to  which  some  have  added  a  tincture  of  the  Croton- 
nut.     The  method  of  forming  the  best  blister  is  mentioned  at  page  147. 

Bole  Armenian  is  an  argillaceous  eartli  combined  with  iron,  and  is  supposed  to  possess 
some  astringent  property.  The  propriety  of  its  being  best  administered  inwardly  is 
doubtful ;  for  it  may  remain  in  the  intestinal  canal,  and  become  the  nut  of  a  stone.  On 
account  of  its  supposed  astringency,  it  is  employed  externally  to  give  consistence  to 
ointments  for  grease.  Even  the  bole  Armenian  has  not  escaped  the  process  of  adidtera- 
tion,  and  is  lai-gely  mixed  with  interior  earths.  The  fraud  may  be  suspected,  but  not 
satisfactorily  detected,  by  the  color  of  the  powder,  which  should  be  a  bright  red. 

Burgundy  Pitch. — SeeKesin. 

Calamine. — See  Zinc. 

Calomel. — See  Mercury. 

Camphoi  is  the  produce  of  one  of  the  laurus  species,  a  native  of  Japan,  and  is  imitated 
by  passing  a  stream  of  chlorine  through  oil  of  turpentine.  The  efficacy  of  this  drug 
when  used  internally  is  very  doubtful.  The  camphor  ball  is  a  favorite  with  the  groom, 
and  occasionally  administered  by  the  veterinary  surgeon,  but  seemingly,  with  no  defi- 
nite object,  for  it  has  not  been  yet  determined  whether  it  is  to  be  considered  as  a  seda- 
tive, antispasmodic,  or  stimulant.  It  is  however,  a  stimulant,  when  applied  externally. 
In  the  form  of  camphorated  oil,  it  promotes  the  absorption  of  fluids  thrown  out  beneath 
the  skin,  the  removal  of  old  callus,  and  the  suppleing  of  joints  stiff'  from  labor.  Com- 
bined with  oil  of  turpentine  it  is  more  effective,  but  in  that  combination  it  occasion- 
ally blemishes. 

Cantharides  are  the  basis  of  the  most  approved  and  useful  veterinary  blisters.  The 
cantharis  is  a  fly,  the  native  of  Italy  and  the  south  of  France,  destroyed  by  sulphur, 
dried  and  powdered,  and  mixed  with  palm  oil  and  resin,  in  the  proportions  directed  at 
page  147.  Its  action  is  intense,  and  yet  superficial;  it  plentifully  raises  the  cuticle,  but 
never  injures  the  ti'ue  skin,  and  therefore  never  blemishes.  The  application  of  other 
acrid  substances  is  occasionally  followed  by  deep-seated  ulcerations  ;  but  a  blister,  com- 
posed of  the  Spanish  fly  alone,  while  it  does  its  duty,  leaves,  after  a  few  weeks  have 
passed,  scarcely  a  trace  behind.  The  art  of  blistering  consists  in  cutting,  or  rather 
shaving  tlie  hair  perfectly  close — then  well  rubbing  in  the  ointment,  for  at  least  ten 
minutes — and  aftei"wards,  and  what  is  of  the  greatest  consequence  of  all,  plastering  a 
little  more  of  the  ointment  lightly  over  the  part,  and  leaving  it.  As  soon  as  the  vesicles 
have  perfectly  risen,  which  will  be  in  twenty  or  twenty-four  hours,  the  torture  of  the 
animal  may  be  somewhat  relieved  by  the  application  of  olive  or  neat's-foot  oil,  or  any 
emollient  ointment. 

When  too  extensive  a  blister  has  been  employed,  or,  from  the  intensity  of  the  original 
inflammation,  the  blister  has  not  risen,  (for  no  two  intense  inflammations  can  exist  in 
neighboring  parts  at  the  same  time,)  strangury,  or  great  difficulty  in  passing  urine,  or  even 
suppression  of  it,  has  occurred.  The  careful  washing  off  of  the  blister,  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  plenty  of  warm  water,  with  opium,  and  bleeding  if  the  symptoms  run  high, 
will  generally  remove  this  unpleasant  effect. 

An  infusion  of  two  ounces  of  the  flies  in  a  pint  of  oil  of  turpentine,  for  several  days, 
is  occasionally  used  as  a  liquid  blister ;  and  when  sufficiently  lowered  with  common  oil, 
it  is  called  a  sweating  oil,  for  it  maintains  a  certain  degree  of  irritation  and  inflammation 
on  the  skin,  but  not  sufficient  to  blister,  and  thus  gradually  abates  or  removes  some  old  or 
deep  inflammation,  or  cause  of  lameness. 

Cantharides  have  lately  been  recommended  to  be  given  internally,  in  doses,  daily,  or 
twice  in  the  day,  of  five  grains,  and  increasing  the  dose  to  fifteen  grains,  for  the  cure  of 
glanders.  The  experiments  are  yet  too  few  and  indecisive  to  admit  of  any  satisfactory 
conclusion.  In  these  doses  the  fly  has  not  been  injurious,  and  the  experiments  are  well 
worth  prosecuting. 

Canaways. — "niese  and  ginger  are  retained  as  the  only  cordials  requisite  for  the  horse. 

Castor  Oil  is  here  introduced  again  to  warn  the  horse-owner  and  the  practitioner  against 
the  too  frequent  use  of  it.    If  it  is  a  purgative  in  the  horse,  it  must  be  given  in  the  enor- 


292  THE  HORSE. 

roous  and  expensive  doses  of  a  pound  or  a  pound  and  a  half;  even  then  it  is  uncertain  in 
its  etfect — olten  giipes,  and  is  unsafe  and  dangerous. 

'  Catechu,  Japan  esu-th,  yet  no  eartli,  but  extracted  from  the  wood  of  one  of  the  acacia 
trees,  is  a  very  useful  astringent.  It  i&  eiven  in  superpurgation,  in  doses  of  one  or  two 
drachnis,  with  one  or  one  and  a  half  dracnui  of  opium,  as  a  yet  more  powerful  astiingent ; 
four  drachms  of  chalk,  to  neutralize  any  acid  in  the  stomach  or  bowels,  and  two  drachms 
of  powdered  gum  being  also  added,  to  sheath  the  over-irritated  mucous  coat  of  the  intes- 
tmes.  It  is  not  often  adulterated  in  our  countiy,  but  grossly  so  abroad — fine  sand  and 
aluminous  earth  being  mixed  witli  the  extjact.  It  should  not  be  given  with  any  alkali, 
yet  the  prescription  just  recommended  contains  chalk.  But  although  the  chalk,  being  an 
alkali,  weakens  the  cistringency  of  the  catechu,  it  probably  neutralizes  some  acid  in  the 
stomach  or  bowels,  which  would  have  diminished  the  power  of  tlie  catechu  to  a  greater 
degree.  It  must  not  be  given  in  conjunction  with  any  metallic  salt,  lor  the  tannin  or 
gaflic  acid,  on  which  its  power  chiefly  or  entirely  depends,  has  an  affinity  for  all  metals, 
and  will  unite  with  them,  and  form  a  gallate  of  them,  possessing  little  Jistringent  energy. 
Common  ink  is  the  union  of  this  tannin  principle  with  iron. 

A  tincture  of  catechu  is  sometimes  made  by  macerating  three  ounces  of  the  powder  in 
a  quart  of  spirit  for  a  fortnight.  It  is  very  excellent  for  wounds  ;  and,  with  the  aloes, 
constitutes  all  that  we  want  of  a  balsamic  nature  for  tlie  pui-pose  oi  hastening  the  heal- 
ing process  of  wounds. 

Caustics. — These  are  sometimes  necessar)'  to  destroy  fungous  excrescences,  or  stimulate 
indolent  ulcers,  or  remove  portions  of  cellular  substance  or  muscle  infected  by  any  poison. 
They  are  the  butyr  of  antimony — blue  vitriol — verdigris — con'osive  sublimate — lunar 
caustic,  and  sulphuric  acid.     See  these  different  substances. 

Chalk  is  used  only  in  combination  with  catechu  for  superpurgation,  and  in  the  propor- 
tions directed  under  the  article  Catechu.  The  prepared  or  levigated  chalk  is  generally 
prefered. 

Camomile. — The  powder  of  the  flower  is  a  useful  vegetable  tonic,  and  the  mildest  in 
our  list.  It  is  given  in  doses  of  one  or  two  drachms,  and  is  exhibited  in  the  early  stage 
of  convalescence  to  ascertain  whether  the  febrile  stage  of  the  disease  is  passed,  and  to 

Erepare  the  way  for  a  more  powerful  tonic,  the  gentian.  If  no  acceleration  of  pulse  or 
eat  of  mouth,  or  indication  of  return  of  fever,  accompanies  the  cautious  use  of  the  ca- 
momile, the  gentian,  with  carbonate  of  iron,  may  be  safely  ventured  on  ;  but  if  the  gen- 
tian had  been  used  first,  and  a  little  too  soon,  there  might  have  been  a  considerable,  and 
perhaps  dangerous  return  of  fever. 

Charcoal  is  a  useful  antiseptic,  and,  mixed  with  a  poultice,  readily  removes  the  foetid 
smell  of  unhealthy  ulcers,  or  cracked  heels. 

Charges  are  thick  adhesive  plasters  spread  over  parts  that  have  been  strained  or  weak- 
ened, and,  being  applied  to  the  skin  warm,  adhere  for  a  considerable  time.  The  follow- 
ing mixture  makes  a  good  charge — Burgundy  or  common  pitch,  five  ounces ;  tar,  six 
ounces  ;  yellow  wax,  one  ounce,  melted  together,  and  when  they  are  becoming  cool,  half 
a  drachm  of  powdered  cantharides  well  stirred  in.  This  must  be  partially  melted  afresh 
when  applied,  and  put  on  the  part  with  a  lai'ge  spatula,  as  hot  as  it  can  be  without  giving 
the  animal  too  much  pain.  Flocks  of  tow  should  be  scattered  over  it  while  it  is  warm, 
and  thus  a  thick  and  adhesive  covering  will  be  formed,  which  cannot  be  separated  from 
the  skin  for  many  months.  This  is  applied  for  old  sprains  of  the  loins,  and  also  strains 
of  the  back  sinews.  The  charge  acts  ia  three  ways — by  the  slight  stimulant  power 
which  it  possesses  it  gradually  removes  all  deep-seated  inflammation — by  its  stimulus  and 
by  its  pressure  it  promotes  the  absorption  of  any  callus  or  thickening  beneath ;  and,  acting 
as  a  constant  bandage,  it  gives  tone  and  strength  to  the  part. 

Clijsters. — These  are  useful  and  too  often  neglected  means  of  hastening  the  evacuation 
of  the  bowels,  when  the  disease  requires  their  speedy  action.  The  old  ox-bladder  and 
wooden  pipe  may  still  be  employed,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  fluid  may  be  tlirown 
into  the  intestine  ;  but  the  patent  stomach  and  clyster-pump  of  Mr.  Reid  is  fai-  preferable, 
as  enabling  the  practitioner  to  inject  a  greater  quantity  of  fluid,  and  in  a  less  time. 

Two  ounces  of  soft  or  yellow  soap,  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of  warm  water,  will  form  a 
useful  aperient  clyster ;  it  will  detach  or  dissolve  many  irritating  substances  that  may  have 
adhered  to  the  mucous  coat  of  the  bowels.  For  a  more  active  aperient,  eight  ounces  of 
Epsom  salts,  or  even  of  common  salt,  may  be  dissolved  in  the  same  quantity  of  water : 
a  more  active  injection,  but  not  to  be  used  if  much  purgative  medicine  has  been  previously 
given,  may  be  composed  of  an  ounce  of  Baibadoes  aloes,  dissolved  in  two  or  three  quarts 
of  warm  water.  If  nothing  else  can  be  procured,  warm  water  may  be  employed ;  it  will 
act  as  a  fomentation  to  the  inflamed  and  uritable  surface  of  the  bowels,  and  will  have  no 
inconsiderable  effect  even  as  an  aperient. 

In  cases  of  over-purging  or  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  the  injection  must  be  of  a 
soothing  nature  :  it  may  consist  of  gruel  alone  ;  or  if  the  purging  be  great,  and  difficult 


MEDICINES.  298 

to  stop,  the  gruel  must  be  tliickcr,  four  ounces  of  prepared  or  powdered  chaJk  being  well 
mixed  vvitli  or  suspended  in  it,  with  two  scruples  or  di-achms  of  powdered  opium. 

No  oil  should  enter  into  tlie  composlion  of  a  clyster,  except  tliat  linseed  oil  may  be 
used  for  the  expulsion  of  the  a^carides,  or  needle-worms. 

In  epidemic  catarrii,  when  the  hoi-se  sometimes  obstinately  refuses  to  eat  or  to  drink, 
his  strength  may  be  supported  by  nourishing  clysters;  but  they  should  consist  of  thick 
gruel  only,  and  not  more  than  a  quart  should  be  administered  at  once,  lor  a  greater 
quantity  would  be  returned  soon  after  the  pipe  is  withdrawn.  Strong  broths,  and  more 
particularly  ale  and  wine,  ai'e  dangerous  ingredients ;  they  may  rapidly  aggravate  the 
lever,  and  should  never  be  administered,  but  under  tlie  superintendence,  or  by  tlie  direc- 
tion of  a  veterinary  surgeon. 

The  principal  art  of  administering  a  clyster  consists  in  not  friglitening  the  horse.  The 
pipe,  well  oiled,  should  be  very  gently  introduced,  and  the  fluid  not  too  hastily  thrown  up ; 
and  its  heat  should  be  as  neai'ly  as  possible  tliat  of  the  intestine,  or  about  96  degrees  of 
Fahrenheit's  thermometer. 

Copper. — There  are  two  combinations  of  tliis  metal  used  in  veterinary  practice  ;  the 
verdigris  or  subacetate,  and  the  blue  vitriol  or  sulphate. 

Verdigris  is  the  common  rust  of  copper,  produced  by  vinegar,  or  any  thing  sour,  or 
even  common  salt.  It  is  given  internally  by  some  practitioners,  in  doses  of  two  or  three 
drachms  daily,  as  a  tonic,  and  particularly  for  the  cure  of  farcy.  It  is,  however,  an 
uncertain  and  dangerous  medicine.  The  corrosive  sublimate,  with  vegetable  tonics,  as 
recommended  at  p.  103,  is  preferable.  Verdigris  is,  however,  usefully  applied  externally 
as  a  mild  caustic.  Either  alone,  in  the  form  of  fine  powder,  or  mixed  with  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  the  sugar  (superacetate)  of  lead,  it  eats  down  proud  flesh,  or  stimulates  old  ulcers 
to  healthy  action  ;  when  boiled  with  honey  and  vinegar,  it  constitutes  the  farriers'  Egi^-p- 
tiacum,  certainly  of  benefit  in  cankered  or  ulcerated  mouth,  and  no  bad  application  for 
thrushes ;  but  yielding,  as  regards  both,  to  better  remedies,  which  have  been  mentioned 
under  the  proper  heads.  Some  practitioners  use  alum  and  oil  of  vitriol  in  making  tlieir 
Egyptiacum,  lorgeting  tlie  strange  decomposition  which  is  produced. 

Blue  Vitriol,  is  the  union  of  sulphuric  acid  and  copper ;  it  is  a  very  favorite  tonic  with 
many,  and  has  been  vaunted  as  a  specific  for  glanders  ;  while  others,  and  we  think  pro- 
perly, have  no  very  good  opinion  of  it  in  either  respect.  As  a  cure  for  glanders,  its  repu- 
tation is  now  nearly  passed  by ;  as  a  tonic,  when  the  horse  is  slowly  recovering  from 
severe  illness,  it  is  dangerous,  and  its  internal  use  should  be  confined  to  cases  of  long 
continued  discharge  from  the  nose,  when  catarrh  or  fever  have  ceased.  It  may  then  be 
given  with  benefit  in  doses  of  from  one  to  two  drachms  twice  in  the  day,  but  it  should  be 
combined  with  gentian  and  ginger.  It  is  principally  valuable  as  an  external  application, 
dissolved  in  water  in  the  proportion  of  two  drachms  to  a  pint,  and  acts  as  a  gentle  stimu- 
lant; but  when  an  ounce  is  dissolved  in  the  same  quantity  of  water  it  becomes  a  mild 
caustic.  In  the  former  proportion,  it  rouses  old  ulcers  to  a  healthy  action,  and  disposes 
even  recent  wounds  to  heal  more  quickly  than  they  otherwise  would  do ;  and  in  the  latter 
it  removes  fungous  granulations  or  proud  flesh.  The  blue  vitriol  is  sometimes  reduced 
to  powder  and  sprinkle  upon  the  wound  for  this  purpose,  and  is  a  good  application  for 
canker  in  the  foot. 

Cordials  ai'e  useful  or  injurious  according  to  the  judgment  with  which  they  are  given. 
Wlien  a  horse  comes  home  thoroughly  exhausted,  and  refuses  his  food,  a  cordial  may  be 
beneficial;  it  may  rouse  the  stomach  and  the  system,  and  may  prevent  cold  and  fever; 
but  it  is  poison  to  tlie  animal  when  administered  after  the  cold  is  actually  caught  and  fe- 
ver begins  to  appear.  More  to  be  reprobated  is  the  practice  of  giving  frequent  cordials, 
that,  by  their  stimulus  on  the  stomach,  (the  skin  sympathising  so  much  with  the  stom- 
ach,) a  fine  coat  may  be  produced.  The  artificial  excitement  of  the  cordial  soon  be- 
comes as  necessaiy  to  enable  the  horse  to  do  even  common  work,  as  is  tlie  excitement  of 
the  dram  to  sustain  the  animal  spirits  of  the  drunkard. 

To  recall  the  appetite  of  the  horse  slowly  recovering  from  illness  a  cordial  may  some- 
times be  allowed ;  or  to  old  horses  that  have  been  worked  hard  and  used  to  these  excite- 
ments when  young ;  or  to  draught  horses,  that  have  exhibited  slight  symptoms  of  staggers, 
when  their  labor  has  been  unusually  protracted,  and  their  stomachs  left  too  long  empty  ; 
or  mixed  with  dinretic  medicine,  to  fine  the  legs  of  the  overworked  and  debilitated  animal ; 
otherwise  tliey  should  never  find  a  place  in  the  stable,  or  be  used  at  the  discretion  of  the 
carter  or  the  groom.  The  most  hannless  cordial  if  abused,  and  the  best  if  given  with 
discretion,  is  composed  of  four  parts  each  of  carraway  powder  and  bruised  raisins,  and 
two  each  of  ginger  and  palm  oil,  well  beaten  into  a  mass. 

Corrosive  Siibliinate. — See  Mercuiy. 

Cream  of  Tartar. — See  Superacetate  of  Potash. 

Croton  Tiglii. — The  croton-nut  has  not  been  long  introduced  into  veterinary  practice, 
although  it  has  been  used  ti-om  time  immemorial  by  the  inhabitants  of  India  as  a  powei-- 
ful  purgative.    An  oil  has  been  extracted  from  it,  and  used  by  the  surgeon  ;  the  meal  is 


294  THE  HORSE. 

adopted  by  the  veterinaiian.  It  is  given  in  doses  from  a  scruple  to  a  half  a  drachm,  and, 
from  its  acrid  nature,  in  ball  with  an  ounce  of  linseed  meal.  When  it  does  operate,  the 
effect  is  generally  observed  in  six  or  eight  hours,  and  tlie  stools  are  profuse  and  watery, 
and  the  patient  frequently  griped.  On  account  of  its  quick  operation,  it  may  be  given  in 
locked  jaw  and  staggers ;  and  also  in  dropsy  of  tlie  chest  or  belly,  from  the  watery  and  pro- 
fuse stools  it  produces  ;  but  it  is  often  uncertain  in  its  operation,  and  its  griping  and  the 
debility  it  occasions  are  serious  objections  to  it  as  common  physic.  A  turpentine  tinc- 
ture of  the  powdered  nut  makes  an  active  blister ;  but  not  so  eifectual  or  so  safe  as  the 
cantharides. 

Diaphoretics,  are  medicines  that  increase  the  sensible  and  insensible  perspiration  of  the 
animal.  (See  p.  282.)  These,  as  it  regards  the  horse,  are  neither  many  nor  powerful. 
Antimony  in  its  various  forms  (see  p.  289),  and  sulphur,  have  some  effect  in  opening  the 
pores  of  the  skin,  and  exciting  its  vessels  to  action,  and  especially  when  assisted  by 
warmth  of  stable  or  clothing,  and  therefore  useful  in  those  diseases  where  it  is  desirable 
that  some  portion  of  the  blood  should  be  diverted  from  the  overloaded,  and  inflamed,  and 
vital  organs  of  the  chest,  to  the  skin  or  the  extremities  :  but  only  the  diaphoretics  on  which 
much  confidence  can  be  placed,  and  especially  to  produce  condition,  are  warm  clotlung 
and  good  grooming. 

Digestives  are  applications  to  recent  or  old  wounds,  as  mild  stimulants  to  produce  a 
healthy  appearance  and  action  in  them,  and  to  cause  them  more  speedily  to  heal.  A 
weak  solution  of  blue  vitriol  is  an  excellent  digestive  ;  so  is  the  tincture  of  aloes,  and  the 
tincture  of  myrrh.  The  best  digestive  ointment  is  one  composed  of  three  parts  of  the 
common  calamine  ointment  (Turner's  cerate)  and  one  of  common  turpentine. 

Digitalis. — The  leaves  of  the  common  fox-glove,  gathered  about  the  flowering  time, 
dried  carefully  in  the  dark,  and  powdered,  ana  kept  in  a  close  black  bottle,  form  one  of 
the  most  valuable  medicines  in  veterinary  practice.  It  is  a  direct  and  powerful  seda- 
tive, diminishing  the  frequency  of  the  pulse,  and  the  general  irrability  of  the  system,  and 
acting  also  as  a  mild  diuretic ;  it  is  therefore  useful  in  every  inflammatory  and  febrile 
complaint,  and  particularly  in  inflammation  of  the  chest.  It  is  usually  given  in  combi- 
nation with  emetic  tartar  and  nitre.  The  average  dose  would  be  one  drachm  of  digitaUs, 
one  and  a  half  of  emetic  tai-tar,  and  three  of  nitre,  and  repeated  twice  or  thrice  in  the 
day.  Digitalis  seems  to  have  an  immediate  effect  on  the  heai t,  lessening  the  number  of 
its  pulsations  ;  but  lessening  them  in  a  singular  manner,  not  by  causing  it  to  beat  more 
slowly,  but  by  producing  certain  intermissions  or  pauses  in  its  action.  When  these 
become  marked ;  when  at  every  sixtli  or  seventh  beat,  the  pulsations  are  suspended, 
while  two  or  three  could  be  slowly  counted,  this  is  precisely  the  effect  which  is  intended 
to  be  produced  ;  and  however  ill  the  horse  may  appear  to  be,  or  however  alarming  this 
intermittent  pulse  may  seem  to  the  standers-by,  from  that  moment  the  animal  will  begin 
to  amend.  The  dose  must  then  be  diminished  one-haJf,  and  in  a  few  days  it  maybe  omit- 
ed  altogether  ;  but  the  emetic  tartar  and  the  nib-e  should  be  continued,  even  for  some 
days  after  the  practitioner  deems  it  prudent  to  tiy  the  effect  of  mild  vegetable  tonics. 
There  is  no  danger  in  the  intermittent  pulse  thus  produced  ;  but  there  is  much  danger 
when  the  digitalis  fails  to  produce  any  effect  on  the  circulation.  The  disease  is  then  too 
powerful  to  be  arrested  by  medicine.  Digitahs  requires  watching  ;  but  the  only  conse- 
quence to  be  apprehended  from  an  over-dose,  is,  that  tlie  patient  may  be  reduced  a  little 
too  low,  and  his  convalescence  retarded  for  a  day  or  two. 

In  the  form  of  infusion  or  tincture,  digitalis  is  very  useful  in  inflammation  of  the  eyes. 
It  is  almost  equal  in  power  to  opium,  and  it  may  with  gi-eat  advantage  be  alternated 
with  it,  when  opium  begins  to  lose  its  power.  The  infusion  is  made  by  pouring  a  quart 
of  boiling  water  on  an  ounce  of  the  powder.  A  portion  of  the  liquid  should  be  introdu- 
ced into  the  eye.  Of  the  tincture  one  or  two  drops  should  be  inh-oduced.  To  form  the 
tincture,  three  ounces  of  the  digitalis  should  be  added  to  a  quart  of  spirit. 

The  infusion  has  been  serviceable  in  mange  ;  but  there  are  better  applications. 

Diuretics  constitute  a  useful,  but  much  abused  class  of  medicines.  They  stimulate 
the  kidneys  to  secrete  more  than  the  usual  quantity  of  urine,  or  to  separate  a  greater  than 
ordinary  proportion  of  the  watery  parts  of  the  blood ;  but  the  deficiency  of  water  in  tlie 
blood  thus  occasioned  must  be  speedily  supplied,  or  the  healthy  circulation  could  not  be 
carried  on,  and  it  is  generally  supplied  by  the  absorbents  taking  up  the  wateiy  fluid  in 
some  part  of  the  frame,  and  carrying  it  into  circulation.  Hence  the  evident  use  of  diu- 
retics in  every  dropsical  affection,  in  swelled  legs,  and  also  in  inflammation  of  fever,  by 
lessening  the  quantity  of  tlie  circulating  fluid,  and  therefore  the  quantity  which  is  sent 
to  inflamed  parts. 

All  this,  however,  is  produced  by  the  kidneys  being  stimulated  to  increased  action, 
and  if  this  stimulus  is  too  often  or  too  violently  applied,  the  energy  of  the  kidney  may 
be  impaired,  or,  inflammation  may  be  produced,  that  inflammation  may  be  of  an  acute 
character,  and  destroy  the  patient ;  or,  although  not  intense  in  its  nature,  it  may  by  fre- 
quent repetition  assume  a  chronic  character,  and  more  slowly,  but  as  surely,  do  irrepara- 


MEDICINES.  295 

ble  mischief.  Hence  the  necessily  of  attention  to  tliat  portion  of  the  food  which  may 
have  a  diuretic  power.  Mow-burnt  hay  and  foxy  oats  ai-e  the  unsuspected  causes  of  many 
a  disease  in  the  horse,  at  first  obscure,  but  ultimately  referable  to  injury  or  inflammation 
of  the  urinary  organs.  Hence,  too,  the  impropriety  of  suflering  medicines  of  a  diuretic 
nature  to  be  at  tlie  command  of  the  ignorant  carter  or  groom.  In  swelled  legs,  cracks, 
grease  or  accumulation  of  fluid  in  any  part,  and  in  those  superficial  eruptions  and  in- 
flammations which  are  said  to  be  produced  by  humors  floating  m  the  blood,  diuretics  are 
evidently  beneficial;  but  they  should  be  as  mild  as  possible,  and  should  not  be  oftener 
given  or  continued  longer  than  the  case  requires.  For  some  cautions  as  to  the  admin- 
istration of  diuretics,  and  a  list  of  the  safest  and  best,  the  reader  is  referred  to  page  169. 
The  expensive  Castile  soap,  and  camphor,  and  so  often  resorted  to,  are  not  needed  ;  tlie 
common  liquid  turpentine  is  quite  suflicient  in  all  ordinary  cases,  and  nitre  and  digitalis 
may  be  added  if  fever  is  suspected. 

Drinks. — Many  practitioners  and  horse  proprietors  have  a  great  objection  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  medicines  in  the  form  of  drinks.  A  drinJf  is  not  so  portable  as  a  ball,  it 
is  more  troublesome  to  give,  and  a  portion  of  it  is  usually  wasted.  If  the  drink  contains 
any  acid  substance,  it  is  apt  to  excoriate  the  mouth,  or  to  irritate  the  throat  already  sore 
from  disease,  or  the  unpleasant  taste  of  the  drug  may  unnecessai-ily  nauseate  the  norse. 
There  are  some  medicines,  however,  which  must  be  given  in  the  form  of  drink,  as  in 
colic,  and  the  time,  perhaps,  is  not  distant  when  purgatives  will  be  thus  administered, 
as  more  speedy  and  safer  in  their  operation.  In  cases  of  much  debility  and  entire  loss 
of  appetite,  all  medicine  should  be  given  in  solution,  for  the  stomach  may  not  have  suffi- 
cient power  to  dissolve  the  paper  in  which  the  ball  is  wrapped,  or  the  substance  of  the  ball. 

An  ox's  horn,  the  larger  end  being  cut  slantingly,  is  the  usual  and  best  instrument  for 
administering  drinks.  The  noose  of  a  halter  is  introduced  into  the  mouth,  and  then,  by 
means  of  a  stable  fork,  tlie  head  is  elevated  by  an  assistant  considerably  higher  than  for 
the  delivery  of  a  ball.  The  surgeon  stands  on  a  pail  or  stable  basket  on  tCe  off-side  of 
the  horse,  and  draws  out  the  tongue  with  the  left  hand ;  he  tlien  with  the  right  hand 
introduces  the  horn  gently  into  the  mouth,  and  over  tlie  tongue,  and  by  a  dexterous 
turn  of  the  horn  empties  the  whole  of  the  drink  into  tlie  back  part  of  the  mouth  ;  the 
horn  is  now  quickly  withdrawn,  and  the  tongue  loosened,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the 
fluid  must  be  swallowed.  A  portion  of  it  however  will  often  be  obstinately  held  in  the 
mouth  for  a  lon^  time,  and  the  head  must  be  kept  up  until  the  whole  is  swallowed, 
which  a  quick,  but  not  violent  slap  in  the  muzzle  will  generally  compel  the  horse  to  do. 
The  art  of  giving  a  drink  consists  in  not  putting  too  much  in  the  horn  at  once ;  intro- 
ducing the  horn  far  enough  into  the  moutli,  and  quickly  turning  and  withdrawing  it, 
without  bruising  or  wounding  the  mouth,  the  tongue  being  loosened  at  tlie  same  mo- 
ment.    A  bottle  is  a  disgraceful  and  dangerous  instrument  to  use. 

Elder. — The  elder  leaf,  boiled  in  lard,  forms  an  emollient  ointment,  usefully  applied 
to  inflamed  and  irritated  parts. 

Epsom  Salts. — See  Magnesia. 

Fomentations  open  the  pores  of  the  skin  and  promote  perspiration  in  the  part,  and  so 
abate  the  local  swelling,  and  relieve  pain  and  lessen  inflammation.  They  are  often 
used,  and  with  more  effect  when  the  inflammation  is  somewhat  deeply  seated,  than  when 
it  is  superficial.  The  effect  depends  on  the  warmth  of  the  water,  and  not  on  any  herb 
which  may  have  been  boiled  in  it.  They  are  best  applied  by  means  of  flannel,  frequently 
dipped  in  the  hot  water,  or  on  which  the  water  is  poured,  and  tlie  heat  should  be  as 
great  as  the  hand  will  beai'.  The  benefit  tliat  might  be  derived  from  them  is  much  im- 
paired by  the  absurd  method  in  which  the  fomentations  are  conducted.  They  are  rarely 
continued  long  enough,  and  when  they  are  removed,  the  part  is  left  wet  and  uncoveretl, 
and  the  coldness  of  evaporation  succeeds  to  the  heat  of  fomentation.  The  perspiration 
is  thus  suddenly  checked,  the  animal  suffers  considerable  pain,  and  more  harm  is  done 
by  the  extreme  change  of  temperature  than  if  the  fomentation  had  not  been  attempted. 

Gentian  stands  at  the  head  of  the  vegetable  tonics,  and  it  is  a  stomachic  as  well  as  a 
tonic.  It  is  equally  useful  in  chronic  debility,  and  in  that  which  is  consequent  on  severe 
and  protiacted  illness.  It  is  generally  united  with  camomile,  ginger,  and,  when  the 
patient  will  bear  it,  carbonite  of  iron.  Four  drachms  of  gentian,  two  of  camomile, 
one  of  carbonate  of  iron,  and  one  of  ginger,  wiU  make  an  excellent  tonic  ball.  An  in- 
fusion of  gentian  is  one  of  the  best  applications  to  putrid  ulcers. 

Ginger  is  as  valuable  as  a  cordial,  as  gentian  is  as  a  tonic.  It  is  the  basis  of  the  cor- 
dial ball,  and  it  is  indispensable  in  the  tonic  ball.  Altliough  it  is  tlifficult  to  powder, 
the  veterinary  practitioner  should  always  purchase  it  in  its  solid  form.  If  the  root  be 
large,  heavy,  and  not  worm-eaten,  the  black  ginger  is  as  good  as  the  wliite,  and  con- 
siderably cheaper.  The  powder  is  adulterated  with  bean-meal  and  the  sawdust  of  box- 
wood, and  rendered  wjirm  and  pungent  by  means  of  capsicum. 

Goulard's  Extract. — See  Lead. 

Hellebore,  White,  is  a  powerful  nauseant,  and  lowers  botli  the  force  and  the  frequeacy 


296  THE  HORSE. 

of  the  pulse,  and  is  therefore  given  with  good  effect  in  various  inflammations,  and  parti- 
cularly that  of  the  lungs ;  but  it  requires  watching.  In  the  hosi)ital  of  the  veterinary- 
surgeon,  or  in  the  stable  of  the  gentleman  who  will  supj^rintend  the  giving  and  the  ope- 
ration of  eveiy  medicine,  it  may  be  used  with  safety ;  but  with  him  who  has  to  trust  to 
others,  and  who  does  not  see  tlie  horse  more  than  once  in  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours, 
it  is  a  dangerous  dru^.  If  it  is  pushed  a  little  too  far,  trembling  and  giddiness,  and 
purging  foUovv,  and  the  horse  is  sometimes  lost.  The  hanging  of  the  head,  and  the 
frothing  of  the  mouth,  and  more  particularly  the  sinking  of  the  pulse,  would  give  warn- 
ing of  danger;  but  the  medical  attendant  may  not  have  the  opportunity  of  observing 
tliis,  and  when  he  does  observe  it,  it  may  be  too  late.  Its  dose  varies  from  a  scruple  to 
half  a  drachm.  In  doses  of  a  drachm  it  could  not  be  given  with  safety ;  and  yet,  such 
is  the  diifi^rent  effect  of  medicines  given  in  different  doses,  that  in  the  quantity  of  an 
ounce  it  is  said  to  be  a  diuretic  and  a  tonic,  and  exhibited  with  advantage  in  chronic 
and  obstinate  grease. 

Hemlock  is  used  by  some  practitioners,  instead  of  digitalis  or  hellebore,  in  affections 
of  the  chest,  whether  acute  or  chronic  ;  but  it  is  inferior  to  both.  The  dose  of  the  pow- 
der of  the  dried  leaves  is  about  a  drachm. 

Infusions. — The  active  matter  of  some  vegetable  substances  is  partly  or  entirely  ex- 
tracted by  water.  Dried  vegetables  yield  their  properties  more  readdy  and  perfectly 
than  when  in  their  green  state.  Boiling  water  is  poured  on  the  substance  to  be  infused, 
and  which  is  previously  grossly  pounded  or  powdered ;  the  vessel,  is  then  covered  and 
placed  by  a  fire.  In  five  or  six  hours  the  transparent  part  may  be  poured  off,  and  is 
ready  for  use.  In  a  few  days,  however,  all  infusions  become  thick,  and  lose  their  virtue, 
from  the  decomposition  of  the  vegetable  matter. 

The  infusion  of  camomile  is  advantageously  used  instead  of  water  in  compounding 
a  mild  tonic  drench  :  the  iiffusion  of  catechu  is  useful  in  astringent  mixtures  ;  the  infu- 
sion of  linseed  is  used  instead  of  common  water  in  catarrh  and  cold ;  and  the  infusion 
of  tobacco  in  some  injections. 

Iodine. — This  substance  is  but  lately  introduced  into  veterinary  practice,  and  has  been 
given  with  effect  in  doses  of  five  grains  daily,  to  reduce  the  enlarged  glands  which 
sometimes  remain  after  catarrh.  It  has  likewise  power  in  reducing  almost  every  species 
of  tumor,  and  may  be  tried  where  it  would  be  dangerous  to  use  the  knife. 

Iron. — Of  this  metal  there  are  two  preparations  adopted  by  veterinarians.  The  rust, 
or  Carbonate,  is  a  mild  and  useful  tonic  in  doses  from  two  to  four  drachms.  The  Sulphate 
(green  vitriol  or  copperas)  is  more  powerful  but  should  never  be  given  in  early  stages  of 
recovery,  and  alwa)-s  with  caution.  The  dose  should  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  carbo- 
nate. The  sulphate  has  lately  been  recommended  for  the  cure  of  that  deceitful  stage  or 
form  of  glanders,  in  which  there  is  nothing  to  characterise  the  disease  but  a  very  slight 
discharge  from  the  nostrils.  It  is  to  be  dissolved  in  the  common  drink  of  the  horse.  It 
is  worth  a  trial,  but  too  sanguine  expectations  must  not  be  encouraged  of  the  power  of 
any  drug  over  this  intractable  malady.  Iron  should  be  given  in  combination  with  gen- 
tian and  ginger,  but  never  with  any  alkali  or  nitre,  or  soap  or  catechu,  or  astringent 
vegetable. 

Forge  water  used  to  be  a  favorite  tonic  with  farriers,  and  also  a  lotion  for  canker  and 
ulcers  in  the  mouth.  It  owes  its  power,  if  it  has  any,  to  the  iron  with  which  it  is  im- 
pregnated. 

Juniper,  Oil  of. — This  essential  oil  is  retained  because  it  has  some  diuretic  property, 
and  is  a  pleasant  aromatic.  It  may,  therefore,  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  diuretic  ball. 

Lard. — This  or  palm  oil  is  far  preferable  to  honey,  or  treacle,  or  syrups,  for  making  up 
balls,  because  the  ball  more  readily  dissolves  in  the  stomach.  It  likewise  renders  a  pur- 
gative less  liable  to  gripe.     It  is  the  principal  basis  of  all  ointments. 

Laudanum. — See  opium. 

Lead. — Combinations  of  this  metal  are  admitted  into  veterinary  practice.  The  sub- 
acetate  is  common  under  the  name  oi'  Extract  of  Lead,  or  Goulard's  Extract.  It  is  used 
in  the  proportion  of  a  drachm  to  a  pint  of  water  in  the  early  stages  of  inflammation  of 
the  eye ;  but  is  inferior  both  to  the  opium  and  digitalis,  and  cannot  be  used  in  combi- 
nation with  either.  In  double  the  proportion  it  is  serviceable  in  superficial  inflamma- 
tions of  various  kinds,  or  in  poultices  for  the  feet  where  there  is  much  inflammation  or 
fain ;  but  in  cases  of  sprain,  or  deep  injury,  or  inflammations,  it  is  perfectly  useless, 
f  white  vitiiol  or  alum  are  added  to  tlie  lead,  the  efficacy  of  all  the  ingredients  is 
destroyed. 

The  Sugar  of  Lead  is  the  acetate  or  superacetate  of  that  metal.  This,  dissolved  in 
water  in  the  proportion  of  two  drachms  to  a  pint,  makes  an  extemporaneous  Goulard's 
Lotion,  but  not  more  valuable  than  the  former. 

WTiite  Lead  (carbonate  of  lead)  is  sometimes  sprinkled,  in  the 'form  of  fine  powder, 
and  with  advantage,  on  swelled  legs,  where  the  skm  is  very  red  and  irritable,  and  mois- 
ttire  is  exuding  tnrough  it.    It  is  used  alone  or  mixed  with  paste,  or  a  bread-and-water 


MEDICINES,  297 


poultice : 


3 :  but  lead,  although  in  (he  fust  mentioned  form  a  great  favorite  with  many  per- 
sons, might,  without  great  loss,  be  expunged  from  the  Veterinary  Pharmacopceia. 

Lime  was  formerly  sprinkled  over  cankered  feet  and  greasy  heels,  but  liiere  are  less 

Gainful  caustics,  and  more  eliectual  absorbents  of  moisture.  Lime  water  is  rarely  used, 
ut  the  Chloride  of  Lime  is  exceedingly  valuable.  Diluted  with  twenty  times  its  quan- 
tity of  water,  it  should  help  to  form  the  poultice  applied  to  every  part  from  which  there 
is  the  slightest  olfensive  discharge.  The  tcetid  smell  of  fistulas'  withers,  poll-evil,  c:in- 
ker,  and  ill-conditioned  wounds,  is  immediately  removed,  and  the  ulcers  are  more  dig- 
posed  to  heal.  When  mangy  horses  are  dismissed  as  cured,  a  v,  ashing  with  the  diluted 
chloride  will  remove  any  inloction  tliat  might  lurk  about  tliera,  or  which  they  might  cany 
from  the  place  in  which  they  have  been  confined.  One  pint  of  the  chloride  mixed  with 
three  gallons  of  water,  and  brushed  over  the  walls  and  manger  and  rack  of  the  foulest 
stable,  will  completi  ly  remove  all  infection.  All  horse  furniture  worn  by  a  glandered  or 
mangy  animal  wlil  be  eilectually  purified  in  the  same  w'ay.  Internally  administered,  it 
seems  to  have  no  power. 

Liniments  are  oily  applications  of  the  consistence  of  a  thick  fluid,  and  designed  either 
to  sooth  an  inflamed  surface,  or,  by  gently  stimulating  the  skin,  to  remove  deeper-seated 
pain  or  inflammation.  As  an  emollient  liniment,  one  com])osed  of  half  an  ounce  of  ex- 
tract of  lead  and  four  ounces  of  olive  oil  will  be  useful.  For  sprains,  old  swelling,  or 
rheumatism,  two  ounces  of  hartshorn,  the  same  quantity  of  camphorated  spirit,  an  ounce 
of  oil  of  turpentine,  half  an  ounce  of  laudanum,  and  a  drachm  of  oil  of  origanum,  may 
be  mixed  together ;  or  an  ounce  of  camphor  may  be  dissolved  in  four  ounces  of  sweet 
oil,  to  which  an  ounce  of  oil  of  turpentine  and  a  drachm  of  oil  of  origanum  should  be 
afterwards  added.  A  little  powdered  cantharides,  or  tincture  of  cantharides,  or  mus- 
tard powder,  will  render  either  of  tliese  more  powerful,  or  convert  it  into  a  liquid 
blister. 

Linseed. — An  infusion  of  linseed  is  often  used  instead  of  water,  for  the  drink  of  the 
horse  with  sore  throat  or  catarrh.  A  pail  containing  it  should  be  slung  in  the  stable  or 
loose  box.  Thin  gruel,  however,  is  preferable  ;  it  is  as  bland  and  soothing,  and  it  is  more 
nutritious.     Linseed  meal  forms  the  best  poultice  for  almost  every  purpose. 

The  oil  of  linseed  is  not  a  certain,  but  always  a  safe  purgative.  It  must  be  given, 
however,  in  doses  of  a  pint  or  a  pint  and  a  half 

Lotions. — Many  of  the  best  lotions  have  been  already  described,  in  the  chapters  which 
treat  of  the  various  diseases  of  the  horse. 

Magnesia. — The  sulphate  of  magnesia,  or  Epsom  Salts,  should  be  used  only  in  pro- 
moting the  purgative  eflect  of  clysters,  or,  in  repeated  doses  of  six  or  eight  ounces, 
gently  to  open  the  bowels  at  the  commencement  of  fever.  Some  doubt,  however, 
attends  the  latter  practice  ;  for  the  dose  must  often  be  thrice  repeated  before  it  will  act, 
and  then,  although  safer  than  aloes,  it  may  produce  too  much  irritation  in  the  intestinal 
canal,  especially  if  the  fever  be  the  precursor  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs. 

Mashes  constitute  a  very  important  part  of  horse  provender,  whether  in  sickness 
or  in  health.  A  mash  given  occasionally  to  a  horse  that  is  otherwise  fed  on  drj  meat 
prevents  hiin  from  becoming  dangerously  costive.  To  the  overworked  and  tired  horse 
nothing  is  so  refreshing  as  a  warm  mash  with  his  usual  allowance  of  corn  in  it.  The 
art  of  getting  a  horse  into  apparent  condition  for  sale,  or  giving  him  a  round  and  plump 
appearance,  consists  principally  in  the  frequent  repetition  of  mashes,  and  from  their 
easiness  of  digestion  and  tiie  mild  nutriment  which  tliey  atiord,  as  w-ell  as  their  laxative 
eflect,  they  form  the  principal  diet  of  tlie  sick  horse. 

Mashes  are  made  by  pouring  boiling  water  on  bran,  and  stirring  it  well,  and  then  co- 
vering it  over  until  it  is  sufllciently  cool  for  the  horse  to  eat.  If  in  tlie  heat  of  sumnier 
a  cola  mash  is  preferred,  it  should,  nevertheless,  be  made  with  hot  water,  and  then  suf- 
fered to  remain  until  it  is  cold.  This  is  not  always  sufficiently  attended  to  by  the 
groom,  who  is  not  aware  that  the  etficacy  of  tlie  mash  depends  principally  on  the  change 
wluch  is  effected  in  the  bran  and  other  ingredients  by  the  boiling  water  rendering  them 
more  easy  of  digestion,  as  well  as  aperient.  If  the  horse  refuses  the  mash,  a  tV?w  oats 
may  be  sprinkled  over  it,  in  order  to  tempt  him  to  eat  it ;  but  if  it  is  previously  designed 
tliat  corn  should  be  given  in  the  mash,  it  should  be  scalded  witli  the  bran,  to  soften  it 
and  render  it  more  digestible.  Bran  mashes  ai-e  very  useful  preparatives  ior  physic,  and 
they  are  necessary  during  the  operation  of  the  physic.  They  very  soon  become  sour, 
and  the  manger  of  the  horse  of  whose  tliet  they  ibrm  a  principal  part,  should  be  daily 
and  carefully  cleaned  out. 

When  horses  are  weakly  and  much  reduced,  malt  mashes  will  often  be  palatable 
to  them  and  very  nutritive  :  but  the  water  that  is  poured  on  the  malt  mash  should  be 
considerably  below  the  boiling  heat,  or  the  malt  will  be  set,  or  clogged  together.  If 
owners  were  awai-e  of  the  value  of  a  malt  mash,  it  would  be  oftener  given  when  the 
horse  is  rapidly  getting  weaker  fi-om  protracted  disease,  or  when  he  is  beginning  to  reco- 
ver from  a  disease  by  which  he  has  been  much  reduced^  The  only  exception  to  their 
38 


298  THE  HORSE. 

use  i8  in  cases  of  chest  effection,  in  which  they  must  not  be  given  too  early.  In  grease, 
and  in  mange  accompanied  by  much  emaciation,  maJt  mashes  will  be  peculiarly  useful, 
and  especially  if  they  constitute  a  principal  portion  of  the  food. 

Mercury. — The  Mercurial  Ointment  is  prepared  by  nibbhig  quicksilver  with  lard,  in 
the  proportion  of  one  part  of  mercury  to  thiee  of  grease,  until  no  globules  appear ;  the 
piactitioner  should,  if  possible,  prepare  it  himself,  for  he  can  neither  get  it  pure  nor  of  the 
proper  strength  from  the  druggist.  It  is  employed  with  considerable  advantage  in  pre- 
paring splents,  spavins,  or  other  bony  or  callous  tumours,  for  blistering  or  firing.  One  or 
two  drachms,  according  to  the  nature  and  size  of  the  swelling,  may  be  daily  well  rubbed 
in  ;  but  it  should  be  watched,  for  it  sometimes  salivates  the  horse  very  speedily.  The 
tumors  more  readily  disperse,  at  the  application  of  the  stronger  stimulant,  when  they 
have  been  thus  prepared.  Mercurial  ointment  in  a  more  diluted  form  is  sometimes  ne- 
cessary for  the  cure  of  mallenders  and  sallenders  :  and  in  very  obstinate  cases  of  mange, 
one-eighth  part  of  mercurial  ointment  may  be  added  to  the  ointment  re-commended  at 
page  286. 

Calomel,  the  submuriate  or  protochloride  of  mercury  may  be  given,  combined  with 
aloes,  in  mange,  surfeit,  or  worms  ;  yet  better  alteratives  and  more  efficient  vermifuges 
have  been  described.  It  is  admissible  in  some  cases  of  chronic  cough,  in  farcy,  and  in 
jaundice,  but  it  is  not  a  medicine  that  seems  to  agree  with  the  horse.  Alone  it  has  little 
purgative  effect,  but  it  assists  the  action  of  other  aperients.  It  is  given  in  doses  from  a 
scruple  to  a  drachm,  but  must  not  be  too  often  or  too  long  repeated.  As  soon  as  the 
gums  become  red,  or  the  animal  begins  to  quid  or  drop  his  hay,  it  must  be  discontinued. 

Corrosive  Sublimate — the  oxymu^iate  or  bichloride  of  mercury,  combined  with  chlo- 
rine in  a  double  proportion,  is  a  useful  tonic  in  fai'cy,  and  perhaps  the  most  to  be  depend- 
ed upon.  It  should  be  given  in  doses  of  ten  grains  daily,  and  gradually  increased  to  a 
scruple,  until  the  horse  is  purged,  or  the  mouth  becomes  sore,  when  it  may  be  omited 
for  a  few  days,  and  resumed.  Some  have  recommended  it  as  a  diuretic,  but  it  is  too 
dangerous  a  medicine  for  this  purpose.  It  is  used  externally  in  solution  ;  and  in  sub- 
stance in  quittor,  as  a  stimulant  to  foul  ulcers  ;  and  in  proportion  of  five  grains  to  an 
ounce  of  rectified  spirit  in  obstinate  mange  or  to  destroy  vermin  on  the  skin.  It  is, 
however,  too  uncertain  and  too  dangerous  a  medicine  for  the  horse  proprietor  to  venture 
on  its  use  without  the  sanction  of  a  veterinary  surgeon. 

^thiop's  Mineral,  the  black  sulphuret  of  mercury,  is  not  often  used  in  horse  prac- 
tice, but  it  is  a  good  alterative  for  obstinate  surfeit  or  foulness  of  the  skin,  in  doses  of 
three  drachms  daily.  Four  drachms  of  cream  of  tartar  may  be  advantageously  added 
to  each  dose. 

Mint. — If  the  use  of  an  infusion  or  decoction  of  this  plant,  or  of  the  oil  that  is  ex- 
tracted firom  it,  can  be  at  any  time  admited,  it  is  as  a  vehicle  in  which  the  oil  of  turpen- 
tine and  laudanum  may  be  administered  in  cases  of  colic. 

Myrrh  may  be  used  in  the  form  of  tincture,  or  it  may  be  united  to  the  tincture  of  aloes 
as  a  stimulating  and  digestive  application  to  wounds.  Diluted  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
water,  it  is  a  good  application  for  canker  in  the  mouth,  but  as  an  internal  medicine  it 
seems  to  be  inert. 

Nitre. — See  Potash. 

Nitrous  Mlher,  Spirit  of,  is  a  very  useful  medicine  in  the  advanced  stages  of  fever,  fof 
while  it  to  a  certain  degree  rouses  the  exhausted  powers  of  the  animal,  and  may  be  deno- 
minated a  stimulant,  it  never  brings  back  the  dangerous  febrile  action  which  was  sub- 
siding.    It  is  given  in  doses  of  three  or  four  drachms. 

OUs  —The  farrier's  list  contains  many  of  them,  but  the  scientific  practitioner  has  dis- 
carded the  CTeater  part ;  those  that  are  worth  retaining  wiU  be  found  under  the  names  of 
the  vegetables  from  which  they  are  extracted. 

Ointments. — These  have  been  fully  described  under  the  accidents  and  diseases  in  which 
their  use  is  required. 

Olives,  Oil  of. — This  is  sometimes  given  as  a  purgative  when  aloes  or  other  aperients 
cannot  be  obtained.  It  is  useless  to  give  it  in  a  less  quantity  than  a  pint,  and  then  it  is 
uncertam  in  its  operation,  although  harmless.  In  all  liniments  and  ointments,  spermaceti, 
or  even  linseed  oil,  may  be  substituted  without  detriment,  and  the  peculiar  smell  of  the 
latter  may  be  subdued  by  oil  of  aniseed  or  origanum. 

Opium. — However  underrated  by  some,  there  is  not  a  more  valuable  drug  on  our  list. 
It  does  not  often  act  as  a  narcotic  except  in  enormous  doses ;  but  it  is  a  powerful  anti- 
spasmodic, sedative,  and  astringent.  As  an  antispasmodic,  it  enters  into  the  colic  drink, 
and  it  is  the  sheet  anchor  of  the  veterinarian  in  the  treatment  of  tetanus  or  locked  jaw. 
As  a  sedative,  it  relaxes  that  universal  spasm  of  the  muscular  system,  which  is  the  cha- 
racteristic of  tetanus  ;  and  perhaps  it  is  only  as  a  sedative  that  it  has  such  admirable  effect 
33  an  astringent ;  for  when  the  irritation  about  the  mouths  of  the  vessels  of  the  intestines 
and  kidneys  is  allayed  by  the  opium,  undue  purging  and  profxise  staling  are  necessarily 
arrested.    It  should,  however,  be  given  with  caution.    It  is  its  secondary  elTect  which  is 


MEDICINES.  299 

sedative,  and,  if  ffiven  in  cases  of  fever,  its  primary  effect  in  increasing  the  excitation  of 
the  frame  is  marked  and  injurious.  In  the  early  and  acute  stage  of  lever,  it  would  be 
bad  practice  to  give  it  in  the  smallest  quantity  ;  but  when  the  fever  has  passed,  or  is  pass- 
ing, there  is  nothing  which  so  rapidly  subdues  the  irritability  that  accompanies  extreme 
weakness  ;  and  it  becomes  an  excellent  tonic,  because  it  is  a  sedative. 

If  the  blue  or  green  vitriol,  or  cauthai'ides,  have  been  pushed  too  far,  opium  soonest 
quiets  the  disorder  they  have  occasioned.  It  is  given  in  doses  of  one  or  two  drachms ; 
either  the  powdered  opium  being  made  into  a  ball,  or  the  crude  opium  dissolved  in  hot 
water,  and  given  with  its  sediment.  Other  medicines  are  usually  combined  with  it,  accord- 
ing to  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 

Externally,  it  is  useful  in  ophthalmia.  In  the  form  of  decoction  of  the  poppy  head  it 
may  constitute  the  basis  of  an  anodyne  poultice  ;  but  it  must  not  be  given  in  union  with 
any  alkali,  witii  the  exce[ition  of  chalk,  in  over-purging ;  nor  with  the  superacetate  of 
lead,  by  which  its  joowers  are  materially  impaired,  nor  with  sulphate  of  zinc,  or  copper, 
or  iron. 

From  its  high  price  it  is  much  adulterated,  and  it  is  rare  to  meet  with  it  in  a  state  of  pur- 
ity. The  best  tests  are  its  smell,  its  taste,  its  toughness  and  pliancy,  its  fawn  or  brown  color, 
and  its  weight,  for  it  is  the  heaviest  of  all  the  vegetable  extracts,  except  gum  arable  ;  yet 
its  weight  is  often  fraudulently  increased  by  stones  and  bits  of  lead  being  concealed  in  it. 
The  English  opium  is  almost  as  good  as  the  Turkish,  and  frequently  sold  for  it ;  but  is 
distinguishable  by  its  blackness  and  softness. 

Palm  Oil,  when  genuine,  is  the  very  best  substance  that  can  be  used  for  making  masses 
and  balls.     It  has  a  pleasant  smell,  and  it  never  becomes  rancid. 

Pitch  is  used  to  give  adhesiveness  and  firmness  to  charges  and  plasters.  The  common 
pitch  is  quite  as  good  as  the  more  expensive  Burgundy  pitch.  The  best  plaster  for  sand- 
crack  consists  of  one  pound  of  pitch  and  an  ounce  of  yellow-beeswax  melted  together. 

Physic. — The  cases  which  require  physic,  the  composition  of  the  most  effectual  and 
safest  physic  ball,  and  the  mode  of  treatment  under  pliysic,  have  been  already  described 
at  page  166. 

Potash.— Two  compounds  of  potash  are  used  in  veterinary  practice.  The  Nitrate  of 
Potash,  Nitre,  is  a  valuable  cooling  medicine,  and  a  mild  diuretic,  and,  therefore,  it  should 
enter  into  the  composition  of  every  fever  ball.  Its  dose  is  from  two  to  four  drachms. 
Grooms  often  dissolve  it  in  the  water.  There  are  two  objections  to  this  :  either  the  horse 
is  nauseated  and  will  not  drink  so  much  water  as  he  ought ;  or  the  salt  taste  of  the  water 
causes  considerable  thirst,  and  disinclination  to  solid  food.  Nitre  while  dissolving  mate- 
rially lowers  the  temperature  of  water,  and  furnishes  a  very  cold  and  useful  lotion  for 
sprain  of  the  back  sinews,  and  other  local  inflammations.  The  lotion,  however,  should 
be  used  as  soon  as  the  salt  is  dissolved,  for  it  quickly  becomes  as  warm  as  the  surrounding 
air.  The  Supertartrate  of  Potash,  Cream  of  Tartar,  is  a  mild  diuretic,  and,  combined 
with  iEthiop's  mineral,  is  a  useful  alterative  in  obstinate  mange  or  grease. 

Poultices. — Few  horsemen  are  aware  of  the  value  of  these  simple  applications  in  abat- 
ing inflammation,  relieving  pain,  cleansing  wounds,  and  disposing  tiiein  to  heal.  They 
are  fomentations  of  the  best  kind  continued  much  longer  than  a  simple  fomentation  can 
be.  In  all  inflammations  of  the  foot  they  are  very  beneficial,  softening  the  horn,  hard- 
ened by  the  heat  of  the  foot,  and  contracted  and  pressing  on  the  internal  and  highly  sen- 
sible parts.  The  moisture  and  warmth  are  the  useful  parts  of  the  poultice ;  and  that 
poultice  is  the  best  for  general  purposes  in  which  moisture  and  warmth  are  longest  retained. 
Perspiration  is  most  abundantly  promoted  in  the  part,  the  pores  are  opened,  swellings  are 
relieved,  and  discharges  of  a  healthy  nature  ])rocured  from  wounds. 

Linseed  meal  forms  the  best  general  poultice,  because  it  longest  retains  the  moisture. 
Bran,  although  frequently  used  for  poultices,  is  objectionable,  because  it  so  soon  becomes 
dry.  To  abate  considerable  inflammation,  and  especially  in  a  wounded  part,  Goulard  may 
be  added,  or  the  linseed  meal  may  be  made  into  a  paste  with  a  decoction  of  poppy  heads. 
To  promote  a  healthy  discharge  from  an  old  or  foul  ulcer;  or  separation  of  the  dead  from 
the  living  parts,  in  the  process  of  what  is  called  coring  out ;  or  to  hasten  the  ripening  of 
a  tumor  that  must  be  opened ;  or  to  cleanse  it  when  it  is  opened,  two  ounces  of  common 
turpentine  may  be  added  to  a  pound  of  linseed  meal :  but  nothing  can  be  so  absurd,  or  is 
so  injurious,  as  the  addition  of  turpentine  to  a  poultice  that  is  designed  to  be  an  emollient. 
The  drawing  poultices  and  stoppings  of  farriers  are  often  highly  injurious,  instead  of 
abating  inflammation. 

If  the  ulcer  smells  offensively,  two  ounces  of  powdered  charcoal  may  be  added  to  the 
linseed  meal,  or  the  poultice  may  be  made  of  water,  to  which  a  solution  of  the  chloride 
of  lime  has  been  added  in  the  proportion  of  half  an  ounce  to  a  pound.  As  an  emollient 
poultice  for  grease  and  cracked  heels,  and  especially  if  accompanied  by  much  unpleasant 
smell,  there  is  nothing  preferable  to  a  poultice  of  mashed  carrots  with  charcoal.  For  old 
grease  some  slight  stimulant  must  be  added,  as  a  little  yeast  or  the  grounds  of  table  beer. 

There  are  two  errors  in  the  application  of  a  poultice,  and  particularly  as  it  regai-ds  the 


800  THE  HORSE. 

legs.  It  is  often  put  on  too  tight,  by  which  the  return  of  the  blood  from  tlie  foot  is  pre- 
vented, and  the  disease  is  increased  instead  of  lessened :  or  it  is  too  hot,  and  unnecessary 
pain  is  given,  and  the  inllammation  aggravated. 

Potuders. — Some  horses  are  very  difficult  to  ball  or  drench,  and  the  violent  struggle  that 
would  accompany  tlie  attempt  to  conquer  tliem  jnay  heighten  the  fever  or  inflammation. 
To  such  horses  powders  must  be  given  in  mashes.  Emetic  tartar  and  digitalis  may  be 
generally  used  in  cases  of  inflammation  or  fever;  or  emetic  taitar  for  worms  ;  or  calomel 
and  even  the  farina  of  the  Croton  nut  for  physic  ;  but  powders  are  too  often  an  excuse  for 
the  laziness  or  awkwardness  of  the  carter  or  groom.  The  horse  frequently  refuses  them, 
especially  it  his  appetite  has  otherwise  begun  to  fail ;  the  powder  and  the  mash  are 
wasted,  and  the  animal  is  unnecessarily  nauseated.  All  medicine  should  be  given  in  the 
form  of  ball  or  drink. 

Rakuig. — This  consists  in  introducing  the  hand  into  the  horse's  rectum,  and  drawing 
out  any  liardened  dung  that  may  be  there.  It  may  be  necessaiy  in  costiveness  or  fever, 
if  a  clyster  pipe  cannot  be  obtained;  but  an  injection  will  better  effect  the  purpose,  and 
with  less  inconvenience  to  the  animal.  The  intioduction  of  the  hand  into  the  rectum  is, 
howe^'lM•,  useful  to  ascertain  the  existence  of  stone  in  the  bladder,  or  the  degree  of  dis- 
tention of  the  bladder  in  suppression  of  urine,  for  the  bladder  will  be  easily  felt  below  the 
cut ;  and  at  the  same  time  by  the  heat  of  the  intestine,  the  degree  of  inflammation  in  it  or 
in  the  bladder  may  be  detected. 

Besiii. — The  yellow  resin  is  that  which  remains  after  the  distillation  of  oil  of  turpen- 
tine. It  is  used  externally  to  give  consistence  to  ointments,  and  to  render  them  slightly 
stiznulant.  Internally  it  is  a  useful  diuretic,  and  is  given  in  doses  of  five  or  six  drachms 
made  into  a  ball  with  soft  soap.  The  common  Uquid  turpentine,  is  however  preferable. 
.  Bowels. — The  manner  of  rowelinsr  has  been  described  at  p.  147.  As  exciting  intlam- 
malion  on  the  surface,  and  so  lessening  that  which  had  previously  existed  in  a  neighbor- 
ing, but  deeper-seate(l  part,  they  are  decidedly  inferior  to  blisters,  for  they  do  not  act  so 
quickly  nor  so  extensively ;  therefore  they  should  not  be  used  in  acute  inflammation  of  the 
lungs  or  bowels,  or  any  vital  part.  When  the  inflammation,  however,  although  not 
intense,  has  long  continued,  rowels  will  be  serviceable  by  producing  an  irritation  and 
discharge  which  can  be  better  kept  up  than  by  a  blister.  As  promoting  a  permanent, 
although  not  very  considerable  discharge  and  some  inflammation,  rowels  in  the  thighs  are 
useful  in  swelled  legs,  and  obstinate  grease.  If  fluid  is  thrown  out  under  tlie  skin  in 
any  other  part,  the  rowel  act^  as  a  permanent  drain.  When  sprain  of  the  joint  or  the  mus- 
cles of  the  shoulders  is  suspected,  a  rowel  in  the  chest  will  be  serviceable.  The  wound 
caused  by  a  rowel  will  readily  heal,  and  with  little  blemish,  unless  the  useless  leather  of 
the  farrier  has  been  inserted. 
Salt,  common. — See  Soda. 

Sedatives  are  medicines  which  subdue  irritation,  repress  .spasmodic  action,  or  deaden 
pain.  We  will  not  inquire  whether  they  act  first  as  stimulants  ;  if  they  do,  their  effect 
IS  exceedingly  transient,  and  is  quickly  followed  by  depression  and  diminished  action. 
Digitalis,  hellebore,  opium,  turpentine,  are  medicines  of  this  kind.  Their  eifect  in  differ- 
ent diseases,  or  stages  of  disease,  and  the  circumstances  which  indicate  the  use  of  any 
one  of  them  in  preference  to  the  rest,  are  considered  under  their  respective  titles. 

Silver. — One  combination  only  of  this  metal  is  used,  and  that  as  a  manageable  and  ex- 
cellent caustic,  viz.  the  Lunar  Causiic.  It  is  far  preferable  to  the  hot  iron,  or  to  any  acid, 
for  the  destruction  of  the  part,  if  a  horse  should  have  been  bitten  by  a  rabid  dog,  and  it 
stands  next  to  the  butyrof  antimony  for  the  removal  of  fungus  generally. 

Soda. — The  chloride  of  soda  is  not  so  efficacious  for  the  removal  of  unpleasant  smells 
and  all  infection,  as  the  chloride  of  lime,  but  it  is  exceedingly  useftil  in  changing  malig- 
nant and  corroding  and  destructive  sores  into  the  state  of  simple  ulcers,  and  in  ulcers 
that  are  not  malignant  it  much  hastens  the  cure.  Poll  evil  and  fistulous  withers  are  much 
benefited  by  it,  and  all  farcy  ulcers.  It  is  used  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  the 
solution  to  twenty-four  of  water. 

Common  Salt  (chloride  of  sodium)  is  very  extensvively  employed  in  veterinary  practice. 
It  forms  an  efficacious  aperient  clyster ;  a  solution  of  it  has  even  been  given  as  an  ape- 
rient drink.  Sprinkled  over  the  hay,  or  in  a  mash,  it  is  very  palateable  to  sick  horses  ; 
and  in  that  languor  and  disinclination  to  food  which  remain  after  severe  illness,  few  things 
will  so  soon  recall  the  appetite  as  a  drink  composed  of  eight  ounces  of  salt  in  solution. 
To  horses  in  health  it  is  more  useful  than  is  generally  imagined,  as  promoting  the  diges- 
tion of  the  food,  and  consequently,  condition.  Externally  appUed,  there  are  few  better 
lotions  for  inflamed  eyes  than  a  solution  of  half  a  drachm  of  salt  in  four  ounces  of  water. 
In  the  proportion  of  an  ounce  of  salt  to  the  same  quantity  of  water,  it  is  a  good  embro- 
cation for  sore  shoulders  and  backs  ;  and  if  it  does  not  always  disperse  warbles  and  tumors 
it  takes  away  much  of  the  tenderness  of  the  skin. 

Soap  is  supposed  to  possess  a  diuretic  quality,  and  therefore  enters  into  the  composi- 
tion of  some  diuretic  masses.  See  Resin.  By  many  practitioners  it  is  made  an  ingredient 


MEDICINES.  301 

in  the  physic  ball,  but  uselessly  or  even  injuriously  so  ;  for  if  the  aloes  are  finely  powdered 
and  mixed  with  palm  oil,  they  will  dissolve  readily  enough  in  the  bowels  without  the  aid 
of  the  soap,  while  tlie  action  of  the  soap  on  the  kidneys  will  impair  the  purgative  eli'ect  of 
the  aloes. 

Starch  may  be  substituted  with  advantage  for  gruel  in  obstinate  cases  of  purging,  both 
as  a  clyster,  and  to  support  the  strength  of  the  animal. 

Stoppings  constitute  an  important,  but  too  often  neglected  part  of  stable  management. 
If  a  horse  is  irregularly  or  seldom  worked,  his  feet  are  deprived  of  moisture  ;  they  become 
hard,  and  unjielding,  and  brittle,  and  disposed  to  corn,  and  contraction,  and  founder. 
The  very  muck  of  a  neglected  and  filthy  stable  would  be  preferable  to  habitual  standing 
on  the  cleanest  litter  without  stopping.  In  wounds  and  bruises,  and  corns,  moisture  is 
even  more  necessary,  to  supple  tlie  horn,  and  relieve  its  pressure  on  the  tender  parts  be- 
neath. As  a  common  stopping,  nothing  is  belter  than  cowdung  with  a  fourth  part  of 
clay  beaten  well  into  it,  and  confined  with  splents  from  the  binding  of  the  broom,  or  the 
larger  twigs  of  the  broom.  In  cases  of  wounds  a  httle  tar  may  be  added  ;  but  tar,  as  a 
common  stopping,  is  too  stimulating  and  diying.  Pads  made  of  thick  felt  have  lately 
been  contrived,  which  are  fitted  to  the  sole,  and,  swelling  on  being  wetted,  ai'e  sufficiently 
confined  by  the  shoe.  Having  been  well  filled  with  water,  they  will  continue  moist  during 
the  night.  They  are  very  useful  in  gentlemen's  stables  ;  but  the  cow-dung  and  clay  are 
sufficient  for  the  farmer. 

Sulphur  is  the  basis  of  the  most  effectual  applications  for  mange.  It  is  an  excellent 
alterative,  combined  usually  with  antimony  and  nitre,  and  particulaily  for  mange,  surfeit, 
grease,  hidebound,  or  want  of  condition  ;  and  it  is  a  useful  ingredient  in  the  cough  and 
fever  ball.  When  given  alone,  it  seems  to  have  little  effect,  except  as  a  laxative  in  doses 
of  six  or  eight  ounces  ;  but  there  are  much  better  aperients.  The  black  sulphur  consists 
principally  of  the  dross  after  tlie  pure  sulphur  has  been  separated. 

Tar  melted  with  an  equal  quantity  of  grease  forms  the  usual  stopping  of  the  farrier. 
It  is  a  warm  or  slightly  stimulant,  and  therefore  useful,  dressing  for  bruised  or  wounded 
feet ;  but  its  principal  virtue  seems  to  consist  in  preventing  the  pertetration  of  dirt  and 
water  to  the  wounded  part.  As  a  common  stopping  it  has  been  stated  to  be  objection- 
able. From  its  warm  and  drying  properties  it  is  the  usual  and  proper  basis  for  thrush 
ointments ;  and  from  its  adhesiveness,  and  slightly  stimulating  power,  it  often  forms  an 
ingredient  in  applications  for  mange ;  some  practitioners  give  it,  and  advantageously, 
mixed  with  the  usual  cough  medicine,  and  in  doses  of  two  or  three  drachms  for  chronic 
cough.  The  common  tar  is  as  effectual  as  the  Barbadoes  for  every  veterinary  purpose. 
The  oil,  or  spirit  (rectified  oil)  of  tar  is  sometimes  used  alone  for  the  cure  of  mange,  but 
it  is  not  to  be  depended  upon.  The  spirit  of  tar,  mixed  with  double  the  quanti^  of 
fish  oil,  is,  from  its  peculiar  penetrating  propert}^  one  of  the  best  applications  for  hard 
and  brittle  feet.  It  should  be  well  rubbed  with  a  brush,  both  on  the  crust  cind  sole,  every 
night. 

Tinctures. — The  medicinal  properties  of  many  substances  are  extracted  by  spirit  of 
wine,  but  in  such  small  quantities  as  to  be  scarcely  available  in  veterinary  practice  for 
internal  use.  So  much  aloes  or  opium  must  be  given  to  produce  effect  on  the  horse, 
that  the  quantity  of  spirit  necessary  to  dissolve  it  would  be  injurious  or  might  be  fatal. 
As  appUcations  to  wound  or  inflamed  surfaces,  the  tinctures  of  aloes,  digitalis,  myn'h,  and 
opium,  are  highly  useful. 

Tobacco,  in  the  hands  of  the  skilful  veterinarian,  may  be  advantageously  employed  in 
cases  of  extreme  costiveness,  or  dangerous  colic  ;  but  should  never  be  permitted  to  be 
used  as  an  external  application  for  the  cure  of  mange,  or  an  internal  medicine  to  pro- 
mote a  fine  coat. 

Tonics  are  valuable  medicines  when  judiciously  employed  ;  but,  like  cordials,  they 
have  been  fatally  abused.  Many  a  hoi-se  recovering  from  severe  disease  has  been  des- 
troyed by  their  too  early,  or  too  free  use.  The  veterinary  surgeon  occasionally  adminis- 
ters them  injuriousl)%  in  his  anxiety  to  gratify  the  impatience  oi  his  employer.  The  mild 
vegetable  tonics,  camomile,  gentian,  and  ginger,  and,  perhaps,  the  carbonate  of  iron,  may 
sometimes  be  given  with  benefit,  and  may  hasten  the  perfect  recovery  of  the  patient ; 
but  there  are  few  principles  more  truly  founded  on  reason  and  experience,  than  that  dis- 
ease once  removed,  the  powers  of  nature  are  sufficient  to  re-establish  health.  Against  the 
more  powerful  mineral  tonics,  except  for  the  particular  purposes  that  have  been  pointed 
out  under  the  proper  heads,  the  horse  proprietor  and  the  veterinarian  should  be  on  his 
guard. 

Turpentine. — The  common  hquid  turpentine  has  been  described  as  one  of  the  best  di- 
uretics, in  doses  of  half  an  ounce,  and  made  into  a  ball  with  hnseed  meal  and  half  a 
drachm  of  ginger.  It  is  added  to  the  calamine  or  any  other  mild  ointment  to  render  it 
stimulating  and  digestive,  and  from  its  adhesiveness  and  slight  stimulating  power,  it  is 
an  ingredient  in  mange  ointments.  The  oil  of  turpentine  is  an  excellent  antispasmodic. 
For  tne  removal  of  colic  it  stands  unrivaled.      (See  page  163.)     Forming  a  tincture 


302  THE  HORSE. 

with  cantharides,  it  is  the  basis  of  the  "  sweating  blister,"  used  for  old  strains  and  swell- 
ings. As  a  blister  it  is  far  inferior  to  the  common  ointment ;  as  a  stimulant  frequently 
apphed  it  must  be  sufficiently  lowered,  or  it  may  blemish. 

Vinegar  is  a  very  useful  application  for  sprains  and  bruises.  Equal  parts  of  boiling 
water  and  cold  vinegar  will  form  a  good  fomentation.  Extract  of  lead,  or  bay  salt,  may 
be  added  vdth  some  slight  advantage.  As  an  internal  remedy,  vinegar  is  rarely  given, 
nor  has  it,  except  in  very  large  doses,  any  medicinal  power.  The  veterinarian  and  the 
horse-owner  should  manufacture  their  own  vinegar.  That  which  they  buy  may  contain 
sulphuric  acid,  and  pungent  spices,  and  irritate  tlie  inflamed  part  to  whicii  it  is  applied. 

Wax. — The  yellow  wax  is  used  in  charges  and  some  plasters  to  render  them  less 
britUe. 

Zinc. — The  impure  corbonate  of  zinc,  under  the  name  of  Calamine  Powder,  is  used 
in  the  preparation  of  a  valuable  healing  ointment.  Five  parts  of  lard  and  one  of  resin 
aie  melted  together,  aad  when  these  begin  to  get  cool,  two  parts  of  the  calamine,  reduced 
to  an  impalpable  powder,  ai-e  stirred  in.  The  calamine  is  sometimes  sprinkled  with  ad- 
vantao'e  on  cracked  heels,  and  superficial  sores. 

The  sulphate  of  zinc,  white  vitriol,  in  the  proportion  of  three  grains  to  an  ounce  of 
water,  is  an  excellent  application  in  ophthalmia,  when  the  inflammatory  stage  is  pcissing 
over ;  and  quittor  is  most  successfully  treated  by  a  saturated  solution  of  white  vitriol 
being  injected  into  the  sinuses.  A  solution  of  white  vitriol  of  less  strength  forms  a  wash 
for  grease  that  is  occasionally  useful,  when  the  aluin  or  blue  vitriol  does  not  appeal-  to 
succeed. 


ON    DRAUGHT. 


The  investigation  of  the  subject  of  draught  by  animal  power,  to  which  this  treatise 
is  devoted,  and  which  will  form  an  appropriate  supplement  to  an  account  of  the  Horse, 
has  long  and  frequently  occupied  tlie  attention  of  tlieoretical  and  practical  men ;  so 
much  so,  that  our  object  will  be  to  collect  what  has  been  said  and  done,  and,  by  arranging 
it  raetliodically,  to  show  in  what  manner  the  information  may  be  applied  and  rendered 
useful,  rather  than  to  attempt  to  produce  any  thing  absolutely  new  upon  the  subject. 
Notwithstanding,  however,  all  that  has  been  written,  if  we  open  any  of  the  authors  who 
have  treated  the  subject,  in  the  hopes  of  obtaining  direct  practical  information,  we  shall 
be  much  disappointed. 

It  might  have  been  expected  that  the  particular  result  of  every  method  known  and  in 
use  for  the  conveyance  ot  a  load  from  one  spot  to  another,  by  animal  power,  whether  by 
sledges,  by  wheel-carriages,  or  by  water,  as  in  canals,  being  so  constantly  and  neces- 
sarily a  matter  of  practical  experiment,  which  would  have  been  accurately  known  and 
recorded ;  but  the  contrary  is  too  much  the  case. 

The  theoretical  investigations  have  been  mad^  with  two  little  reference  to  what  really 
takes  place  in  practice  ;  and  the  practical  portion  of  tlie  subject  has  not  generally  been 
treated  in  that  useful  and  comprehensive  manner  which  it  desei-ves  and  demands. 

In  fact,  there  is  hardly  a  question  in  practical  mechanics  on  which,  though  much  has 
been  written,  opinions  are  apparently  less  fixed ;  or  on  which  the  information  we  do 
possess  is  in  a  less  defined  and  available  state. 

One  great  object  of  research  has  been  the  average  force  of  traction  or  power  of  a 
horse. 

If  we  consult  the  most  approved  authors  and  experimentalists,  Desaguilliers,  Smeaton, 
&c.,  we  find  this  power  variously  stated  as  equal  to  80lbs.  lOOlbs.  loOlbs.  and  even  2001bs  : 
we  are  therefore  left  almost  as  ignorant  as  before ;  but  the  knowledge  of  this  average 
power  is  fortunately  of  little  or  no  use  in  practice.  It  is  the  application  and  efiect  of 
that  power  which  alone  is  useful ;  and  tliat  is  governed  by  circumstances  always  vaiy- 
ing  and  dissimilar,  such  as  the  form  and  state  of  the  road,  the  structure  of  the  carriage, 
the  size  and  friction  of  the  wheels,  Stc.  &.C.;  and  scarcely  any  too  cases  of  draught 
would,  as  regards  the  effect  of  the  power  of  tlie  horse,  present  precisely  the  same  result. 

The  difference  of  opinion  here  manifest  is  still  more  remarkable  when  existing  on  a 
purely  practical  question. 

In  the  inquiries  instituted  by  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  1806  and 
1808,  on  the  subject  of  roads  and  carriages,  two  well-informed  practical  men,  Mr.  Rus- 
sel,  of  Exeter,  and  Mr.  Deacon,  of  Islington,  the  most  extensive  carriers  in  England, 
were  examined  upon  an  important  question,  %'iz.,  the  advantage  or  disadvantage  of  a 
particular  form  of  wheel.  It  was  stated  by  one  tliat,  having  given  tlie  wheels  in  ques- 
tion a  twelvemonth's  trial,  he  found  tliat  they  tended  to  injure  the  road  and  increase  the 
draught  in  the  proportion  of  four  to  five  ;  while  it  was  stated  by  the  other,  who  had  also 
made  the  experiment  on  a  large  scale ,  tliat  he  found  they  materially  assisted  in  keeping 
the  roads  in  repair,  and  diminir-hed  the  draught  in  the  proportion  of  five  to  four. 

Amidst  such  conflicting  and  contradictory  opinions,  it  would  appear  difficult  to  come 
to  any  useful  conclusion,  and  we  might  natui-ally  be  disposed  to  adopt  a  very  common 
practice,  that  of  taking  an  average  result. 

A  little  consideration,  however,  will  show  tliat  these  apparent  discrepancies  and  contra- 
dictions arise,  in  great  measure,  from  attempting  to  generalize  and  apply  to  practice  the 
results  of  experiments  made  in,  and  therefore  applicable  only  to,  particular  cases. 

The  results  of  experiments  thus  made  at  various  times  ana  places,  and  without  that 
identity  of  condition  and  circumstance  so  necessary  when  standard  rales  are  to  be  de- 
duced from  them,  have,  nevertheless,  been  used  for  that  purpose  ;  and  this  circumstance 
combined  with  the  various  and  distinct  points  to  be  considered  before  we  can  estimate 
accurately  what  even  constitutes  draught,  will  perhaps  account  for  the  disagi-eeraent 
amongst  the  practicsJ  and  scientific  authorities  alluded  to  on  the  subject. 

We  must  therefore  examine  severally  all  these  points  ;  and  then,  by  considering  theit 
relative  beaiing  upon  each  other,  we  may  hope  to  reconcile  the  ditterent  opinions  ad- 

303 


804  THE  HORSE. 

vanced,  without  which  we  cannot  collect  from  tliem  any  information  which  will  lead 
us  to  a  practical  and  beneficial  result. 

We  shall  proceed  to  divide  the  subject  under  separate  and  distinct  heads,  and  under 
each  head  to  examine  the  methods  or  means  now  in  use,  or  which  have  been  proposed, 
and  endeavor  to  estimate  their  comparative  advciutages  by  availing  ourselves  of  what  is 
already  wiitten  and  known  upon  each. 

It  will  be  necessary  first,  however,  to  explain  and  define  clearly  some  terms  which 
will  occur  frequently  in  the  course  of  this  paper,  and  especially  the  word  "  draught," 
which  is  the  title  itself  of  tlie  treatise. 

This  word  is  used  in  such  a  very  general  and  vague  sense,  that  it  would  be  difficult, 
if  not  impossible,  to  give  an  explanation  which  should  apply  equally  to  all  its  diiierent 
meanings. 

In  the  expression  draught  by  animal  power,  it  would  seem  to  mean  the  action  itself 
of  drawing,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  frequently  used  to  signify  the  amount  of 
power  employed,  also  the  degree  of  resistance,  as  when  we  say  the  draught  of  a  horse, 
or  the  draught  of  a  carriage.  Draught  power  is  also  an  expression  used.  We  shall, 
however,  in  the  course  of  this  treatise,  confine  our  use  of  tlie  word  to  two  meanings — 
draught,  the  action  of  dragging — and  draught,  the  resistance  to  tlie  power  employed  to 
dr^  any  given  weight. 

■    Force  of  traction  is  another  expression  requiring  explanation ;  but  here  we  must 
enter  into  more  detail,  and  shall  give  at  once  a  practical  illustration  of  our  meaning. 

A  force  is  most  conveniently  measured  by  the  weij,ht  which  it  would  be  capable  of 
raising  ;  but  it  is  not  therefore  necessaiily  applied  vertically,  in  which  direction  weight 
or  gravity  acts. 

If  a  weight  of  lOOlbs.  be  suspended  to  a  rope,  it  is  clearly  exerting  upon  this  rope  a 
force  of  lOOlbs. ;  but  if  the  rope  be  passed  over  a  pully  void  of  friction,  and  continued 
horizontally,  or  in  any  other  direction,  and  then  attached  to  some  fixed  point,  the  weight 
still  acts  upon  all  parts  of  this  rope,  and  conseqently  upon  the  point  to  which  it  is  fixed, 
with  a  force  equal  to  lOOlbs  :  and  so  invei-sely,  if  a  horse  be  pulling  at  a  rope  with  a 
force  which,  if  the  rope  were  passed  over  a  pulley,  would  raise  lOOlbs.,  the  force  of 
traction  of  the  horse  is  in  this  case  lOOlbs.  Spring  steelyards  being  now  commonly  in 
use,  we  may  be  permitted  to  refer  to  them  as  alfording  another  clear  exemplification  of 
our  meaning.  In  pulling  at  a  steelyaid  of  tliis  description,  whether  the  force  be  exerted 
horizontally  or  vertically,  the  index  will,  of  course,  show  the  same  amount ;  and,  conse- 
quently, if  the  strength  of  the  horse  be  measured  by  attaching  the  traces  to  one  of  these 
steelyards,  the  number  of  pounds  indicated  on  the  dial  will  be  the  exact  measure  of  the 
strain  the  horse  exerts,  and  the  amount  of  strain  is  called  his  "  force  of  traction." 

Having  fixed  as  nearly  as  possible  the  meaning  of  these  terms,  which  will  frequently 
occur  in  the  course  of  our  progress,  we  shall  proceed  to  the  division  of  the  subject. 

It  is  evident  that  there  are  three  distinct  agents  and  points  of  consideration  in  the 
operation  of  draught,  which  are  quite  independent  of  each  other.  They  are — First,  the 
moving  power  and  mode  of  applying  it ;  Secondly,  the  vehicle  for  conveying  tlie  weight 
to  be  moved  ;  Thirdly,  the  canal,  road,  or  railway,  or  what  may  be  generally  termed  the 
channel  of  conveyance. 

All  these  individually  influence  the  amount  of  draught,  and  require  separate  consider- 
ation ;  but  the  mode  of  combining  these  diiierent  agents  has  also  a  material  etiect  upon 
the  result :  consequently,  they  must  be  considered  in  relation  to  each  other  ;  and  to  ob- 
tain the  maximum  useful  ettect,  with  the  greatest  economy,  in  the  employment  of  any 
given  power,  it  is  evidently  necessary  that  tliese  different  agents  should  not  only  each  be 
the  best  adapted  to  its  purpose,  and  perfect  to  the  greatest  possible  degree,  but  also  that 
they  should  all  be  combined  to  the  greatest  advantage. 

We  shall  proceed  at  once,  then,  to  examine  the  different  agents  now  employed,  the 
modes  of  applying  them,  and  the  proportionate  efffects  produced. 

And,  first,  with  regard  to  the  species  of  moving  power; — 

This  may  be  of  two  kinds,  animal  and  mechanical. 

By  animal  power  we  mean  the  direct  application  of  the  strength  of  any  animal  to 
dragging  or  pulling,  as  in  tlie  simple  case  of  a  horse  dragging  a  cart.  By  mechanical, 
the  application  of  any  power  tlirough  the  intervention  of  machinery ;  the  source  of  power 
in  this  latter  case  may,  however,  be  animal  strength,  or  a  purely  mechanical  agent,  as  a 
steam  engine. 

The  latter  is  the  only  species  of  mechanical  power  which  has  been  attempted  to  apply 
practically  to  locomotion ;  and  therefore  that  alone  we  propose  to  compai'e  with  the  ani- 
mal power. 

Now,  although  these  two  powers,  viz.,  simple  animal  power  and  the  steam-engine, 
may  in  most  instances  be  applied  so  as  to  produce  tlie  same  effect,  and  may,  therelbre, 
to  a  superficial  obsen'er  appear  similar,  yet  tliere  do  exist  such  essential  differences  iii 
the  mode  of  action,  or  the  means  by  which  the  effect  is  produced,  tliat  there  are  many 


ON  DRAUGHT.  305 

cases  in  which  the  one  may  be  used,  wherein  the  other  may  be  totally  inapplica- 
ble. 

In  this  treatise,  draught  by  animal  power  is  indeed  the  principal  object  of  considera- 
tion ;  but  as,  at  the  present  moment,  there  appears  to  be  a  great  ellort  making  to  super- 
sede animal  power  entirely  by  mechanical, — to  dismiss  our  old  servant,  the  horse,  and 
supply  liis  place  by  the  steam-engine,  it  may  be  as  well,  in  justice  to  the  Ibrmer,  lo  say 
a  tew  words  in  his  defence,  and  to  take  a  rapid  and  general  view  of  the  distinguishing 
features  of  the  two  agents. 

To  enter  into  all  their  respective  merits,  and  to  weigh  their  comparative  advantages 
under  all  circumstances,  would  involve  us  in  many  questions  foreign  to  our  immediate 
point  of  consideration,  and  would  embrace  subjects  which  may  supply  matter  for  future 
consideration  well  worthy  of  our  attention.  It  is  sufficient  for  our  present  purpose  to 
show  that  there  still  exist  great  objections  to  the  universal  application  of  machinery  to 
draught,  objections  which  do  not  equally  apply  to  the  use  of  animal  power ;  and  on  the 
other  hand,  that  there  are  many  advantages  in  the  latter,  which  are  not  yet  obtained  by 
the  former ;  and  that  animal  power  continues,  for  all  the  ordinary  purposes  ol'  traific 
upon  common  roads,  to  be  the  most  simple  in  its  application,  and  certain  in  its  eflect. 

We  shall  confine  ourselves  particularly  to  the  consideration  ol'tliat  part  of  the  question 
which  relates  to  the  slow  transport  of  heavy  goods,  as  being  the  most  important  branch 
of  the  subject,  especially  for  agricultural  purposes.  Economy  is,  of  course,  the  grand 
desideratum  in  the  consideration  of  this  question  ;  consequently,  the  comparative  expense 
of  the  two  powers,  supposing  them  ior  the  moment  equally  convenient  and  applicable, 
will  first  demand  our  attention. 

A  difficulty  curises  here,  however,  from  the  want  of  a  certain  measure  of  comparison. 
The  power  of  a  one-horse  engine  is  by  no  means  exactly  the  same  thing  as  that  of  a 
horse.  As  we  have  before  stated,  the  mode  of  applying  them  being  ditlerent,  the  vai-ia- 
tions  in  the  results  are  dilierent,  and  consequently  the  elfects  do  not  bear  a  constant  pro- 
portion to  each  other,  under  different  circumstances ;  we  must  therefore  be  careful  not 
to  fail  into  the  mistalce  which  we  have  ourselves  pointed  out  as  a  very  common  source 
of  error,  viz.,  the  drawing  general  conclusions  from  data  obtained  in  a  particular  case. 
We  shall  take  the  power  of  the  horse,  and  that  of  the  steam-engine  as  ascertained  prac- 
tically on  railways,  where  the  ehect  of  each  is  less  influenced  by  accidental  circum- 
stances, and  consequently  can  be  better  ascertained  than  on  a  road.  We  shall  confine 
our  calculations  ot  expense  to  this  paiticular  case,  and  then  endeavor  to  discover  how 
far  the  same  results  are  to  be  expected,  or  what  modifications  aje  likely  to  take  place, 
and  what  alterations  are  to  be  made  m  the  results  under  different  circumstances.  As  re- 
gards the  first,  viz.,  the  comparative  cost  of  animal  and  mechanical  power  on  a  railway, 
we  cannot  do  better  than  quote  the  words  of  the  late  Mr.  Tredgold  upon  this  subject, 
and  we  accordingly  extract  the  following  from  his  work  upon  Kailwa3's : — 

"  The  relative  expense  of  ditlerent  moving  powers  for  railways  is  an  interesting  inquiry, 
and  tlie  same  materials  being  necessary  to  estimate  the  absolute  expense  for  any  time  or 
place,  it  is  desirable  to  give  some  particulars,  to  aid  the  researches  of  those  who  wish  to 
make  such  compeu-ative  estimates.     The  annual  expense  of  a  horse  power  depends  on — 

"  1.  The  interest  of  purchase-money. 

"  2.  Decrease  of  value , 

"3.  Hazard  of  loss. 

"  4.  Value  of  food. 

"  5.  Harness,  shoeing,  and  farriery. 

"  6    Kent  of  stabling. 

'•  7.  Expense  of  attendance. 

"  According  to  the  average  duration  of  a  horse  in  a  state  fit  for  labor,  of  the  descrip- 
tion required  on  a  railway,  the  first  three  items  may  be  estimated  at  one-fourth  of  the 
purchase-money ;  the  food,  harness,  shoeing,  &,c.,  including  in  the  4th,  5th,  and  6th,  will 
most  likely  not  exceed  40Z.  per  annum,  nor  yet  be  much  short  of  that  amount ;  and  sup- 
posing one  man  to  attend  to  two  horses,  this  would  add  15/.  12s.  if  the  man's  wages 
were  2s.  per  day ;  and,  at  tliis  rate,  the  labor  of  a  horse  of  the  value  of  20Z.  would  cost 
60Z.  12s.  per  )'ear;  or,  since  there  are  312  working  days  in  the  year,  the  daily  expense 
would  be  3s.  10  l-2rf.,  or  186  farthings.  But  tlie  power  of  a  horse  is  about  125lbs,  when 
travelling  at  the  rate  of  three  miles  per  hour,  and  the  day's  work  eighteen  miles. 

"The  annual  expense  of  a  high-pressure  locomotive  engine,  or  steam  carriage,  con- 
sists of — 

"  1.  The  interest  of  the  first  cost. 

"  2.  Decrease  of  value. 

"3.  Hazard  of  accidents. 

"  4.  Value  of  coals  and  water. 

"5.  Renewals  and  repairs. 

"6.  Expense  of  attendance. 

39 


306  THE  HORSE. 

"  It  is  difficult  to  procui'e  these  particulars  from  the  experience  of  those  who  employ 
engines;  we  will  therefore  annex,  by  way  of  example,  such  sums  as  we  think  like^to 
cover  the  expense.  The  first  cost  of  the  engine  and  its  carriage  may  be  stated  at  501. 
per  horse  power,  and  its  decrease  of  value  and  hazaid  w  ill  render  its  annual  expense 
about  one-lil'tli  of  its  first  cost,  or  lOZ.  per  annum  per  horse  power.  The  expense  of 
fuel  and  water  per  day  will  not  be  less  tlian  one  bushel  and  a  half  of  coals  per  horse 
power,  and  fourteen  cubic  feet  of  water;  and,  taking  the  coals  at  Gd.  per  bushel,  and 
the  water  and  loading  with  fuel  at  3d.,  the  annual  expense  will  be  15L  12s. ;  the  renew- 
als and  repairs,  at  20  per  cent,  on  the  fust  cost,  will  be  lOZ.,  which  is  as  little  as  can  be 
expected  to  cover  them.  Attendance,  suppose  one  man  and  one  boy  for  each  six -horse 
engine,  at  6s.  per  day,  or  Is.  per  day  lor  each  horse  power,  or  15/.  12s.  per  annum ; 
therefore  tlie  total  annual  expense  of  one  horse-power  would  be  511.  4s.,  or  158  farthings 
per  day."  This  power  is  equal  to  a  force  of  traction  of  166^  lbs.  for  tbe  same  number 
of  miles  per  day  as  the  horse  ;  but  from  this  gross  amount  of  power  we  must  deduct  that 
necessary  to  move  the  engine  with  its  supply  ol'  coals  ;  this  will  reduce  it  at  least  to  155lbs.; 
consequently,  in  the  one  case  we  have  a  lorce  of  tiaction  of  125lbs.,  at  an  expense  of 
186  farthings,  and,  in  the  other,  a  Ibrce  of  155lbs,  at  an  expense  of  158  iaitliings ;  and 
reducing  thvm  both  to  one  standard  quantity  of  work  done,  we  find  the  expense  of  the 

horse  is  i.|s  =  1.488,  and  of  the  locomotive  engine  1.019,  or  about  as  147  is  to  100.  In 

1  2T  .         ° 

this  case,  therefore,  there  appears  to  be  a  decided  economy  in  the  use  of  the  steam-engine, 
and  accordingly  its  application  has  become  very  general,  and  is  becoming  more  so  eveiy 
day. 

_  Let  us  now  examine  what  alterations  are  requisite,  before  we  can  apply  these  calcula- 
tions to  the  case  of  draught  upon  common  roads.  Supposing  both  species  of  power  equally 
convenient  and  applicable,  and  confining  our  observations  merely  to  the  amount  of  power 
and  proportionate  expense. 

The  force  of  traction  of  the  horse,  and  the  yearly  cost,  will  remain  so  nearly  the  same, 
that  for  our  present  purpose  we  may  consider  tliem  quite  unaltered.  Not  exactly  so  with 
the  locomotive  engme. 

All  the  parts  of  the  machine  must  be  made  much  stronger  and  heavier,  and  conse- 
qiiently  more  expensive  for  road  work  than  for  a  railway,  and,  therefore,  the  first  cost 
will  be  greater — the  wear  and  tear  will  also  be  greater,  and  as  the  work  will  be  more 
variable,  the  consumption  of  fuel  will  be  increased  as  well  as  the  price,  which,  generally 
speaking,  will  be  much  less  on  a  line  of  railway,  than  it  can  possibly  be  elsewhere. 

Still  all  these  circumstances  will  not  influence  the  result  so  much  as  the  increased  efl^ect 
of  the  weight  of  the  engine.  On  a  railway  with  the  cairiage,  as  now  constructed,  the 
force  of  traction  is  not  much  more  than_l._or_  |_of  the  weight  moved;  consequently, 

150250  °  T  1  J ' 

the  power  necessary  to  move  the  engine  itself  is  not  very  considerable.  On  a  road,  how- 
ever, this  proportion  is  materially  altered  ;  here  the  average  force  required  to  move  a  well- 
constructed  carriage  cannot  be  estimated  in  practice,  at  less,  even  when  the  roads  are  in 
good  repair,  tlianJL;  the  engine,  according  to  the  construction  of  the  best  locomotive 
engines  now  in  use,  will  weigh,  with  its  carriage  and  fuel,  at  least  one-half  ton,  or  1120  lbs. 
per  horse  power,  and  JL  of  1120  is  nearly  45  lbs.,  which  we  have  to  deduct  from  the 
gross  power  of  the  engine,  and  which  leaves  only  121-f  lbs.  as  the  available  power.  The 
proportional  expense  of  the  horse  and  the  steam-engine  is  now  therefore  about  as  115  to 
100,  and  this  without  taking  into  account  the  causes  of  increased  expenditure  already 
alluded  to  as  regards  the  prime  cost,  the  repairs,  and  tlie  consumption  of  fuel.  From  these 
calculations  it  would  appear,  that  even  if  mechanical  power  was  found  as  convenient 
and  applicable  in  practice  as  horse  power,  still  no  great  economy  can  be  expected  from 
the  employment,  upon  common  roads,  of  smedl  locomotive  engines,  such  as  the  best  of 
those  now  in  use,  and  known  to  the  public,  unless  it  be  in  cases  where  other  means  may- 
fail  to  produce  some  particular  efliect  which  may  be  required ;  if,  for  instance,  a  consid- 
erable velocity  is  necessaiy,  the  power  of  a  horse  is  very  nearly  exhausted  in  moving  his 
own  body,  and  then  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  mechanical  agent,  in  which  power  may 
always  be  exchanged  for  a  proportional  velocity,  will  have  some  advantages  on  a  very 
good  road  which  in  fact  approaches  very  nearly  to  a  railway.  But  in  every  case  in  which 
velocity  is  not  a  principal  object,  as  in  the  one  now  under  consideration,  and  where,  con- 
sequently, little  momentum  is  acquired,  and  frequent  though  slight  obstructions  occur, 
as  on  an  ordinary  road,  an  animal  appears  to  possess  decided  advantages.  He  adapts 
himself  admirably  to  the  work,  increasing  or  diminishing  his  efforts  according  to  the 
variations  of  the  draught,  resting  himself,  as  it  were,  and  acquiring  vigor  where  his  utmost 
strength  is  not  called  for,  and  thus  becomes  enabled  to  make  exertions  far  beyond  his  ave- 
rage strength  where  any  impediment  or  obstruction  is  to  be  overcome.  Indeed,  he  appears 
rather  to  increase  the  average  effect  of  his  powers  by  these  tdterations  of  exertion  and 
comparative  relaxation ;  and  when  it  is  considered  that  the  draught  will,  in  an  ordinary 
road,  frequently  vary  in  the  proportion  of  six  or  eight  to  one,  and  that  these  changes  may 


ON  DRAUGHT.  SOt 

succeed  each  other  suddenly,  the  importance  of  such  an  accommodating  faculty  will  be 
immediately  appreciated. 

By  mechanical  power,  such  as  a  steam-engine  affords,  these  advantages  are  not  easily 
obtained.  Without  great  weight  or  rapid  motion  no  momentum  can  I3e  acquired ;  and 
the  can'iage  itself,  not  being  in  rapid  motion,  and  tlie  necessary  economy  in  weight  preclu- 
ding the  use  of  a  dy-wheel,  any  small  obstruction  will  check,  and  perhaps  totally  stop 
the  machine.  For  instance,  supposing  the  carriage  to  be  advancing  steadily  under  the 
effect  of  a  force  of  ti-action  of  SOOlbs.,  and  that  a  stone  or  rut  suddenly  causes  a  resist- 
ance, which  it  would  require  600  or  800  lbs.  to  overcome,  a  case  by  no  means  rare  even 
on  tolerable  roads  ;  if  the  impetus  or  momentum  of  the  mass  be  not  sufficient  to  carry  it 
over  this  obstruction,  the  machine  must  stop  until  some  increased  power  be  given  to  it. 

It  is  also  to  be  remembered,  that  when  we  are  accustomed,  in  practice,  to  consider  as 
the  average  power  of  a  horse  is  the  average  excess  remaining  over  and  above  tliat  neces- 
sary to  carry  his  own  body ;  and  that  in  all  ordinary  cases  he  is  able  to  maintain  and  con- 
tinue nearly  the  same  exertions,  although  the  comparative  di'aught  of  the  carriage  be 
considerably  increased.  Thus,  if  the  road  be  slightly  muddy  or  sandy,  or  newly  graveled, 
the  draught,  as  we  shall  see  more  accurately  laid  down  when  we  come  to  the  subject 
of  wheeled  carriages,  will  be  double  and  even  ti-eble  what  it  is  on  the  same  road  when 
freed  from  dust  or  dirt ;  but  tlie  average  power  of  the  horse  remains  nearly  the  same, 
and  practically  spealring,  equal  under  both  circumstances  ;  that  is  to  say,  that  the  power 
necessary  to  move  the  weight  of  the  horse's  body,  which  forms  no  inconsiderable  portion 
of  his  whole  power,  is  not  materiallj'-  increased  by  a  state  of  road  which  will  even  treble 
the  draught  of  the  carriage ;  consequently,  tlie  excess,  or  available  portion  of  his  power, 
remains  unimpaired,  and  the  full  benefit  of  it,  as  well  as  of  any  increased  exertions  of  the 
animal,  is  felt  and  is  applied  solely  to  dragging  the  load. 

JSlot  so  with  a  locomotive  steam-engine,  because  beyond  the  power  necessaiy  to  per- 
form the  work  of  dragging  the  load,  an  additional  power  must  be  provided  to  move  the 
engine  itself.  In  other  words,  if  an  engine  of  ten-horse  power  be  capable  of  dragging 
a  certain  load,  the  weight  of  this  engine  forming  a  portion  of  the  load  to  be  moved,  a 
con-esponding  portion  of  the  power  is  unprofitably  absorbed  in  moving  it,  and  the  excess, 
or  remaining  power,  is  alone  available  for  useful  purposes,  and  can  alone  be  compared  to 
the  animal  or  horse  power.  Now,  if  the  draught  is  augmented,  as  we  have  just  supposed, 
by  any  sand,  dirt,  or  roughness  of  the  road,  or  any  other  impediment,  the  force  required  to 
move  the  useless  weight  (of  the  engine)  is  proportionally  increased ;  it  may  eren,  as  we 
have  stated,  be  doubled  or  trebled ;  and  the  whole  power  of  the  engine  remaining  the 
same,  the  surplus  or  remaining  portion  is  considerably  diminished,  and  that  at  the  very 
moment  when,  cis  before  stated,  it  produces  only  one  half  or  one-third  the  ellect. 

Moreover,  if  at  any  part  of  the  road  a  power  equal  to  twentj-  horses  is  required,  the 
engine,  as  regards  its  construction,  must  be  a  twenty-horse  engine.  It  is  erroneous  to 
suppose  that  a  steam-engine,  because  it  is  a  high-pressure  engine,  can  therefore,  as  occa- 
sion requires,  be  worked  for  any  length  of  time  beyond  its  nominal  power,  by  merely 
raising  tne  steam.  Every  part  of  a  machine  is  calculated  and  arranged  for  a  certain  pres- 
sure and  corresponding  power,  and  tliat  is  the  real  power  of  it.  It  is  optional  to  work  at 
or  below  that  power,  but,  if  below,  it  will  be  to  a  disadvantage,  and  the  bulk  and  weight 
of  the  machine  will  be  as  great  as  if  it  were  always  worked  to  its  full  extent,  and  both 
have  to  be  carried  over  all  those  parts  of  the  road  where  a  far  less  power  would  be  sufH- 
cient.     The  velocity  of  the  carriage  might  indeed  be  increased,  while  traveling  on  the 

food  and  level  portion  of  the  road,  but  these  alterations  in  the  speed  and  power  cannot 
e  effected  without  a  considerable  degree  of  complexity,  weight  and  expense  in  the  ma- 
chinery, and  as  we  are  confining  ourselves  to  the  consideration  of  the  case  where  velocity 
is  not  required,  and  might  even  be  an  inconvenience,  the  excess  of  power  will  be  wasted. 
These  objections  to  the  use  of  mechanical  power,  in  certain  cases,  are  pointed  out,  not 
as  being  insurmountable  obstacles  to  the  use  of  machinery,  but  as  serious  difficulties 
which,  in  practice,  have  not  yet  been  overcome.  In  fact,  there  is  not  at  present  any  prac- 
tical substitute  for  horse  power  on  common  roads,  and  as  far  as  the  public  is  concerned 
nothing  has  yet  been  done.  We,  therefore,  must  consider  them  as  objections  remaining 
to  be  overcome ;  and  we  are  compeled  to  draw  the  conclusion,  that  at  the  present  moment, 
animal  power  (always  confining  ourselves  to  the  question  of  the  economical  transport  of 
heavy  goods  upon  common  roads)  is  superior  to  any  mechanical  agent,  and  that  beasts  of 
draught,  and  particulai-ly  the  horse,  are  not  only  the  most  ancient,  but  still  remain  the  most 
advantageous  source  of  power. 

Long  experience  has  pointed  out  various  modes  of  applying  animal  power ;  but  it  is 
frequently  ill  directed,  owing  to  the  want  of  an  adequate  knowledge  of  the  mechanical 
structure  of  the  animal,  and  the  manner  in  which  he  exerts  his  strength. 

In  the  most  powerful  steam-engine,  if  too  great  a  resistance  be  applied,  or  practically 
speaking,  if  we  attempt  to  make  it  do  more  work  than  it  is  calculated  for,  there  is  an  im- 
mediate loss  of  power,  in  consequence  of  the  diminution  of  velocity  caused  thereby  ;  and 
if  we  continue  to  oppose  a  still  greater  resistance,  we  reach  the  point  at  which  it  is  unable 


308 


THE  HORSE. 


to  overcome  it,  and  it  ceases  to  produce  any  effect.  Again,  a  very  small  obstacle  may  be 
so  applied  as  greatly  to  impede  an  engine  of  considerable  power,  or  even  to  stop  it  alto- 
gether. The  power  of  an  engine  is  limited,  and  resistance  must  always  be  proportioned 
to  it ;  and  there  is  a  proportion  beyond  which  it  is  useless  to  go,  and  less  thaxi  which  would 
not  absorb  the  whole  Ibrce. 

An  animal  is  but  a  beautiful  piece  of  machinery,  and  although  perfect  in  its  construc- 
tion, and  wonderfully  accommodating  in  its  movements,  it  stul,  like  the  engine,  has  a 
limited  power,  and  has  its  peculiar  modes  of  action,  its  strong  and  its  fpeble  parts  ;  and 
we  must  well  consider  its  structure,  to  be  able  to  apply  the  resistance  in  that  degi-ee,  and 
in  that  manner  which  shall  enable  it  to  produce  the  greatest  etiect.  The  consideration 
of  the  comparative  elfiects  of  the  exertions  of  a  man  and  a  horse  will  at  once  exemplify 
this,  and  lead  us  more  clearly  to  the  knowledge  of  the  peculiar  qualities  or  faculties  of 
the  horse. 

If  a  horse  be  made  to  carry  a  heavj'^  weight  rapidly  up  a  steep  ascent,  or  if  a  man  be 
employed  to  drag  slowly  a  heavy  carriage  along  a  rough  road,  the  strength  of  both  will 
be  soon  exhausted,  and  little  effect  produced  ;  but  if  a  man  may  be  made  to  cany  a  weight 
up  a  ladder,  and  if  a  horse  draw  a  heavy  ccirriage  along  a  road,  they  will  each  produce  a 
considerable  effect :  yet,  in  the  former  case,  the  horse  and  the  man  are  as  strong  as  in  the 
latter,  but  their  power  is  not  properly  applied,  and  is  consequently  wasted. 

These  different  results  are  easily  explained,  by  considering  the  mechanical  structure  of 
the  two  bodies,  and  the  mode  in  whicn  their  musculcu:  strength  is  exerted. 

The  action  of  pulling  is  effected  in  either  case  by  throwing  the  body  forward  beyond 
the  feet,  which  form  the  fulcrum,  and  allowing  the  weight  of  the  body,  in  its  tendency  to 
descend,  to  act  against  the  resistance  applied  horizontally,  and  drag  it  forward  ;  as  the 
resistance  yields,  the  feet  are  carried  forward,  and  the  action  renewed,  or  rather  continued. 

Let  A  {Jig.  1.)  be  the  centre  of  gravity,  or  the  point  in  which  the  whole  of  the  weight 


F^.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


of  the  body  may  be  supposed  to  be  accumulated,  and  B  the  fulcrum,  or  point  of  resistance 
AC  the  direction  of  the  power  to  be  overcome. 

If  the  legs  are  inflexible,  the  body,  acting  by  its  gravity,  tends  in  its  descent  to  descnbe 
a  circle  around  the  point  B,  but  is  opposed  by  the  resistance  AC  ;  and  it  is  proved  by  the 
law  of  the  resolution  of  forces,  that  if  BD  be  drawn  parallel  to  AC,  the  lengths  of  the 
lines  AD,  AB,  and  DB  represent  respectively  the  proportions  between  the  vveight  of  the 
body,  the  strain  upon  the  point  of  support,  and  the  effect  produced ;  that  is,  if  AD  be 
taken  as  the  measure  of  the  weight  of  the  body,  then  AB  is  the  measure  of  the  strain 
upon  the  legs,  and  BD  or  AE  the  power  pulling  in  the  direction  of  AC. 

Consequently,  the  effect  increases  with  the  weight  of  the  body  and  the  distance  which 
it  is  thrown  beyond  the  feet,  and  is  limited  only  by  the  capability  of  resistance  at  B,  or 
the  muscular  strength  of  the  legs.  This  is  evidently  the  case  in  practice  ;  for  even  if 
the  body  were  brought  nearly  horizontal,  when  its  weight  would  act  to  the  greatest  ad- 
vantage, still,  if  the  legs  are  incapable  of  resisting  the  strain,  they  would  yield,  and  no 
effect  be  produced.  In  a  man,  this  muscular  strength  of  the  hmbs  is  very  great,  and  he 
can  lift  or  carry  immense  weights,  and  ascend  easily,  even  loaded,  a  ladder ;  but  he  is  not 
well  adapted  to  the  purpose  of  dragging ;  as  his  own  weight  is  small  proportionably  to 
his  strength ;  and  the  centre  of  gravity  is  low,  and  by  the  consfruction  of  his  body,  can- 
not be  thrown  far  beyond  the  fulcrum  at  his  feet ;  consequently,  however  capable  his  legs 
may  he  of  resisting  a  great  strain,  AE  remains  small,  and  his  muscular  force  is  not  advan- 
tageously brought  into  action. 

A.  horse,  on  the  contrary,  by  the  formation  of  the  body,  can  reheve  his  weight  pai-tly 
from  his  fore  legs ;  and,  extending  his  hind  legs  as  in  Jig.  2,  throw  the  centre  of  gravity 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


309 


a  considerable  distance  in  front  of  his  feet  B.  AE  is  here  proportionably  much  greater 
than  in  the  former  case,  and  the  whole  of  his  ibrce  is,  therefore,  advantageously  employed. 
He  is  ill  fact,  by  his  mechanical  consti-uction,  a  beast  of  draught. 

The  same  traui  of  reasoning  which  has  here  pointed  out  the  species  of  work  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  diiterent  structure  of  tlie  man  and  horse,  if  continued  further,  will  now 
serve  to  show  the  circumstances  under  which  the  power  of  the  latter  is  best  applied,  and 
the  greatest  effect  produced. 

We  shall  here  consider  both  the  quality  of  the  draught  and  the  degree. 

And  first,  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  although  the  weight  of  the  animal's  body  is  tlie  im- 
mediate cause  in  the  action  of  pulling,  yet,  ais  before  stated,  it  is  by  the  action  of  the 
muscles  in  advancing  the  legs  and  raising  the  body,  that  this  cause  is  constantly  renewed, 
and  tlie  eifort  continued.  The  manner,  and  the  order  of  succession  in  which  a  horse 
tlius  litis  and  advances  his  legs  may,  of  course,  influence  the  movement  of  his  body,  and 
ought  therefore  to  be  examined  into  :  accordingly  we  find  that  many  writers  upon  draught 
have  touched  upon  this  part  of  the  subject,  but  they  appear  to  have  contented  themselves 
with  inventing  in  their  closet  the  manner  in  which  they  conceived  a  horse  must  have 
moved  his  legs,  rather  than  to  have  taken  the  trouble  to  go  out  of  doors  to  see  what  really 
did  take  place,  and,  consequently,  many  have  arrived  at  erroneous  conclusions.  The 
ancient  sculptors,  who  generally  studied  nature  so  faithfully,  either  neglected  this  point, 
or  otherwise  our  modern  horses,  by  constant  artificial  training,  have  altered  their  step  : 
for  we  find  in  the  celebrated  frieze,  from  the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  a  portion  of  which, 
now  in  England,  is  more  commonly  known  under  the  name  of  the  Elgin  marbles,  the  only 
horses  which  are  represented  trotting,  have  both  their  legs  on  the  same  side  of  the  body 
raised  at  once,  the  other  two  being  firm  upon  the  ground — a  position  which  horses  of  the 
present  day  never  assume  while  trotting. 

In  the  case  of  these  relievos,  it  is  true  that  there  are  only  four  horses,  out  of  more  than 
two  hundred,  which  are  in  the  action  of  trotting,  all  the  others  being  represented  in  a 
canter  or  gallop  ;  and  only  two  of  these  four  cu-e  entirely  in  the  foreground,  and  distinct 
from  the  other  figures.  It  would  not  be  safe,  therefore,  to  draw  too  general  a  conclusion 
from  this  example  alone ;  but  we  have  another  decided  proof  of  the  remark  we  have  made, 
in  the  case  of  the  four  horses  of  the  church  of  St.  Marc  at  Venice. 

Whether  this  was  then  the  mode  of  trotting  or  not,  it  is  certain  that  it  is  never  seen  to 
occur  in  nature  in  the  present  day  ;  and  indeed  it  appears  quite  inconsistent  with  the. 
necessary  balancing  of  the  body,  and  was,  therefore,  more  probably  an  error  of  the  artist. 

It  perhaps  may  have  been  found  diificult  or  troublesome  to  watch  the  movement  of  a 
horse's  legs ;  but  a  very  little  practice  will  enable  any  body  to  verify  what  we  are  about 
to  state  ;  by  keeping  near  the  side  of  a  horse  that  is  walking,  it  will  be  easily  seen  that 
immediately  after  the  raising  of  either  of  the  hind  legs  from  the  ground,  the  fore  leg  of 
the  corresponding  side  is  aJso  raised,  so  that  the  latter  leaves  the  ground  just  before  the 
former  touches  it.     If  the  fore  legs  be  then  watched,  it  will  be  seen  that,  immediately 

Fig.  3. 


after  tlie  movement  of  either  of  these,  the  hind  leg  upon  the  opposite  side  is  put  in  action, 
so  that  the  order  of  succession  appears  to  be  in  walking,  as  numbered  in  Jig.  3. 


310  THE  HORSE. 

If  the  horse  be  now  examined  from  a  short  distance,  it  will  be  seen  that,  when  he  is 
walking  freely,  the  successive  movements  of  the  legs  are  at  equal  intervals  of  time,  and 
that  the  muscular  force  of  one  limb  only  is  brought  into  action  at  the  same  moment.  But 
if  a  horse,  which  is  dragging  a  load  wi*;h  some  considerable  exertion,  be  watched,  it  will 
be  seen  that  he  then  acts  longer  upon  his  legs,  and  allows  a  less  interval  of  time  for  rais- 
ing and  advancing  them  ;  and  at  the  same  time,  the  regularity  of  the  movement  is  gene- 
rally destroyed ;  the  limbs  on  the  same  side  generally  being  moved  more  simultaneously, 
or  at  nearer  intervals  of  time  than  those  at  the  opposite  corners  :  thus,  the  muscular  forces 
of  two  limbs  are  always  acting  together,  the  movement  of  the  whole  body  is  less  continued 
and  uniform  than  in  the  former  case  ;  but  each  impulse  is  more  powerful,  and  a  resistance 
which  would  be  too  great  for  the  muscles  of  one  leg,  is  overcome  by  the  united  exertion 
of  two.  We  shall  point  out  hereafter,  the  necessity  of  attending  to  this  in  the  application 
of  this  power  to  draught. 

In  trotting,  the  action  is  of  course  quicker,  and  a  less  resistance  will,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected, cause  the  horse  to  move  his  legs  at  two  intervals  instead  of  ai.  four  equal  inter- 
vals of  time  :  indeed  a  horse  accustomed  to  go  in  harness  generally  acquires  the  habit 
of  that  action.  There  is  this  striking  dilference  between  trotting  and  walking  :  in  walk- 
ing, we  have  seen  that  the  interval  between  the  movement  of  the  legs  on  the  same  side 
was  less  than  the  other  interval  of  time  :  in  trotting,  on  the  contrary,  the  legs  situated 
diagonally,  or  at  opposite  corners,  move  almost  simultaneously.  Owing  to  the  velocity 
and  the  momentum  which  the  body  acquires  in  consequence  of  that  velocity,  in  trotting 
fast,  the  successive  impulses  are  less  distinctly  perceptible,  and  the  movement  more  con- 
tinued and  uniform  than  in  a  slow  trot,  or  in  walking. 

In  galloping,  the  movement  is  totally  different :  the  forelegs  are  thrown  forward  nearly 
simultaneously,  and  the  hind  legs  brought  up  quickly,  and  nearly  together  ;  it  is,  in  fact 
a  succession  of  leaps,  by  far  the  greatest  interval  of  time  elapsing  while  the  legs  are  ex- 
tended after  the  leap  is  taken  :  this  is  the  position,  therefore,  which  catches  the  eye,  and 
which  must  be  represented  in  a  drawing  to  produce  the  effect  of  a  horse  in  a  gallop, 
although  it  is  the  moment  when  the  animal  is  making  no  exertion. 

The  canter  is  to  the  gallop  vei-y  much  what  the  walk  is  to  the  ti-ot,  though  probably  a 
more  artificial  pace.  The  exertion  is  much  less,  the  spring  less  distant,  and  the  reet 
come  to  the  ground  in  more  regular  succession  :  it  is  a  pace  of  ease,  quite  inconsistent 
with  any  exertion  of  draught. 

The  consequence  of  these  peculiar  movements  in  the  limbs  of  the  animal  is,  that  a 
succession  of  impulses  is  conveyed  to  the  body  ;  and  when  the  movement  is  slow,  and 
the  body  of  the  horse  does  not  acquire  any  considerable  impetus  or  momentum,  the  re- 
sistance should  be  such  as  to  receive  each  of  these  impulses,  and  leave  the  horse  unrestrained 
in  the  intervals. 

It  must,  therefore,  be  a  rigid  resistance,  void  of  elasticity. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  a  constant,  unremited  resistance. 

For  it  is  a  well-known  fact,  that,  however  powerful  may  be  the  muscles  of  a  limb,  they 
must  not  be  kept  constantly  on  the  stretch.  Thus  we  feel  even  more  fatigue  by  stand- 
ing than  by  walking,  because  one  particular  set  of  muscles  is  then  kept  constantly 
exerted.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  resistance  or  draught  must  not  be  perfectly 
constant  but  should  afford  frequent  opportunities  of  relaxing  the  efforts.  Neither 
must  it  be  a  yielding  resistance,  as  in  that  case  the  animal  could  not  make  any  great  ex- 
ertion ;  for  if  he  applied  too  much  power,  he  would  be  liable  to  fail  forwai-d,  and  should 
he  at  any  time  fall  short  of  the  necessary  exertion,  he  would  be  drawn  back  by  the 
strain,  and  it  would  require  a  considerable  erfort  to  restore  the  motion. 

If  a  horse  be  made  to  drag  a  rope  passing  over  a  pulley  and  descending  into  a  well 
with  a  certain  weight,  say  of  200lb3.  attached  to  it,  it  is  obvious  that  he  could  not  make 
an  effort  greater  than  2001bs.  without  instantly  considerably  increasing  his  velocity,  which 
would  be  a  waste  of  power ;  nor  must  he  for  an  instant  relax  his  efforts,  or  fall  below  that 
mark,  for  he  would  then  be  unable  even  to  resist  the  pull,  and  would  be  overcome  by  the 
weight.  Such  an  extreme  case  as  this,  of  course,  is  not  likely  to  occur  often  in  practice, 
but  the  disadvantage  of  the  principle  is  obvious. 

An  arrangement  of  this  sort  is,  indeed,  sometimes  made  use  of,  for  raising  the  earth 
from  excavations,  or  the  materials  of  a  building ;  but  the  exertion  is  continued  only  for  a 
few  seconds,  or  for  a  distance  of  not  more  than  ten  or  twenty  yards  :  if  prolonged,  the 
inconvenience  would  be  seriously  felt,  as  it  is,  to  a  certain  degree,  in  towing  canal  boats ; 
the  length  and  curve  of  the  rope  give  an  elasticity  to  the  strain,  and  the  necessity  of  keep- 
ing the  rope  out  of  the  water,  or  from  dragging  along  the  towing-path,  compels  the  animal 
to  keep  up  a  constant,  unremited  pull,  and  that,  too,  in  an  oblique  direction,  so  as  to  throw 
him  into  an  unfavorable  position.  We  accordingly  find  that,  under  these  circumstances, 
the  average  work  of  a  horse  is  equivalent  only  to  about  four-filths  of  that  given  by  Smea- 
ton,  Desaguilliers,  and  others,  who  estimated  the  power  of  the  horse  from  the  work  done 


ON  DRAUGHT.  311 

in  a  horse-mill,  where  the  resistance  is  inelastic,  and  all  circumstances  favorable,  with 
the  exception  of  the  circular  path. 

The  disadvantage  of  this  kind  of  resistance  is  well  known  to  carmen,  thongh  of  course 
without  consideration  of  the  reason.  A  horee  is  said  to  pull  better  when  he  is  ciose  to 
his  work,  that  is  to  say,  when  he  is  attached  at  once  to  the  body  to  be  moved,  because 
eveiy  exertion  he  makes  is  then  communicated  at  once  to  the  mass  ;  but  the  leader  of  a 
team,  unless  he  keeps  the  ti'aces  constantly  on  the  stretch,  may  frequently  waste  a  pow- 
erful efiort  without  producing  much  elfect  upon  the  carriage. 

Another  inconvenience  resulting  from  harnessing  horses  in  a  team,  or  one  before  the 
other,  is,  that  tlie  leader,  by  tightening  the  traces,  is  continually  relieving  the  strain  from 
the  body  horse,  and  reciprocally  the  body  horse  liom  the  leader;  so  that  these  horses 
labor  under  all  the  disadvantages  of  a  long,  elastic,  and  constantlj'  yielding  connexion 
witli  the  load,  which  is  not  only  fatiguing  to  them,  but,  in  cases  where  the  resistance 
is  variable,  prevents  the  full  and  united  eliect  of  their  exertions  being  properly  commu- 
nicated to  the  carriage.  For,  if  a  slight  obstacle,  as  a  rut  or  stone  in  a  road,  checks  the 
progress  of  the  vehicle,  the  shaft  horse  can  immediately  throw  his  whole  weight  into  the 
collar,  and  the  united  etiect  of  his  strength  and  impetus  is  conveyed  unimpaired  to  the 
vehicle,  and  forces  it  over  the  obstacle  ;  but  if  any  elasticity  is  interposed  between  the 
power  and  the  resistance,  as  in  the  case  of  the  traces  of  the  leader  of  a  team,  the  whole, 
or  the  greater  part  of  the  ertectof  impetus  is  lost,  and  that  force,  which,  if  concentrated 
in  one  eliort,  would  effect  the  object,  being  lengthened  into  a  continued  and  compara- 
tively feeble  pull,  is  insufficient. 

If  we  wish  to  destroy  the  impetus  of  a  body  moving  with  violence,  we  receive  it  with 
yielding  resistance  ;  the  action  of  catching  a  cricket-ball  exemplifies  Ihis  perlectlj' ;  and 
therefore,  if  the  full  effect  of  momentum  is  wanted,  all  elasticity  in  the  direction  of 
the  movement  should  be  avoided. 

We  have  entered  rather  fully  into  the  consideration  of  this  particular  point,  because  the 
principle  is  not  only  applicable  to  the  mode  of  communicating  the  immediate  action  of 
the  moving  power,  but  will  be  found  also  of  considerable  importance  when  we  arrive  at 
the  subject  of  wheel  carriages. 

A  consideration  of  these  various  points  brings  us  to  this  conclusion,  that  the  draught 
ought  neither  to  be  constantly  uniform  or  without  remission,  nor  yet  yielding  or  elastic  : 
suaden  shocks  or  violent  changes  in  the  velocity  must  also  evidently  be  disadvantageous, 
as  tending  to  distress  and  injure  the  animal. 

Having  determined  upon  the  necessaiy  quality  of  the  resistance,  we  will  proceed  to 
examine  into  the  quantity  or  the  degree  of  resistance  or  draught,  and  the  speed  best 
adapted  to  the  exertion  of  the  animal.  The  useful  etiect  of  a  horse,  or  the  work  done, 
must  evidently  depend  upon  three  things,  viz :  the  rate  at  which  he  is  made  to  travel, 
the  power  of  traction  he  can  exert,  and  the  number  of  hours  he  can  continue  to  work 
daily  at  that  speed ;  and  where  there  is  no  fixed  condition  which  determines  any  one  of 
these,  such  as  a  particular  load  to  be  moved,  or  a  certain  velocity  which  it  is  desirable 
to  attain,  or  a  limited  time  to  perform  the  work  in,  then  the  object  must  be  to  search 
for  tiiose  proportions  of  the  three  by  which,  at  the  end  of  the  day,  tlie  greatest  quantity 
of  work  shall  have  been  produced. 

With  respect  to  the  first  two,  viz.,  the  speed  and  pow'er  exerted,  it  will  be  obvious, 
that  where  a  horse  travels  unloaded,  the  greatest  distance  he  can  go  in  any  given  time  for 
several  days  in  succession  without  injurious  fatigue,  is  the  limit  of  his  velocity :  on  the 
other  hand,  the  load  may  be  so  great,  that  he  can  scarcely  put  it  in  motion — this  is  the 
limit  of  his  power ;  in  both  cases,  the  useful  eliect  is  nothing.  But  between  these  limits 
of  velocity  and  power,  there  is  a  proportion  which  afibids  the  maximum  quantity  of  effect 
and  which,  therefore,  must  be  the  most  advantageous  lor  the  application  of  horse-power. 

It  has  been  asserted  by  theorists,  and  the  theory  appears  to  be  supported  by  experience, 
that  the  velocity  corresponding  to  this  maximum,  or  that  at  which  a  horse  working  con- 
tinually a  certain  number  of  hours  per  day  will  do  the  most  work,  is  equal  to  half  the 
extreme  or  limit  of  velocity  of  the  same  horse  working  the  saiue  number  of  hours  un- 
loaded ;  and  that  the  force  of  ti-action  corresponding  to  this  speed,  is  equal  to  half  the  limit 
of  his  power.  For  instance,  if  six  hours  be  the  length  of  a  day's  work  decided  upon, 
and  if  a  horse  working  that  time  can  go  six  miles  per  hour  unloaded,  and  therefore  pro- 
ducing no  useful  efiect,  and  supposing  the  limit  of  power  of  the  same  horse  be  equal  to 
250  lbs.,  it  is  found  that  he  will  do  the  most  W'ork  in  the  same  number  of  hours  when 
drawing  a  load  at  the  rate  of  half  six,  or  three  miles  per  houi- ;  and  half  of  250  or  125  lbs. 
will  be  the  strain  corresponding  to  this  speed.  Our  next  step,  then,  must  be  to  find 
these  limits :  now,  the  limit  of  velocity  depends  upon  the  length  of  time  during  which 
the  speed  is  kept  up  ;  we  subjoin  therefore  a  table  deduced  from  experiments,  and  which 
represents  the  proportion  of  the  duration  of  labor  and  maximum  velocity  of  the  average 
of  horses  accustomed  to  their  respective  velocities. 


312  THE  HORSE. 

Hours. 
Duration  of  labor    ----1        2        3        4        5        6        7        8        10 

^^dr.Yr'pttt!°''1  ^'i  i«i  «i  '^  «^  «  ^i  ^^  ^5 

This  within  the  range  here  given  may  be  considered  as  very  nearly  the  law  of  decrease 
of  speed  by  increased  duration  of  labor ;  and  at  the  first  glance  we  see  the  great  advan- 
tage of  reducing  the  speed  and  prolonging  the  exertion.  There  are,  however,  many 
causes  to  limit  the  duration  of  a  day's  work  of  a  horse.  Tredgold,  in  his  work  on  Rail- 
ways, before  quoted,  says  :  "  The  time  assigned  for  the  day's  work  of  a  horse  is  usually 
eight  hours  ;  but  it  is  certain,  from  experience,  that  some  advantage  is  gained  by  short- 
ening the  hours  of  labor ;  and  we  have  observed,  that  a  horse  is  least  injured  by  his  labor, 
where  his  day's  work  is  performed  in  about  six  hours  ;  where  the  same  quantity  of  labor 
is  performed  in  less  than  six  hours,  the  over-exertion  in  time  shows  itself  in  stiticned 
joints,  while  the  wearying  effects  of  long-continued  action  become  apparent,  if  the  dura- 
tion of  the  day's  work  be  prolonged  much  beyond  eight  hours.  Indeed,  under  the  man- 
agement of  a  good  driver,  a  full  day's  work  may  be  completed  in  the  time  before  men- 
tioned— six  hours — with  benefit  to  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  animal." 

We  may  be  permited,  however,  to  abandon  the  idea  of  improving  the  health  of  the 
animal,  or  of  rendering  his  business  a  pleasure  to  him — an  attempt,  the  success  of  which 
is,  we  should  think,  very  questionable,  and  content  ourselves  with  endeavoring  to  check 
the  barbarous  practice  of  working  horses  to  death  either  by  overdriving  or  overloading 
them  ;  and  we  shall,  as  is  generally  the  case,  consult  our  own  interests  and  follow  the 
dictates  of  humanity  at  the  same  time,  by  not  injuring  so  useful  an  animal ;  and  we  think 
experie'nce  proves  there  will  be  no  danger  of  doing  this  by  working  eight  or  nine  hours 
a  day.  By  refering  to  the  table  above,  we  see  that  the  maximum  velocity  of  the  ave- 
rage of  horses  conesponding  to  eight  hours'  work  is  five  miles  and  a  half  per  hour,  con- 
sequently, the  rate  at  which  he  would  travel  when  loaded  is  a  little  more  than  two  miles 
and  a  half  per  hour.  There  is  no  doubt  that  some  horses  could  conveniently  travel  faster; 
but  as  the  speed  must  generally  be  governed  by  that  of  other  horses,  the  average  is,  in 
this  case,  the  rate  to  be  adopted.  Tne  force  exerted  under  these  circumstances  depend- 
ing upon  the  quality  of  the  horse,  it  is  very  difficult  to  obtain  even  an  approximate  value 
of  it,  unless  the  experiment  be  made  upon  each  individual  horse  ;  it  is  fortunately  how- 
ever, of  no  great  consequence  in  practice,  because  if  we  feel  sure  that  we  are  employing 
all  the  power  we  can  command  to  the  greatest  advantage,  it  is  not  of  any  very  great  im- 
portance that  we  should  know  the  exact  amount  of  that  power. 

In  comparing  animal  horse-power  with  that  of  the  steam-engine,  we  estimated  it  at 
about  125  lbs.,  but  we  believe  that,  with  tolerably  good  horses,  it  may  generally  be  taken 
at  more  than  thafe 

We  have  thus  far  confined  our  attention  to  the  cases  where  velocity,  as  well  as  dura- 
tion of  labor,  was  left  to  choice  ;  this  is  fai-  from  being  always  the  case.  In  stage-coaches, 
or  other  conveyance  for  passengers,  speed  is  absolutely  necessary,  and  it  only  remains  to 
learn  how  that  speed  can  be  obtained  with  the  greatest  economy.  The  following  table, 
extracted  from  Tredgold,  will  show  the  great  reduction  in  the  effect  produced  by  increas- 
ing the  velocity. 

The  first  column  being  the  velocity  or  rate  per  hour,  continued  for  six  hours  per  day; 
the  second  represents  the  force  of  traction  of  which  the  animal  is  capable  ;  and  the  third, 
the  comparative  effects  produced.  A  force  of  traction  of  125  lbs.  continued  for  six  hours 
at  the  rate  of  three  miles  per  hour  being  taken  as  the  standard,  and  considered  equal  to 
the  arbitrary  number  1000. 


Miles  per 

horn-. 

Force  of  traction 

in 

lbs. 

Effect  produced, 

2 

. 

. 

. 

166 

- 

- 

- 

888 

3 

. 

. 

. 

125 

. 

. 

1000 

H 

. 

. 

. 

104 

. 

. 

972 

4 

. 

. 

. 

83 

. 

- 

888 

4J 

- 

- 

- 

62^ 

- 

- 

750 

5 

. 

- 

- 

41^ 

- 

- 

555 

H 

- 

- 

- 

36^ 

- 

- 

500 

If,  however,  the  hours  of  labor  be  lessened,  taking  the  velocity  corresponding  to  the 
greatest  useful  effect,  the  results  will  be  much  greater,  and  the  velocity  may  be  raised 
much  higher,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following  Table. 

Here  the  firet  column  is  the  length  of  days'  work,  the  second  the  best  velocitj'  corres- 
ponding to  that  time,  or  half  the  limit  of  velocity  shown  in  Table  (1),  and  the  third  co- 
lumn the  comparative  effect  produced,  the  force  of  traction  being  in  each  case  125  lbs. 


ON  DRAUGHT, 


3IS^ 


Duration  of  labor  in  hours. 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 


Velocity,  miles  per  Uour. 

-  -         5^  -        - 
-         4i-  - 

-  -         3§  -         - 

3i  - 
3 

■     ■     ?*  '     : 


Effect  produced. 

578 

709 

813 

909 
1000 
1063 
1110 


To  attain  higher  velocity  it  is  necessary  still  further  to  reduce  the  load,  and  the  next 
Table  is  calculated  upon  the  supposition  of  the  strain  being  only  one  half  the  last,  viz., 
62^lbs ;  this  is  about  the  average  exertion  of  each  horse  in  a  four-horse  heavy  stage-coach. 
Duration  of  labor,  hours  per  day.  Velocity.  Effect  produced 

4 5^      -         -        -        -         613 

3 62      ....        534 

2 74      ....         434 

1 11*       -         .         -         -         307 

In  mails  or  light  coaches,  where  ten,  eleven,  and  even  eleven  and  a  half  or  twelve  miles 
an  hour  is  attained,  the  average  strain  of  each  horse  is  barely  40lbs.;  and  the  effect  pro- 
duced, or  value  of  work  done,  not  much  move  than  one-half  the  above. 

It  must  be  remembered,  that  these  tables  are  all  calculated  upon  the  supposition  of  the 
road  being  good,  and  the  work  such  as  not  to  cause  any  immediate  injury  to  the  animal, 
and  is  adapted  only  to  the  average  qualit}''  of  horses.  They  are  not  therefore  at  once  ap- 
plicable as  data  for  calculations  in  all  ordinary  cases,  but  only  serve  to  show  the  com- 
parative forces  which  may  be  exerted  under  different  degi-ees  of  speed.  The  results  or 
effects  of  this  force  will  alwaj^s  be  influenced  by  the  quality  of  the  resistance  as  we  have 
already  observed  in  the  cases  of  slow  traveling,  but  in  rapid  traveling  the  power  is  much 
more  expensive,  owing  to  the  great  loss  which  we  see  by  the  tables  is  sustained  by  in- 
creased velocity;  and  it  is,  therefore,  the  more  important  to  study  well  the  means  of  ap- 
plying the  power  in  question. 

In  this  rapid  traveling,  the  bad  consequences  of  a  unifonn  and  constant  strain  is  still 
more  felt  by  the  horses,  and  the  necessity  of  occasional  relief  is  still  more  urgent  than  at 
low  velocities.  It  is  universally  admitted  by  horse  proprietors  and  postmasters,  whose 
interests  make  them  peculiarly  sensible  on  this  point,  that  a  flat  piece  of  road  is  more 
destructive  of  horses  than  the  same  length  of  road  where  gentle  rises  and  alternate  flat 
and  swelling  ground  occur;  and  that  a  long  hill  is  easier  surmounted  where  there  are 
occasional  short  levels,  and  even  descents,  than  when  the  whole  is  one  uniform  ascent. 

It  only  remains  for  us,  before  we  dismiss  the  subject  of  the  moving  power,  to  consider 
the  particular  mode  of  applying  it,  or  the  manner  of  harnessing  the  horses. 

Under  this  head  comes  the  question  of  the  best  direction  of  the  traces,  or,  as  it  has 
generally,  but  less  clearly  been  called,  the  angle  of  inclination  of  the  line  of  traction. 
This  question  appears  to  have  been  always  considered  one  of  great  importance  :  the 
point  has  been  frequently  discussed,  and  various  opinions  have  been  advanced  ;  some 
Having  recommended  it  to  be  horizontal,  others  inclined  ;  and,  as  they  have  each  in  their 
turn,  in  demonstrating  the  correctness  of  their  own  theory,  proved  the  error  of  others, 
there  can  be  no  presumption  in  laying  them  all  aside,  and  in  taking  a  different,  but  at  the 
same  time,  a  more  simple  and  practical  view  of  the  case.  By  referring  to  a  figure  sirai- 
lar  to  that  by  which  we  showed  the  mode  of  action  of  the  horse  in  pulling,  we  see  that  if 
AD  represent  that  portion  of  his  whole  weight  which  is  relieved  from  his  forelegs,  and 
~"  '      AE  the  direction  of  tlie  traces,  then  AF 

is  the  measure  of  the  horizontal  pull 
upon  the  carriage.  Now,  AF  bears  a 
constant  proportion  to  AB,  which  rep- 
resents the  strain  upon  the  legs ;  and 
AD  being  constant,  AB,  and  conse- 
quently, AF,  increase  or  diminiuh  ac- 
cording as  the  angle  ADB  is  increased 
or  diminished  :  that  is  to  say,  tlie  hori- 
zontal pull  applied  to  the  carriage  is 
proportionate  to  the  strain  upon  the 
legs  ;  but  they  are  both  dependent  upon 
tlie  angle  formed  by  the  traces,  increas. 
/^B  ~  5  ing  or  diminishing  as  the  latter  are  in. 

clined  downwards  or  upwards  from  the  collar ;  so  that  whether  the  traces  be  inclined 
upwards,  as./ig-.  4.  or  downwards,  as  fig.  6,  or  whether  they  be  horizontal,  as./?g-.  5,  makes 
no  difference  in  the  manner  of  pulling.  In  the  first  case,  a  portion  of  the  animal's  weight 
is  borne  by  the  traces,  and  is  transferred  by  them  to  the  carriage.  AF  is  here  small,  but 
the  strain  upon  the  legs  AB  is  also  proportionably  less  than  in  the  second  case,  where  the 
40 


3H 


THE  HORSE. 


Fig.  5 


traces  are  honzontal.  In  fig.  6, 
where  the  traces  incline  down- 
wards, we  see  that  the  horizon- 
tal force  AE  is  much  more  con- 
siderable ;  but,  at  the  same  time 
AB  is  increased,  and  conse- 
quently the  muscular  exertion 
required  in  the  legs  is  propor- 
tionably  ^eat ;  in  fact,  here  a 
portion  ol  the  weight  of  the  load 
IS  transferred  to  his  shoulders. 

To  render  this  more  clear  to 
our  own  feelings,  we  will  put 
tile  case  of  a  man.  We  have 
already  seen  that  an  able-bodi- 
ed man  is  more  adapted  for  lift- 
ing than  pulling ;  consequently, 
in  nis  case  it  would  be  advanta- 
geous to  throw  a  certain  portion 
of  the  weight  upon  him,  oy  ma- 
king him  pull  upwards,  as  in 
fig.  7,  or  wnat  we  are  more  ac- 
customed to  see,  and  which 
amounts  to  the  same  thing,  ap- 
plying his  strength  to  a  whed- 
barrow,^g.  8,  and  we  have  fre- 
quently seen  an  ordinary  man 
wheel  SOOlbs.  in  this  manner. 

If,  however,  we  take  a  per- 
son accustomed  to  hard  work, 
and  consequently  not  so  strong 
Fig.  8. 


in  the  legs,  although  he  may  be  unable  even  to  lift  the  wheelbarrow  which  the  other 
moved  with  ease,  still  he  may,  by  pushing  horizontally,  put  in  motion  a  considerable 
load ;  and  lastly,  in  the  case  of  an  invalid  who  can  barely  carry  his  own  weight,  if 
he  lean  on  the  back  of  a  garden  chair,  he  will  not  only  walk  himself,  but  push  on  the  chair ; 
or  a  child  who  is  yet  too  weak  to  stand,  can,  if  part  of  his  weight  be  supported  in  a  go- 
cart,  not  only  move  himself,  but  also  the  frame  which  supports  him.  These  are  very- 
familiar  and  homely  comparisons,  but  they  are  cases  exactly  similar  to  the  three  posi- 
tions of  the  traces  ;  and  the  argument  will  equally  apply  to  horses  as  to  men.  It  is  true, 
we  rarely  use  for  draft  a  horse  that  cannot  stand  ;  but  the  case  is  very  possible  that  a 
large  heavy  horse,  otherwise  not  sti'ong,  or  one  which  it  was  not  desirable  to  fatigue, 
plight  pull  better  and  longer,  if  part  of  tiie  weight  was  borne  upon  the  carriage,  or  if, 
in  other  words,  the  traces  pulled  upwards.  And  we  know  by  experience,  that  in  the 
case  of  stage-coaches,  where,  owing  to  the  speed,  the  weight  of  the  horse's  body  is 
already  generally  a  burden  to  him,  it  is  disadvantageous  to  increase  that  weight  by  inclining 
the  traces  much  downwards  ;  on  the  contrary,  where  we  wish  to  obtain  the  utmost  effect 
of  a  powerful  horse,  of  a  horse  that  is  jnuscular,  but  without  much  weight  forward,  it 
is  highly  advantageous  to  augment  the  effect  of  his  gravity  by  inclining  the  traces  even  as 
much  as  15°,  or  about  1  upon  3  ;  the  strain  upon  the  traces  will  be  then  considerably 
increased,  and  the  effect  augmented,  provided  always  that  he  is  able  to  exert  the  neces- 
sary strength  in  his  legs.  As  far,  therefore,  as  the  mere  force  of  traction  is  concerned, 
there  is  no  particular  angle  which  will  always  produce  the  greatest  effect — but  it  must 
depend  upon  the  particular  capability  of  the  horse ;  and  tliis  in  its  turn  varies,  and  is 
affected  by  circumstances  ;  for  the  same  horse  that  upon  a  level  road  requires  no  addi- 


ON   DRAUGHT. 


315 


tion 
hill 


1  to  his  weight,  might  be  materially  assisted  by  a  slight  addition  when  ascending  a 
,  if  not  continued  too  long ;  and  most  horses  would  be  benefited  considerably  by  me 
opposite  arrangement  in  a  descent,  that  is,  by  a  portion  of  their  weight  being  born  up ; 
they  should  at  least  have  no  additional  load  thrown  on  them  while  descending  a  hill. 

There  is  also  a  time,  when  inclining  the  traces  downwards  is  almost  indispensable  : 
it  is  when  dragging  a  four-wheeled  wtigon  over  a  rough  broken  road.  If  the  front 
wheel,  which  is  generally  small,  meets  with  an  obstable  by  falling  into  a  hole,  or  stopping 
against  a  stone,  it  requires  no  profound  reasoning  to  show,  that  a  force  pulling  upwards 
in  the  direction  AB,  fig.  9,  will  raise  the  whole  wheel  over 
the  obstacle  with  much  greater  facility  than  if  appUed  hori- 
zontally, as  AC  ;  this  is  the  only  circumstance,  unconnected 
with  the  horse,  tliat  ought  to  govern  the  direction  of  the 
traces,  and  the  degree  of  the  inclination  here  must,  of 
course,  still  be  proportioned  to  the  power  of  the  horse. 
We  see  therefore  that,  in  proportion  as  the  horse  is  stronger, 
or  that  we  are  disposed  to  make  hi;n  exert  a  greater  effort, 
the  traces  should  be  inclined  downwards  from  the  collar ; 
-with  a  good  average  horse,  perhaps,  one-sixth  or  one-se- 
venth of  the  distance  from  the  collar  to  the  extremity  with  a  horse  of  inferior  capabilities, 
arising  from  wealuiess  in  the  limbs,  and  not  want  of  weight,  or  witli  an  ordinary  horse 
when  traveling  above  six  miles  an  hour,  the  traces  should  be  nearer  tire  horizontal  line, 
except  when  the  circumstance  of  a  rough  road,  before  alluded  to,  requires  some  modifi- 
cation of  this.  To  be  able  to  apply  these  rules  generally  in  practice,  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  have  some  means  of  altering  the  traces  while  on  the  road ;  as  we  have  stated 
that  they  should  be  differently  aiTanged  according  as  the  road  is  level  or  rough,  or  as- 
cending or  descending,  this  would  not  be  difficult  to  contrive,  and  has,  indeed,  been  sug- 
gested by  some  writers  upon  this  subject;  but  it  is  probable  that,  except  in  stage- 
wagons  where  the  same  carriage  goes  along  a  gi-eat  extent,  and  consequent  variety  of 
road,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  adjust  the  traces  according  to  the  avearge  state  of  the  roads 
in  the  neighborhood  ;  and  we  cannot  greatly  err,  if  we  bear  in  mind,  that,  inclining  the 
traces  downwards  from  the  collar  to  the  carriages,  amounts  to  the  same  thing  as  throwing 
part  of  the  weight  of  the  load  on  to  the  shafts,  a  thing  frequently  done  in  two-wheeled 
carts,  and  a  manoeuvre  which  all  good  carmen  know  how  to  pat  in  practice.  The  im- 
possibility of  inclining  the  traces  of  the  leaders,  owing  to  their  distance  from  the  car- 
riage, is  an  additional  reason  to  those  given  before,  why  tliey  (the  leaders)  cannot, 
when  required,  exert  such  an  effort  as  the  shaft-horse  wheeler ;  and  on  rough  cross-roads, 
is  a  great  argument  in  favour  of  harnessing  horses  abreast. 

Yet  what  can  be  more  contrary  to  the  riues  here  laid  down  than  the  injudicious  mode 

FiB.  10. 


frequently  adopted  in  harnessing  horses  ?  How  constantly  do  we  see  the  efTorts  of  horses 
paralysed  by  misapplication  of  their  respective  qualities !  In  the  annexed  sketch,  (fig. 
10,)  for  instance,  which  represents  a  very  common  specimen  of  this,  the  light,  muscular, 
little  horse,  which  is  capable  of  considerable  exertion,  is  nearly  lifted  from  the  ground, 
and  prevented  from  making  any  exertion,  by  the  traces  leading  upwards ;  while  the 
feeble  old  horse,  scarcely  capable  of  carrying  his  own  body,  is  "nearly  dragged  to  the 
ground,  and  compeled  to  employ  his  whole  strength  in  carrying  himself,  and  even  part  of 


316 


THE  HORSE. 


the  weight  of  the  leader ;  so  that  the  strength  of  the  one  willing  to  work  is  not  employed 
and  the  other  is  so  overloaded  as  to  be  useless.  ' 

The  mode  of  attaching  the  traces  does  not  admit  of  much  variety.  The  shoulders  have 
always  been  made  use  of  for  tliis  purpose. 

Homer,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  900 
years  B.  C.,  describes  very  minutely,  in  the  24th  book 
of  the  Iliad,  the  mode  of  harnessing  horses  at  the  time 
of  the  seige  of  Troy,  nearly  three  tliousand  years  ago  ; 
but  if  we  suppose  that  his  description  was  taken  from 
the  harness  in  use,  in  his  own  time,  it  is  still  referring 
to  a  period  about  twenty-seven  centuries  back. 

A  simple  strap,  formed  of  several  thicknesses  of 
leather,  so  as  to  be  very  stiff,  and  fitted  well  to  the 
neck  and  shoulders,  served  as  a  collar,  as  seen  at  A  A, 
(figs.  11,  12.)  A  second  strap  B  B.  passed  round 
the  body,  and  was  attached  to  the  shoulder  strap  at 
the  withers.  At  this  point  was  fixed  the  yoke,  C  C, 
which  was  fixed  to  the  pole. 


Fig.  12. 


A  pair  of  horses  were  thus  yoked  together,  without  traces  or  breechings,  as  oxen  are 
seen  at  the  present  time  in  many  parts  of  the  country. 

This  was  a  simple  arrangement,  but  by  no  means  a  bad  one ;  and  it  would  appear 
that  they  performed  all  the  manoeuvres  of  cavalry  with  chariots  and  horses  thus  harnessed. 
The  pair  yoked  to  the  pole  were  called  yoked  horses  ;  abreast  of  these  was  frequently 
placed  what  was  called  an  outer  horse,  with  a  simple  shoulder-strap  or  collar  F  F,  and  a 
single  trace,  G  G,  passing  inside,  as  in  fig.  13.  Sometimes  there  were  two  of  these 
horses,  one  on  each  side,  each  furnished  with  his  strap  or  collar  and  trace. 

These  straps,  if  well  fitted,  were  not  bad ;  but  as  tliey  must  have  pressed  in  some  de- 
gree upon  the  throat,  they  could  not  be  equal  to  the  collar  of  the  yoked  horses,  still  less 
to  the  collar  at  present  used. 

In  more  modern  times  these  shoulder  straps  gave  place  to  the  breast  strap.  A  horse 
can  no  doubt  exert  a  considerable  strain  against  such  a  strap,  but  in  action  it  must  im- 
pede the  movement  of  the  shoulder. 

In  some  parts  of  South  America  the  trace  is  fixed  to  the  pummel  of  the  saddle,  which 
in  its  turn  is  well  secured  to  the  horse  by  saddle-girths,  breast-straps,  and  breechings ; 
and  we  are  informed  that  horses  in  this  manner  drag  very  considerable  loads.  It  resem- 
bles completely  the  harness  of  the  ancients,  with  the  addition  of  the  breechings.  It  is, 
of  course,  a  mere  temporary  arrangement,  convenient  only  as  requiring  no  preparation. 
The  trace  is,  in  fact,  the  lasso  of  the  rider,  which  is  always  fastened  to  the  saddle ;  and 
when  he  has  entangled  it  round  the  horns  of  a  bull,  or  attached  it  to  any  thing  he 
may  have  occasion  to  transport,  he  takes  one  or  two  turns  of  the  thong  round  the  pum- 
mel of  the  saddle,  and  the  horse  will  at  full  gallop  drag  the  load  after  him.  Here  the 
load  being  generally  upon  the  ground,  the  trace  must  inclin»  rwsiderably  downwards ; 


ON  DRAUGHT. 
Fig.  13. 


317 


and  this,  added  to  the  weight  of  the  rider,  will  perhaps  account  in  some  de^ee  for  the 
extraordinary  effects  of  a  young  powerful  horse  goaded  to  the  utmost,  and  continuing 
the  exertion  only  for  a  short  time. 

A  gentleman  who  traveled  some  time  in  this  part  of  America,  and  frequently  wit- 
nessed the  practical  effects  of  this  arrangement,  has  suggested  the  propriety  of  introduc- 
ing it  into  the  artillery,  by  means  of  which  a  number  of  horses  might  in  an  instant  be 
attached  to  a  gun,  to  extricate  it  from  any  heavy  or  broken  ground  in  which  it  might  be 
entangled.  Certainly,  the  length  of  these  traces  would  enable  these  additional  horses 
to  secure  a  good  footing ;  and  any  number  of  horses  might  thus  be  made  to  lend  their 
assistance  in  time  of  need.  We  do  not  pretend,  however,  to  judge  of  the  practical  utility 
of  this  measure,  but  merely  record  the  suggestion  of  another. 

The  collar  now  generally  used  is  an  improvement  upon  the  ancient  shoulder-strap 
described  by  Homer ;  and  it  is  probably  the  best  possible  mode  of  attaching  the  traces 
to  the  horses.  If  the  connexion  is  made  at  the  proper  place  on  the  collar,  the  latter  bears 
flat  and  evenly  upon  the  muscles  which  cover  tlie  collar-bone,  and  the  shovdders  of  the 
horse  are  left  almost  as  free  in  their  action  as  if  the  collar  were  not  there.  About  A, 
(figs.  14,  15,  p.  318,)  is  the  point'of  the  shoulder  where  the  trace  should  come  ;  and  a 
little  inclination  downwards,  which  can  easily  be  effected  in  the  case  of  the  shaft-horse 
by  the  shafts,  and  in  the  others  by  the  belly-band,  will,  if  necessary,  prevent  the  collar 
rising  up,  and  inconveniencing  the  throat  of  the  horse. 

Reflecting  upon  the  various  circumstances  which  we  have  shown  to  occur  in  the  ap- 
plication of  animal  power,  and  the  various  conclusions  we  have  drawn  while  considering 
the  best  and  most  advantageous  apphcation  of  this  power — and  we  must  be  excused  the 
frequent  repetition  of  the  terms,  for  the  sake  of  the  clearness  gained  by  it — it  would 
appear  that  the  resistance  should  be  as  much  as  possible  rigid  and  inelastic,  so  as  to  receive 
immediately  and  unimpaired  the  direct  effects  of  the  slightly  irregular  exertions  of  the 
animal ;  that  this  resistance  should  not  be  such  as  to  yield  directly  to  a  sudden  impulse  ; 
that  it  should  be  so  far  uniform  as  to  be  ti-ee  from  violent  changes  or  sudden  shocks,  but 
not  so  constant  as  to  zdlow  of  no  remission,  nor  of  those  alternations  of  exertion  and 
comparative  relaxation  which  we  have  stated  to  be  advantageous  to  the  perfect  develope- 
ment  of  animal  power. 

That,  as  regards  the  degree  of  resistance,  where  velocity  is  not  required,  a  force  of 
traction  of  from  lOOlbs.  to  1251bs.,  or  even  150  lbs.,*  according  to  the  strength  of  the 
horse,  continued  for  eight  hours  a  day,  at  about  two  and  a  half  to  three  miles  per  hour, 

*  The  load  which  will  produce  this  amount  of  draught  will  be  determined  when  we 
consider  the  subject  of  the  roads,  on  the  quality  of  which  it  will  be  seen  that  tliis  mainly 
depends.  . 


S18 


THE  HORSE, 


Fis-  14. 


Fig.  15. 


is  the  best  proportion  of  quantity  and  duration  of  labor  ;  that  where  six  or  eight  miles  per 
hour  is  required,  the  duration  of  the  day's  work  should  be  shortened  to  five  or  six  hours, 
and  the  draught  reduced  to  80lbs.  or  lOOlbs.  At  still  higher  velocities  the  draught  must 
not  exceed  SOlbs.  or  601bs.,  and  the  time  of  working  two  or  three  hours.  But  this  speed 
can  only  be  attained  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  horse ;  and  consequently  the  question  will 
rather  be  what  the  horse  is  capable  of  doing  than  what  can  be  done  with  economy  ;  and 
it  becomes  a  matter  of  calculation  depending  altogether  upon  the  first  cost  of  the  horse, 
and  the  profits  arising  from  his  employment 

With  respect  to  the  mode  of  harnessing  the  horse,  it  is  hardly  necessaiy  to  say  that 
great  care  should  be  taken  in  fitting  the  collar  and  in  attaching  the  traces  to  the  proper 
point.  As  to  the  direction  of  the  traces,  it  must,  as  we  have  shown,  entirely  depend  upon 
the  circumstances  of  the  case.  Where  the  draught  is  heavy  and  slow,  if  the  road  be  good, 
the  traces  should  be  neaj'ly  horizontal,  unless  the  journey  be  short,  or  the  traffic  be  only 
in  one  direction,  and  the  cart  return  empty,  or  unless  any  other  reason  render  it  desirable 
to  compel  the  horse  to  exert  himself  more  than  he  would  naturally  do ;  the  traces  should 
then  be  inclined  downward  towards  the  carriage,  with  an  inclination  perhaps  of  one  upon 
four  or  five,  provided  always  that  the  horse  is  capable  of  continuing  the  exertion  which, 
by  the  additional  load  thrown  upon  his  shoulders,  he  is  thus  called  upon  to  make.  If,  in 
the  same  case  of  low  speed,  the  road  be  very  heavy,  or  broken  and  rough,  the  proportion 
of  draught  upon  each  horse  must  be  lessened,  but  the  ti-aces  should  be  attached  still  lower 
to  the  carriage,  at  a  slope  of  one  upon  three  or  four,  by  which  much  greater  power  is 
given  to  the  animal  to  drag  the  load  over  any  obstruction. 

At  all  high  velocities,  the  traces  should  generally  be  horizontal.  The  cases  of  rough 
roads  or  powerful  horses  may  slightly  affect  this  arrangement,  as  at  low  velocities,  but  not 
in  so  great  a  degree. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  examine  the  mode  in  which  these  conditions  are  practically  to 
be  fulfilled,  and  the  result  of  the  application  of  the  principles  which  we  have  laid  down, 
by  considering  the  subject  of  the  vehicles  for  conveying  the  weight  to  be  moved. 

Those  in  present  use  are  boats,  as  canal  boats,  sledges,  and  wheeled  carriages,  which 
last  of  course  include  every  species  of  carriage,  whether  wagon  or  cart,  heavy  or  light. 

Canal  boats  and  canals  we  suspect  are  going  fast  out  of  use,  and  will  very  shortly  give 
place  entirely  to  railways ;  but  still  it  must  be  many  years  before  this  can  be  effected; 
and  in  the  mean  time,  the  produce  of  the  most  extensive  manufactures  in  the  world,  and 
the  supply  of  immense  masses  of  people,  will  be  transported  over  these  beautifully  smooth. 


ON  DRAUGHT.  319 

level  noiseless  roads  ;  and,  even  if  their  beds  were  dry,  and  become  the  course  of  rail- 
ways'(an  event  which  may  perhaps  befall  some  of  them,)  we  must,  out  of  respect  for  the 
ext-aordinary  benefits  we  have  derived  fi-om  their  assistance,  and  the  almost  incredible 
etfect  they  have  produced  upon  the  commerce  and  riches  of  the  country,  have  devoted  a 
few  lines  to  that  part  of  their  consideration  which  bears  upon  our  subject,  viz.  the  draught 

of  canal  boats.  ,    ,  ,  •    ^i.  n 

The  great  advantage  in  the  transport  of  goods  by  water  conveyance,  is  the  smaUness 
of  the  power  required.  A  body  floating  in  water  is  left  so  very  free  in  its  movements, 
that  motion  may  be  gradually  communicated  to  it  by  any  power  however  small,  at  least  the 
limit  is  veiy  far  removed ;  but  although  a  very  slow  movement  may  thus  easily  be  obtained, 
the  sUghtest  increase  of  speed  causes  a  very  great  increase  of  resistance. 

The  resistance  to  a  body  moving  in  a  fluid,  arises  principally  from  the  striking  of  the  par- 
ticles of  the  fluid  against  the  front  of  the  moving  body,  so  that  if  the  speed  of  the  vessel 
be  increased,  not  only  does  it  encounter  a  proportionably  greater  number  of  pai-ticles,  but 
also  it  is  struck  by  each  witli  a  force  proportionate  to  the  velocity,  and  consequently  the 
resistance  is  found  to  increase  as  the  square  of  the  velocity ;  thus,  if  the  speed  of  the 
vessel  be  trebled,  the  number  of  particles,  or  the  quantity  of  water  which  it  meets  in  its 
progress  for  a  certain  space  of  time,  is  trebled,  and  the  resistance  of  each  particle  being 
also  three  times  zs  great,  owing  to  the  boats  striking  it  witli  treble  the  velocity,  the  uni- 
ted effect  is  nine  times  as  great ;  therefore,  if  in  the  first  instance  it  required  one  pound 
to  draw  the  vessel,  it  would  now  require  nine,  but  nine  times  the  weight  or  resistance, 
moved  at  tliree  times  the  velocity,  will  require  twenty-seven  times  the  quantity  of  power 
in  action  ;  consequently,  we  see  tliat  the  resistance  increases  as  tlie  square  of  the  velo- 
city, and  the  power  required  to  be  exerted  for  a  given  time  increases  as  the  cube  of  that 
velocity. 

There  are  some  other  causes  of  resistance,  which  do  not  vary  in  this  proportion,  but 
at  moderate  velocities ;  and  in  all  ordinary  cases  this  may  be  considered  as  a  tolerable 
approximation  to  the  real  law  of  tlie  increase,  and  shows  at  once  the  impossibility  of 
using  water  conveyance  where  speed  is  required.  The  draught  of  an  ordinary  canal 
boat,  at  the  velocity  of  2^  miles  per  hour,  is  about  _i_  of  its  weight,  tliat  is  to  say,  a 
canal  boat,  with  its  load  weighing  33  tons,  or  7,^,920  lbs.,  is  moved  at  the  rate  mentioned, 
by  a  force  equivalent  to  80lbs.,  being  _  l _  part  of  the  load.  This  is  found  by  Mr.  Bevan 
to  be  the  result  upon  the  Grand  Junction  Canal,  and  a  force  of  traction  of  SOlbs.,  is  here 
found  to  be  equivalent  to  a  horse  power.  The  average  power  of  an  ordinary  horse  is 
certainly  rather  more ;  and  in  the  commencement  of  this  paper,  we  mentioned  this  as 
an  instance  of  a  small  effect  beiu^  produced,  most  probably  owing  to  the  peculiar  ap- 

Slication  of  the  power.  We  believe  it  to  be  the  case,  and  think  it  likely,  that  if  the 
isadvantages  before  alluded  to,  arising  firom  the  mode  of  applying  the  power,  could  be 
removed,  the  effect  might  be  raised  to  lOOlbs.,  or  120  lbs.  of  traction,  and  consequently 
the  load  moved  would  then  be  40  or  50  tons  ;  this  is  an  increase  well  worthy  of  consi- 
deration. 

We  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  the  means  of  ti'ansport  employed  on  land. 
These  are  sledges,  rollers,  and  wheel  carriages.  The  order  in  which  they  are  here  men- 
tioned, is  probably  that  in  which  they  were  invented  or  first  employed.  A  sledge  is  cer- 
taiidy  the  rudest  and  most  primitive  form  of  vehicle  ;  the  wheeled  carriage,  and  even  the 
placing  the  load  itself  upon  rollers,  is  the  effect  of  a  much  more  advanced  state  of  the 
mechanical  arts,  and  is  probably  of  much  later  date  than  the  sledge. 

When  man  first  felt  the  necessity  or  the  desire  of  transporting  any  article  from  one 
spot  to  another,  he  doubtless  endeavored  to  lift  or  carry  it :  if  it  proved  too  heavy 
for  him  to  carry,  he  would  naturally  endeavor  to  drag  it.  Here,  frequent  experiments 
would  soon  show  him  how  much  less  labor  was  required  to  drag  a  body  with  a  smooth 
surface  in  contact  with  the  ground,  than  when  the  contrary  was  the  case  ;  and  if  the 
body  to  be  moved  did  not  itself  present  a  smooth  surface  on  any  of  its  sides,  but  was,  on 
the  contrary,  rough  and  angular  in  all  directions,  he  would  naturally  be  led  to  interpose 
between  it  and  the  ground  some  plane  surface  which  should  prevent  the  angles  and  pro- 
jections of  the  body  from  entering  the  ground  and  impeding  the  progress  ;  and  we  may 
presume  that  sledges  were  thus  very  early  brought  into  use.  When  attempting  to  trans- 
port still  heavier  masses,  the  accidental  pressure  of  round  stones,  or  a  piece  of  timber, 
may  have  shown  the  advantage  of  interposing  rolling  bodies,  and  thus  may  rollers  have 
been  invented  and  first  brought  into  use. 

These  steps  appear  natural  and  Hkely  to  have  led  to  these  results  ;  they  are  at  any 
rate  suflScient  to  account  for  the  first  introduction  of  these  two  means  of  facilitating 
transport,  but  no  steps  of  this  kind  appear  capable  of  leading  to  the  beautiful  yet  simple 
contrivance  of  a  wheel. 

A  roller  is  by  no  means  an  imperfect  wheel,  as  it  may  at  first  appear  to  be  ;  they 
have  nothing  in  common  but  their  rotatory  or  revolving  action,  but  the  effect  of  this  mo- 


320  THE  HORSE. 

tion  is  totally  different  in  the  two.  In  a  roller,  friction  is  avoided  altogther  by  it,  in  a 
wheel  it  exists  as  completely  as  in  a  sledge,  but  the  sliding  surfaces  being  at  the  centre 
of  the  wheel,  instead  of  on  the  ground,  are  always  the  same,  and  being  under  control, 
may  be  kept  in  that  state  which  shall  cause  as  Uttle  friction  as  posssble  :  moreover,  the 
friction  is  at  a  point  where  we  have  the  means  of  overcoming  it,  by  acting  with  the 
power  of  a  considerable  lever,  as  we  shall  hereafter  show. 

There  is,  indeed,  a  kind  of  roller,  which  partalces  somewhat  of  the  character  of  the 
wheel,  but  without  possessing  the  advantages  of  it. 

This  species  of  roller  may  have  been  an  intermediate  step  between  the  two,  and  we 
shall  therefore  describe  it,  when  we  have  dismissed  the  subject  of  sledges  and  rollers. 

In  England  sledges  are  at  the  present  time  very  little  in  use.  In  some  commercial 
towns  the  facility  with  which  bulky  and  heavy  aiticles  can  be  placed  upon  them  without 
being  raised  to  the  height  of  a  cai-t,  has  caused  them  still  to  be  employed,  but  even  in 
these  cases,  they  are  in  general  used  only  upon  the  pavement  where  the  friction  is  not 
considerable,  and  for  shoi-t  distances,  in  which  case,  the  saving  of  labor,  in  loading  and 
unloading,  more  than  compensates  for  the  increase  of  power  absorbed  by  the  draught. 
Low-wheeled  trucks  would,  however,  in  these  cases  possess  the  same  advantage,  and 
might  be  substituted  for  them,  if  this  advantage  is  so  indispensable  :  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses they  are  almost  become  obsolete,  and  for  aU  purposes  of  traffic  between  distant 
points,  they  are  quite  abandoned. 

It  is  only  in  the  north  of  England  and  in  some  parts  of  Cornwall,  that  they  are  some- 
times used  in  farms,  but  wherever  good  roads  exist  and  mechanical  ails  keep  pace  with 
the  improvements  of  the  age,  they  have  given  place  to  wheel  carriages.  An  examina- 
tion into  their  nature  and  action  will  immediate!)'  account  for  this. 

A  sledge  is  merely  a  frame,  generally  of  wood,  upon  which  the  load  is  placed,  and 
resting  at  once  upon  the  ground,  the  friction  between  the  under  surface  of  the  sledge  and 
the  ground  bears  a  considerable  proportion  to  the  load  ;  but  if  the  ground  be  very  uneven 
and  full  of  holes,  the  sledge,  by  extending  over  a  great  surface,  avoids  the  holes,  and 
slides  only  upon  the  eminences,  which  being  naturally  the  stones  or  tlie  hard  portions  of 
the  ground,  cause  less  friction  ;  on  such  a  road,  a  wheel  would  be  continually  sinking 
into  those  holes,  and  thus  oppose  considerable  resistance,  and  would  also  expose  the 
load  to  frequent  danger  of  upseting. 

It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  over  broken  ground,  or  even  upon  a  very  bad  uneven 
road,  a  sledge  may  be  more  advantageous  than  wheels,  and  its  extreme  simplicity  of 
construction  renders  it  very  economical  as  regards  first  cost ;  but  the  ground  must  indeed 
be  veiy  bad,  or  the  country  be  very  poor  and  httle  cultivated,  where  the  formation  of  roads 
would  not  amply  repay  themselves  by  allowing  the  use  of  wheels ;  for  the  power  re- 
quired to  dravv  a  loaded  sledge  will  be  at  least  four  or  five  times  greater  than  that 
required  for  an  equally  loaded  cart  upon  a  tolerable  good  road. 

The  draught  of  a  sledge,  even  upon  the  pavement,  is  about  one-fifth  of  the  load,  so  that 
to  draw  a  ton  weight,  requires  a  force  of  traction  of  about  four  hundred  weight ;  upon 
roads  the  friction  will  be  much  greater ;  it  is  difficult  to  state  its  amount,  as  it  must 
depend  so  much  upon  the  nature  of  the  ground,  but  with  the  load  before  mentioned,  viz. 
one  ton,  the  force  of  traction  will  probably  vary  from  five  to  seven  hundred  weight ;  over 
a  strong  rocky  surface  the  resistance  of  a  sledge  will  be  much  the  same  as  on  pavement. 
Its  use,  therefore,  must  be  confined  to  very  particular  cases,  where  the  absence  of  roads, 
or  the  want  of  means,  prevents  the  adoption  of  more  improved  vehicles  ;  and  these  cases, 
are  fortunately  too  rare  in  England  to  render  it  worth  our  while  to  bestow  much  time  upon 
its  description. 

Sledges  are  generally  formed  of  two  longitudinal  pieces  of  timber,  four  or  five  feet 
apart,  with  their  lower  edges  shod  with  iron  ;  and  transverse  planks,  bolted  to  these,  form 
the  floor,  and  they  are  thus  easily  constructed.  The  ti-aces  should  be  more  inclined  than 
with  wheeled  carriages,  because  the  friction  bearing  a  greater  proportion  to  the  load  it  is 
more  advantageous  to  throw  a  portion  of  that  load  upon  the  horse,  and  being  used  upon 
uneven  ground  it  is  more  important  to  be  able  to  lift  the  front  of  the  sledge  over  obstacles. 

Although  in  this  country  the  use  of  sledges  is  very  limited,  in  many  parts  of  the  world 
they  constitute  the  best,  and  indeed,  the  only  means  of  conveyance.  Upon  ice  the  fric- 
tion is  so  trifling  that  they  oppose  less  resistance  even  than  wheels,  for  the  reasons  before 
stated  of  their  covering  a  larger  surface,  and  thereby  sliding  over  those  asperities  which 
would  impede  the  progress  of  a  wheel ;  upon  snow  the  advantage  is  still  more  decided ; 
where  a  wheel  would  sink  a  considerable  depth  and  become  almost  immoveable,  a  sledge 
will  glide  upon  the  thin  frozen  crust  without  leaving  a  trace,  and  with  an  ease  truly  won- 
derful. In  all  cold  climates  they  are  consequently  in  general  use ;  and  the  depth  of  win- 
ter is  there  the  season  for  the  transport  of  merchandise. 

The  Esquimaux  with  their  dogs,  the  Laplanders  with  their  rein-deer,  and  the  Rus- 
sians with  horses,  use  the  sledge  to  a  great  extent  in  the  winter,  over  the  frozen  rivers  or 
the  hard  snow. 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


821 


In  the  wann  climates,  on  the  contrary,  not  only  are  they  now  almost  unknown,  but  the 
records  which  refer  to  periods  so  far  removed  as  3000  years  make  no  mention  of  such 
conveyance. 

Rollers  come  next  under  consideration ;  they  certainly  afford  the  means  of  transporting 
a  heavy  weight  upon  land  with  less  power  than  any  other  means  with  which  we  are 
acquainted  ;  their  motion  is  not  necessaril)'  attended  with  any  friction.  A  cylinder,  or  a 
sphere,  can  roll  upon  a  plane  without  any  rubbing  of  the  surfaces  whatever,  and  conse- 
quently without  friction  ;  and,  in  the  same  manner,  a  plane  will  roll  upon  this  roller  with- 
out friction ;  in  practice,  tliis  is  more  or  less  the  case,  according  to  the  perfection  of  work- 
manship in  the  formation  of  the  rollers,  and,  if  the  cylindrical,  the  care  with  which  they 
are  placed  at  right  angles  to  direction  at  which  they  are  to  move.  There  is  only  one  source 
of  resistance  which  is  inseparable  from  the  use  of  rollers,  viz.,  the  uneveness  of  the  sur- 
faces, or  the  yieldings  of  the  malerial,  which  amounts  to  nearly  the  same  thing. 

A  circle  resting  upon  a  straight  line  can  only  touch  it  in  a  single  point,  and  the  contact 
of  a  cylinder  with  a  plane  is  merely  a  line  ;  consequently,  if  the  material  of  the  roller, 
and  the  surface  on  which  it  rolled,  were  perfectly  hard  and  inelastic,  such  would  be  their 
contact,  whatever  weight  might  be  placed  upon  the  roller. 

But  in  practice  no  such  material  can  be  obtained,  and 
rollers,  on  the  contraiy,  are  generally  made  of  wood,  and 
when  loaded  they  must  yield  until  the  surface  A  B,  fig.  16, 
is  proportionate  to  the  pressure.  Still,  if  the  substance 
were  perfectly  elastic,  that  is  to  say,  if  it  would  return  to  its 
original  form  with  the  same  force  and  velocity  which  were 
required  to  distort  it,  this  alteration  would  not  cause  any 
resistance  ;  tlie  elasticity  at  E  would  tend  to  raise  the  back 
of  the  roller  wth  a  force  D  E,fig.  17,  equal  to,  and  exactly 
similar,  but  opposite  to  C  B.  and  would  consequently  bal- 
ance it. 

Although  pefect  elasticity  is  unattainable,  yet  most  hard 
substances  possess  this  quality  to  some  extent ;  conse- 
quently, when  the  load  is  not  sufficient  to  crush  the  vuiteri- 
als,  the  resistance  is  not  much  increased  by  even  a  consid- 
erable yielding, — provided  this  yielding,  as  we  have  before 
said,  arises  from  elasticity.  Thus  if  a  bladder  be  filled 
with  air  and  used  as  a  roller,  the  resistance  will  not  be 
greater  than  if  a  perfect  and  hard  cylinder  were  employed, 
althougfh  the  bladder  may  be  nearly  flattened  under  the 
weight ; — but  the  permanent  compression  of  the  roller  and 
the  crushing  of  dust  or  other  extraneous  substances  lying 
in  the  way  are  the  great  impediments  to  its  movement; 
these  constitute  a  resistance  in  the  direction  B  C,  which 
is  not  counterbalanced  by  any  force  arising  from  elasticity 
on  the  opposite  side.  The  effect  of  this  resistance  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  diameter  of  the  roller,  diminishing  when  the  latter  is  increased,  tliough 
not  in  so  rapid  a  proportion. 

If  A  B  C  be  a  circle,  let  a  horizontal  force  P  be  applied  at  G,  fig.  18  ;  if  an  obstacle  be 

placed  at  E,  the  force  P  will  tend  to  push  the  roller 
over  the  obstacle,  and  will  act  with  a  lever  equal  to  G 
F,  and  for  all  small  obstacles  G  F  may  be  considered 
equal  to  G  D  the  diameter.  The  weight  upon  the 
roller  pressing  it  down,  acts  with  a  lever  equal  to 

E  F  ;  but  E  F  is  equal  to  ^  G~F,  X  \/^  D^  there- 
fore E  r,  which  is  equal  to  F  D,  remaining  constant, 
and  the  diameter  being  increased,  E  F  increases  only 
as  the  square  root  of  diameter,  and  consequently 
the  force  necessary  to  advance  the  roller  is  inversely 
as  the  square  root  of  the  diameter  ;  that  is  to  say,  if 
a  roller  be  increased  four  times  in  diameter,  the  re- 
sistance arising  from  the  causes  now  under  consid- 

1 
eration  will  be  reduced  to or  one-half,  and  ifj 

1 

increased  nine  times  in  diameter,  the  resistance  will  be  only  equal  to or  one-third. 

This  being  the  only  source  of  resistance  to  the  action  of  a  roller,  it  will  easily  be 
41 


322 


THE  HORSE. 


conceived  that,  in  practice,  by  laying  a  plank,  or  any  other  plane  surface,  upon  the 
eround,  and  preparing  in  like  manner  the  lower  surface  of  the  body  to  be  moved,  and 
interposing  rollers  between  the  two,  a  very  great  weight  may  be  moved  with  com- 
paratively sm<dl  power ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  serious  practical  inconve- 
lence  attending  the  use  of  a  roller,  which  prevents  its  adoption  except  in  very  particular 
cases. 

A  weight  woved  upon  rollers  proceeds  at  twice  the  rate  of  the  roller,  for  if  C.  fig  19, 
"■      ' "  be  the  centre  of  the  roller,  D  the  point  of  contact  with  the 

ground,  and  E  that  with  the  weight  to  be  moved,  and  W 
the  weight,  if  this  weight  be  put  in  motion,  the  point  D  is 
for  an  instant  stationary,  since  it  is  in  close  contact  with 
the  ground.  The  diameter  E  C  D  moves,  therefore,  round 
the  point  D  as  a  centre,  and  consequently,  E  being  twice 
as  far  from  D  cis  C  is,  describes  E  e  twice  as  great  a  dis- 
tance as  C  c ;  fresh  points  are  now  brought  to  the  summit 
and  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  again  the  latter  is 
stationary,  while  the  former  moves  twice  the  distance 
which  the  point  C  does.  The  summit  therefore,  or  that 
point  which  is  in  immediate  contact  with  the  weight 
always  moves  with  twice  the  velocity  of  the  centre  of  the 
roller ;  but  the  velocity  of  the  centre  is,  of  course,  that  of 
the  roller  and  the  velocity  of  the  point  E,  which  is  incon- 
tact  with,  and  is  moved  by,  the  weight,  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  weight  moved ;  therefore,  as  the  weight  is  forced  forward,  it  moves  at  twice 
the  rate  of  the  roller,  it  will  gain  upon  the  rollers,  and  others  must  be  continually  sup- 
plied in  front — an  inconvenience  much  felt  in  practice. 

This  confines  the  use  of  the  roller  to  cases  where  the  distance  is  verj^-  short,  or  where 
the  weight  conveyed  is  exceedingly  great,  and  reduction  in  the  resistance  of  more  im- 
portance than  the  inconvenience  alluded  to. 

The  most  remarkable  instance  of  the  application  of  rollers  is  the  transport  of  the  rock 
which  now  serves  as  the  pedestal  of  the  equestrian  statue  of  Peter  the  Great  at  St.  Pe- 


tersburgh. 


Fig.  21. 


This  rock,  a  single  block  of  granite,  was  discovered  in  the  centre  of  a  bog,  four  miles 
from  the  water  side ;  it  weighed,  after  being  cut  into  a  convenient  shape,  1217  tons. 
Notwithstanding  its  enormous  weight  it  was  raised  and  turned  upon  its  side  and  placed 
upon  a  frame.  A  road  was  made  across  the  bog,  and  a  timber  railway  laid  down  ;  the 
whole  was  then  left  till  the  depth  of  winter,  when  the  boggy  ground  was  frozen  and  the 
operations  then  commenced.  The  railway  consisted  of  two  lines  of  timber  aa  a  a,  (Ags. 
20,  21,  22,)  furnished  with  hard  metal  grooves  ;  similar  and  corresponding  metal  grooves 
were  fixed  to  the  under  side  of  the  sledge,  and  between  these  grooves  were  placed  the 
rollers,  which  were  spheres  of  hard  brass,  about  six  inches  diameter.  The  impossibility 
of  confining  cylindrical  rollers  to  a  perfectly  parallel  direction,  and  \yithout  which  the 
friction  would  have  been  considerable,  rendered  the  adoption  of  spherical  roUers  or  baUa 
running  in  a  groove  a  matter  of  necessity,  as  otherwise  the  small  surface  upon  which  they 
can  bear,  and  the  consequent  danger  of  crushing,  or  at  least  flattening  that  surface,  is  a 
serioui  objection  to  spheres  ;  once  placed  upon  the  rollers,  it  was  drawn  by  means  ot 


ON  DRAUGHT. 
Ft.?.  22. 


823 


capstans.  The  resistance  does  not  appear  to  have  been  great,  considering  the  enormous 
weight,  since  sixty  men  at  the  capstans  with  treble  purchase  blocks  moved  it  with  ease. 
The  transport  of  this  enormous  rock  under  such  disadvantageous  circumstances  of 
country,  over  a  distance  of  four  miles,  and  its  subsequent  passage  of  thirteen  miles  by 
water  in  a  vast  cassoon  or  vessel  constructed  for  the  purpose,  was  a  work  suroassing 
any  tiling  of  the  sort  attempted  by  the  ancients,  and,  indeed,  in  modern  times  the  only 
thing  which  can  be  compared  to  it  is  the  dragging  a  ship  of  the  line  up  a  slip  ;  the  weight 
is  in  this  case  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  rock,  but  the  distance  traversed  is  short, 
and  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome  much  less.  A  plane  of  inclined  timber  is  prepared 
and  well  greased  ;  a  frame  of  wood,  technically  called  a  cradle,  is  fixed  under  the  vessel, 
it  is  floated  on  to  the  incline  plane  and  drawn  up  by  the  united  efibrts  of  a  number  of 
well-manned  capstans,  with  powerful  tackle  in  this  case  no  rollers  are  used  ;  it  is  a 
sledge,  the  surface  being  well  covered  with  grease  to  lessen  the  friction. 

We  have  stated  that  there  was  a  particular  construction  of  roller  which  might  be  con- 
sidered, as  regards  its  form  merely,  an  interme- 
diate step  between  the  roller  and  the  wheel. 
It  consists  of  a  roller  vrith  the  diameter  of 
the  extremities  increased  as  in  fig  23 ;  the 
only  advantage  of  this  roller  is  that  the  body 
rests  upon  the  small  part  of  the  roller,  see  fig. 
24,  and  when  put  in  motion,  will  not  gain  so 
rapidly  on  the  rollers ;  or  in  other  words,  the 
roller  will  move  with  more  than  half  the  ve- 
locity of  the  body.  A  mere  inspection  of 
fig.  25,  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the  velocity 
of  the  centre,  C,  will  be  to  that  of  the  body 
resting  on  the  point  B,  as  C  D  to  B  D,  so 
that  if  the  ends  of  the  rollers  are  twice  the 
size  of  the  intermediate  part,  C  D  will  be  equal 
to  two-thirds  of  B  D,  and  the  roller  will  move 
at  two-thirds  of  the  rate  of  the  body  ;  a  less 
number  of  rollers  are  therefore  required,  and 
the  resistance  is  somewhat  diminished  by 
having  larger  rollers  in  contact  with  the 
ground. 

In  using  a  roller  of  this  sort,  the  idea  may 
have  struck  the  workman,  or  it  may  have  oc- 
cured  accidentally,  to  confine  the  spindle  of 
the  roller,  and  compel  it  to  move  with  the 
body ;  and  thus  a  clumsy  pair  of  wheels, 
fixed  to  a  spindle,  would  have  resulted  from 
his  experiment.  Such  a  supposition  is  quite 
gratuitous,  as  we  have  no  record  of  any  such 
contrivance  having  existed  before  wheels  were 


Fig  25. 


324  THE  HORSE. 

made  ;  indeed  it  is  inferior  both  to  the  roller  and  the  wheel :  the  only  argument  in  favor 
of  such  a  theory  is,  that  rollers  of  this  sort  have  been  employed  in  comparatively  mo- 
dern times. 

At  Rome,  in  1588,  an  obelisk,  90  feet  high,  of  a  single  block  of  stone,  weighing  up- 
wards of  160  tons,  and  which  had  originally  been  brought  from  Egypt,  was  removed 
from  one  square,  in  which  it  stood,  to  another  in  the  Vatican,  and  there  again  erected  in 
the  spot  where  it  now  is. 

In  dragging  this  through  the  streets  of  Rome,  it  was  fixed  in  a  strong  frame  of  wood, 
which  rested  upon  a  smaller  frame,  which  were  furnished  each  with  a  pair  of  rollers,  or 
spindles,  of  the  form  above  referred  to ;  they  were  turned  by  capstan  bars  :  indeed  they 
cannot  be  better  described  than  by  stating  that  they  resembled  exactly  the  naves  of  a 

Eair  of  cart  wheels  (all  the  spokes  being  removed,)  and  fixed  to  a  wooden  axle.  If  a 
eavy  wagon  lay  upon  a  pair  of  these,  we  can  conceive  that  by  putting  bars  into  the 
mortices  of  the  naves,  we  could  force  th^in  round,  and  thus  advance  the  wagon ;  but 
the  resistance  would  evidently  be  greater  than  if  either  rollers  or  wheels  were  employed. 

All  the  difficulties  incidental  to  the  use  of  the  roller  appear  to  be  surmounted,  and  all 
objections  met,  by  the  contrivance  of  the  wheel. 

The  wheel  being  attached  to  the  load,  or  to  the  carriage  which  contains  it,  moves  with 
it,  is  part  of  the  machine,  and  consequently  as  we  require  only  the  number  of  wheels 
immediately  necessary  for  the  support  of  the  load,  we  can  atfbrd  to  construct  them  of 
those  dimensions  and  materials  best  suited  to  the  purpose.  By  increasing  their  diameter, 
we  are  enabled  to  surmount  impediments  with  much  greater  facility,  as  we  have  shown 
in  the  case  of  the  roller ;  and  although  there  is  a  resistance  arising  from  friction  at  the 
axle,  which  does  not  exist  in  the  roller,  yet  this  may  be  so  reduced,  by  increasing  the 
diameter  of  the  wheel,  as  to  form  an  inconsiderable  part  of  the  whole  resistance,  or 
draught  of  the  carriage. 

Of  the  first  introduction  of  the  wheel  we  have  no  record  whatever.  The  principle 
appears  to  us  so  simple  as  to  have  been  necessarily  the  result  of  pure  invention,  almost 
inspiration ;  while  at  the  same  time,  it  is  so  exceedingly  efiective  and  perfect,  as  hardly 
to  admit  of  improvement. 

The  great  antiquity  of  wheeled  carriages  or  chariots  precludes  all  hopes  of  discovering 
their  origin.  About  fifteen  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era  they  appear  to  have 
been  in  common  use  amongst  the  Egyptians  in  the  warfare.  Pharaoh  despatched  six 
hundred  chosen  chariots  in  pursuit  of  the  Israelites,  immediately  that  he  was  informed 
of  their  escape,  while  the  rest  of  the  cu-ray  followed  with  all  the  chariots  of  Egypt :  here, 
therefore,  they  were  in  constant  use,  and  serving  as  the  cavalry  of  the  present  day. 

Moreover  the  oldest  records  which  enter  into  any  detail  of  their  construction  described 
them  in  a  very  forward  and  perfect  state. 

At  the  siege  of  Troy,  nearly  tliree  thousand  years  ago,  they  formed,  according  to 
Homer,  the  cavalry  of  the  Greeks  and  Trojans  ;  and  every  officer  or  hero  of  good  blood 
possessed,  at  least,  a  pair  of  horses  and  a  charioteer. 

These  chariots  being  built  to  run  over  broken  ground,  where  no  roads  existed,  were 
made  low  and  broad,  and  they  were  by  no  means  badly  contrived  for  the  purpose  for 
which  they  were  intended ;  the  wheels  were  constructed  with  a  nave  and  spokes,  felloes 
and  tires ;  and  the  pole,  a,  appears  to  have  been  fixed  on  the  axle-tree,  b,  in  the  manner 
shown  in  fig.  26.    The  body  of  the  chariot  was  placed  upon  this  frame.    The  team 

Fig.  26, 


generally  consisted,  as  we  have  before  stated,  of  a  pair  of  horses,  attached  to  the  pole  ; 
six  and  even  a  greater  number  of  horses  were,  however,  frequently  harnessed  abreast, 
but  in  that  case  a  second  pole  was  generally  affixed  to  the  axletree,  so  as  to  have  a  pair 
of  horses  attached  to  each  pole,  and  the  axletrees  themselves  were  always  made  nearly 
as  long  as  the  whole  width  occupied  by  the  horses. 


ON  DRAUGHT.  325 

They  appear  to  have  had  light  chariots  for  more  tlompstic  purposes,  and  four-wheeled 
carriages  lor  conveyance  of  heavy  goods  ;  and  certainly  King  Priain,  when  he  went  to 
the  Grecian  camp  to  ransom  the  body  of  his  son  Hector,  traveled  with  some  degree  of 
comfort  and  luxury  :  he  rode  himself  in  a  beautiful  new  built  traveling  carriage,  drawn  by 
favorite  horses,  while  the  ti'easures,  intended  as  a  ransom,  were  conveyed  in  a  four- 
wheeled  wagon  drawn  by  mules.  All  these  details,  as  well  as  the  mode  of  harnessing 
the  horses,  which  operation,  it  must  be  confessed,  was  performed  by  Priam  himself  ana 
his  sons,  are  fully  described  in  the  twenty-fourth  book  of  the  Iliad. 

That  Homer  was  well  acquainted  with  the  construction  of  the  spoked  wheel  running 
freely  upon  the  axletree,  and,  perhaps,  even  with  the  mode  of  hanging  tlie  body  of  the 
carriages  upon  straps,  for  springs,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  public  coaches  are  to  this 
day  in  many  parts  of  France,  and  even  in  the  neighborhood  of  Paris,  is  evident  from  the 
passage  in  which  he  describes  Juno's  chariot.  He  there  says,  while  Juno  was  putting 
the  golden  bits  to  the  horses,  Hebe  fastened  on  the  wheels  to  the  iron  axles.  "  These, 
wheels  had  eight  brazen  spokes,  and  the  felloes  were  of  gold,  and  the  tires  of  brass." — 
"  The  seat  was  fastened  with  gold  and  silver  cords." 

This,  of  course,  gives  us  Homer's  ideas  of  perfection  in  a  chariot. 

All  the  epithets  which  could  convey  ideas  of  swiftness,  were  applied  to  these  chariots 
and  to  the  horses,  but  we  have  no  positive  information  as  regards  the  real  velocity  with 
which  they  would  travel :  as  roads  were  scarce,  and  probably  at  best  merely  tracks,  much 
could  not  be  expected  from  vehicles  constructed  under  such  circumstances  ;  the  wheels 
were  small,  from  20  to  30  inches  diameter,  and  all  the  parts  of  the  chariots  excessively 
heavy,  so  as  to  resist  the  repeated  shocks  to  which  they  were  subject. 

The  chariots  represented  upon  the  Frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  before  alluded  to,  and  which 
is  probably  upwards  of  2200  years  old,  are  very  light  in  their  construction,  and  only  want 
springs  to  be  called  gigs. 

The  advancement  of  all  the  branches  of  the  mechanical  arts  has  necessarily  introduced 
many  improvements  in  the  details  of  the  construction  of  the  wheel  itself,  as  well  as  in 
that  of  the  axle  and  the  rest  of  the  carriage,  and  by  this  means  no  doubt  increased  very 
greatly  the  use  and  advantage  of  it ;  but  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  these  improvements 
nave  been  confined  exclusively  to  the  workmanship  and  mechanical  detail,  and  that  the 
principle  has  remained  exactly  the  same,  and  has  not  even  received  any  wddition  during 
this  immense  lapse  of  time. 

Upwards  of  3000  years  ago,  the  wheels  appear  to  have  been  independent  of  each  other 
and  running  upon  fixed  axles ;  we  can  say  no  more  of  tlie  most  improved  wheel  of  tlie 
most  finished  carriage  of  the  present  day. 

We  are  far  from  intending  to  cast  any  slight  upon  modern  invention,  or  to  compare  the 
groaning  axletrees  and  creaking  wheels  of  the  ancients  with  the  noiseless  CoUinge's  axles 
of  the  nineteenth  century ;  but  truth  compels  us  to  acknowledge  that  a  period  of  thirty 
centuries,  more  than  half  the  time  which  is  supposed  to  have  elapsed  since  the  creation 
of  the  world,  has  produced  no  radical  change  nor  brought  into  action  any  new  principle 
in  the  use  of  the  wheel  as  applied  to  carriages. 

The  particular  form  and  construction  of  the  wheel,  as  well  as  of  all  the  other  parts  of 
the  carriage,  however,  admit  of  great  variety,  and  the  draught  is  materially  affected  by 
their  variation.  We  shall,  therefore,  after  examining  the  action  of  wheels  in  general, 
describe  the  mode  of  construction  now  adopted,  and  then  endeavor  to  point  out  the  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  of  the  various  forms  which  have  been  given  to  the  difierent 
parts  of  it. 

First  let  us  examine  the  theory  of  it,  and  suppose  it  acting  on  a  level  plain. 

The  wheel  being  a  circle,  the  centre  will  remain  always  at  the  same  height,  and  conse- 
quently will  move  parallel  to  the  plane  in  a  perfectly  level  line  :  if  any  weight  be  attached 
to  or  suspended  from  its  centre,  tnis  will  also  move  in  a  continued  straight  line  without 
rising  or  falling,  and  consequently  when  once  put  in  movement,  there  is  nothing  to  check 
its  progress  (neglecting  for  the  moment  the  slight  resistance  of  the  air,)  and  it  will  re- 
quire no  force  to  keep  it  in  motion  so  long  as  the  wheels  continue  to  turn. 

We  have  therefore  in  this  case  only  to  examine  into  the  force  necessary  to  turn  the 
wheels.  The  wheels,  if  left  to  themselves,  would  roll  on  with  perfect  freedom,  whatever 
might  be  their  weight,  or  whatever  weight  might  be  attached  to  them,  provided  nothing 
in  the  mode  of  attaching  that  weight  impeded  meir  revolution  ;  but  in  practice  we  cannot 
admit  of  the  load  revolving  with  the  wheel,  and  we  have  no  means  of  suspending  it  to 
the  wheel,  except  by  means  of  an  axle  fixed  to  the  load,  and  passing  through  the  centre 
of  the  wheel.  This  axle  presses  upon  the  lower  surface  of  the  hole,  and  consequently 
when  the  wheel  revolves  causes  a  friction  proportionate  to  the  load  upon  the  axle.  This 
friction  is  then  the  only  source  of  resistance  to  the  motion  of  a  wheel,  under  the  circum- 
stances here  supposed  ;  and  it  is  the  action  of  this  friction,  the  degree  in  which  it  affects 
the  draught,  and  by  what  means  this  eifcct  is  increased  and  diminished,  that  we  are  now 
about  to  consider. 


D 


326  THE  HORSE. 

Let  C,  fig.  27,  be  the  centre  of  a  wheel,  of  which 
C  D  is  the  radius,  and  C  A  that  of  the  axle  passing 
through  the  wheel,  and  which  being  fixed  to  the  load 
does  not  revolve  with  the  wheel. 

If  a  force  C  B  be  applied  to  the  centre  of  the 
wheel,  tending  to  advance  it  in  the  direction  B,  the 
point  D  being  in  contact  with  the  ground,  the  wheel 
IS  compeled  to  turn  or  roll,  and  the  force  C  B  in 
turning  the  wheel  acts  with  a  leverage  equal  to  C  D, 
but  the  friction  between  the  axle  and  the  wheel  is 
at  the  point  A,  and  in  preventing  the  turning  of  the 
wheel  it  acts  only  at  the  extremity  of  the  lever  C  A ; 
consequently  if  C  D  be  ten  times  as  great  as  C  A, 
the  force  C  B  need  only  be  equal  to  one-tenth  of  the  amount  of  the  friction,  and,  as  a 
general  nile,  the  radius  of  the  axle,  and  the  friction  remaining  the  same,  the  force  neces- 
sary to  overcome  the  resistance,  arising  from  this  friction,  will  be  inversely  as  the  radius 
or  the  diameter  of  the  wheel,  or,  in  other  words,  the  draught  will,  in  this  case,  diminish  ex- 
actly in  proportion  as  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  is  increased. 

The  exact  ainount  of  resistance  occasioned  by  friction  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of 
the  substances  in  contact  at  the  axle,  as  well  as  upon  the  proportionate  dimensions  of  the 
wheel  and  axle. 

The  friction  between  polished  surfaces  bears  a  certain  proportion  to  the  pressure  :  if 
the  pressure  is  doubled,  the  friction  will,  within  certain  limits,  be  also  doubled  ;  but  the 
proportion  between  the  friction  and  the  pressure  is  only  constant  so  long  as  the  same  sub- 
stances are  employed :  it  varies  very  much  with  different  substances.  Thus,  with  soft 
wood  sliding  upon  soft  wood  the  friction  amounts  to  one-fourth  or  one-third  of  the  pres- 
sure, while  between  hard  brass  and  iron,  the  surfaces  smooth  and  oiled,  the  resistance 
may  be  as  low  as  _i_  of  the  pressure.  The  relative  advantages,  therefore,  of  different  ma- 
terials, as  applied  to  the  axle  and  box  of  a  wheel,  is  a  point  of  much  consequence. 

Metals,  generally  speaking,  are  the  best  adapted  for  this  purpose.  Owing  to  their  hard- 
ness, the  friction  between  them  is  small,  and  they  will  bear  without  injury  a  greater  pres- 
sure, proportionably  to  the  surface  ;  and,  from  their  strength,  the  axle  may  be  of  much 
smaller  dimensions  than  if  made  of  wood ;  and  we  have  proved  that  a  reduction  in  the 
diameter  of  the  axle  causes  a  proportionate  reduction  in  the  resistance  caused  by  friction. 
In  consequence  of  these  advantages,  iron  or  steel  axles,  working  in  iron  boxes,  are  now 
almost  universally  adopted.  The  friction  in  this  case,  when  the  parts  are  in  proper  order, 
greased,  and  the  pressure  upon  them  not  excessive,  amounts  to  about  one-eighth,  or,  at  the 
most,  one-fifth  of  the  pressure  or  weight ;  suppose  it  one-sixth,  and  if  the  diameter  of  the 
wheel  is  to  that  of  the  axle  as  18  or  20  to  1,  which  is  about  the  proportion  in  a  large  two- 
wheeled  cart,  the  whole  resista  ce  arising  from  friction  at  the  axle  will  be  equal  to  i  of 
1    or  of  Ji_  which  is  equal  to  _1_  and  _i_  respectively.     So  that  to  move  one  ton 

iT  20  ^  108  120  ^-^ 

would  not,  in  the  latter  case,  require  a  force  ot  traction  greater  than  IS^lbs.;  and  having 
overcome  this  resistance,  the  force  of  traction  required  remains  nearly  the  same  at  all 
velocities  ;  that  is  to  say,  friction  is  not  materially  affected  by  velocity  :  therefore  the  re- 
sistance arising  from  it  is  not  sensibly  augmented  by  a  considerable  increase  in  the  speed. 
In  practice,  however,  the  fi:iction  at  the  axle  is  far  from  being  the  geatest  impediment  to 
the  motion  of  a  carriage.  We  have  hitherto,  for  the  purpose  of  considering  friction  alone, 
supposed  the  surface  upon  which  the  wheel  moved  as  perfectly  hard,  smooth,  level,  and 
plane  :  we  need  hardly  say  that  such  can  never  be  the  case  in  a  road.  The  firiction,  how- 
ever, remains,  practically  speaking,  the  same,  and  the  laws  which  govern  the  amount  and 
the  effects  of  it  remain  unaltered  ;  and  we  have  only  to  ascertain  what  is  the  additional 
resistance,  arising  from  other  sources,  to  obtain  the  whole  draught  of  the  carriage.  We 
have  already  stated,  when  pointing  out  the  difference  between  the  roller  and  the  wheel, 
that  the  movement  of  the  latter  was  attended  with  two  sources  of  resistance,  viz.,  fric- 
tion at  the  centre,  which  we  have  considered,  and  another,  which  is  common  botli  to 
the  wheel  and  the  roller,  arising  from  impediments  in  the  road,  or  the  yielding  of  the 
materials. 

The  laws  which  affect  the  amount  of  this  latter  are,  of  course,  the  same  in  a  wheel 
as  in  a  roller. 

We  have  found  that  the  power  required  to  overcome  it  is  inversely  as  the  square  root 
of  the  diameter ;  therefore,  by  increasing  the  diameter  of  the  wheel,  the  effect  of  friction, 
which  is  inversely  as  the  diameter,  diminishes  much  more  rapidly  than  that  caused  by 
impediments  in  the  roads  ;  and  on  ordinary  roads,  with  common  carts,  the  amount  of  the 
latter  is  about  three  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  former,  and  when  the  roads  are  at  all 
i&jured  bv  weather  or  by  neglect,  or  if  they  are  naturally  heavy  or  sandy,  it  bears  a  much 


ON  DRAUGHT.  327 

greater  proportion.  A  light  four-wheeled  cart,  weighing,  with  its  load,  lOOOlbs,*  was 
repeatedly  drawn  upon  dinerent  sorts  of  roads,  the  average  of  a  number  of  experiments 
gave  the  following  results : 

Description  of  Road.  Force  of  Traction  required 

to  move  the  Carriage. 

Turnpike  road, — hard,  dry         ...  SO^lbs. 

Ditto  dirty       ....  39 

Hard,  compact  loam  .....         53 

Ordinary  by-road 106 

Turnpike  road — new  graveled    ...  143 

Loose,  ScUidy  road      .....  204 


The  friction  at  the  axles,  which  were  of  wood,  was,  of  course,  nearly  constant,  and 
probably  absorbed  at  least    i     of  the  weight,  or  12^1bs.  of  the  force  of  traction,  leaving, 

therefore,  for  the  resistance  caused  by  the  road  in  the  different  cases,  as  under — 


Description  of  Road  Force  of  Traction  required  to  move  tlie  Carriage, 

independent  of  the  Friction  at  the  Axles. 

Turnpike  road — hard,  dry,  about     -        .         -         18  lbs. 

Ditto  dirty 26^ 

Ditto  new  graveled  ...       130^ 

Loose,  sandy  road  .        -        .        .        .        .19l| 

so  that  in  the  last  case,  one  by  no  means  of  rare  occurrence  in  many  parts  of  the  country, 
the  portion  of  draught  immediately  caused  by  the  slate  of  the  roads  was  ten  times  as 
great  as  on  a  good  tmiipike  road,  and  about  fifteen  times  as  great  as  that  which 
arose  from  friction  at  the  axles.  It  would  be  hopeless  to  attempt  to  remedy  this 
by  increasing  the  size  of  the  wheel :  the  experiment  was  made  witli  wheels  of  the 
ordinary  size.  To  double  their  diameter  would  evidently  be  attended,  in  practice,  with 
insurmountable  difficulties  ;  and  yet,  even  if  this  were  effected,  it  would  barely  reduce 
the  total  amount  of  the  draught  by  one-fourth  ;  but  tlie  form  of  the  wheel  may  materially 
influence  the  state  of  the  road,  we  shall,  therefore,  proceed  to  consider  the  various  forms 
employed. 
Some  years  ago,  when  the  principal  turnpike  roads  of  the  kingdom  were  at  many 

f)arts,  at  particular  seasons  of  tne  year,  in  little  better  condition  than  that  on  which  the 
ast  experiment  was  tried,  various  attempts  were  made  to  reduce  the  resistance,  by  using 
narrow  wheels.  These  attempts,  and  the  laws  which  it  was  found  necessary  to  enact  to 
prevent  the  entire  destruction  of  the  roads,  led,  at  last,  to  curious  results,  having  gradu- 
ally caused  the  introduction  of  the  worst-formed  wheel  which  could  probably  be  invented, 
either  as  regards  increasing  the  draught  or  the  destruction  of  the  roads. 

To  understand  these  alterations  clearly,  we  must  describe  the  principal  features  of  tlie 
wheel  now  in  use. 

The  general  construction  of  it  presents  a  striking  instance  of  strength  arising  from  the 
judicious  union  of  substances  of  very  different  qualities — wood  and  iron. 

A  strong  circular  frame  of  wood,  composed  of  different  segments,  called  felloes,  is 
bound  together  by  a  hoop,  or  several  hoops  of  iron,  called  tires,  which  thus,  at  the  same 
time  that  it  gives  great  strength,  protects  the  outer  surface  from  wear. 

The  nave,  a  circular  blocK  of  wood,  is  sustained  in  the  centre  of  this  frame  by  the 
spokes,  which,  instead  of  being  in  the  plane  of  the  felloes,  form  a  cone  :  this  is  cedled 
the  dishing  of  the  wheel.  The  object  of  it  is  to  give  stiflhess,  to  resist  laterial  shocks, 
as  when  the  wheel  slips  sideways,  into  a  rut  or  hole.  A  reference  to  a  comparative 
view  of  the  wheel,  with  and  without  dishing,  will  more  clearly  explain  our  meaning. 
Fig.  28,  is  a  wheel  with  the  spokes  all  in  one  place  :  fig.  29,  a  wheel  with  a  considerable 
degree  of  dishing. 


*  The  experiment  was  not  made  with  a  load  of  exactly  lOOOlbs.,  but  the  proportions  of 
the  results  are  calculated  to  this  standard.  The  public  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Bevan  for 
these  as  well  as  a  great  number  of  other  highly  useful  and  practical  experiments  upon 
the  effects  of  power  in  various  cases. 


THE  HORSE. 

Fig.  28. 


Here  it  is  evident  that  a  small  pressure  on  the  nave  in^.  29,  vpould  have  a  tendency  to 
push  It  through,  and  would  meet  with  but  little  resistance.  In  fig.  .30,  on  the  contrary, 
this  iorce  would  be  opposed  at  once  by  the  direction  of  the  spokes,  which  form  an  arch, 
or  dome,  that  cannot  be  flattened  without  bursting  the  felloes,  or  tires.  The  dishing, 
therefore,  gives  the  wheel  a  very  great  degree  of  stiffness  and  strength,  which  it  would 
not  otherwise  possess. 
In  consequence  of  this  conical  form,  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  lower  spokes  which 
^^S-  30.  ^^^T^  support  the  weight  as  vertical  as  possible,  has  required 

that  the  whole  wheel  should  be  placed  oblique,  and  the 
axle  bent  downwards,  as  in  fig.  30  :  this,  as  we  shall 
hereafter  show,  is  attended  with  very  serious  evils.  As 
a  wheel  is  intended  to  roll  upon  the  ground,  without 
friction,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  outer  surface 
of  the  tires  should  be  cylindrical,  as  it  is  the  only  form 
which  admits  of  the  wheel  rolling  freely  in  a  straight 
line  ;  but  it  is  nevertheless  the  form  of  this  surface,  its 
breadth,  and  the  degree  of  dishing  which  have  varied 
so  much  from  the  causes  before  mentioned,  viz.,  the 
state  of  the  roads,  and  to  the  consideration  of  which 
we  will  now  return. 

A  road,  however  much  neglected  and  out  of  repair, 
will  generally  have,  at  a  certain  depth,  a  hard  bottom ; 
above  this  will  be  a  coat  of  mud  of  loose  stuff,  more  or  less  deep,  according  to  the  material 
used,  and  the  frequency  of  repair  or  the  quantitj'  of  wet  to  which  it  may  oe  exposed.  It 
is  sinking  through  this,  until  it  reaches  the  hard  bottom,  that  causes  the  resistance  to  the 
progress  of  the  wheel :  whether  the  wheel  be  wide  or  narrow,  it  must  squeeze  or  gi-ind 
its  way  to  the  bottom  of  this  mud  ;  a  narrow  wheel  evidently  displaces  less,  and  therefore 
offers  less  resistance.  The  great  object  of  carriers,  then,  was  very  naturally  to  place  as 
great  a  load  as  they  could  upon  wheels,  which  were  as  nan-ow  as  possible,  consistent  with 
the  necessary  strength. 

■  It  was  soon  perceived  that  the  entire  destruction  of  the  roads  would  be  the  consequence 
of  this  very  system,  which  had  its  origin  in  the  bad  state  of  the  roads.  A  certain  width 
of  tire  proportionate  to  the  load  was  therefore  required  by  law.  The  endeavor  to  evade 
this  law  was  the  cause  of  the  absurd  form  of  wheel  we  are  about  to  describe  and  to 
condemn. 

In  apparent  obedience  to  the  law,  the  felloes  of  the  wheels  were  made  of  an  excessive 
Fig.  31.  breadth ;  but  to  retain  the  advantages  of  the  narrow  wheel, 

the  middle  tire  was  made  to  project  so  far  beyond  the  others, 
(see  fig.  31,)  that  it  in  fact  constituted  the  wheel,  the  others 
being  merely  to  give  a  nominal,  and  not  a  real  width.  The 
enormous  loads  which  it  was  found  advantageous  to  place  on 
these  wheels  rendered  it  necessary  to  give  them  a  considera- 
ble degree  of  dishing,  to  resist  lateral  shocks,  and,  besides, 
the  carriers  were  by  this  means  enabled  to  give  a  great  width 
of  floor  to  the  carriage,  still  keeping  the  vehicle  in  the  com- 
mon tracks  or  ruts,  so  that  the  wheels  ultimately  assumed  the 
form  represented,  fig.  32. 
If  such  a  machine  had  been  constructed,  for  the  express 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


329 


purpose  of  grinding  the  materials  of  the  road  to  powder,  or  of  serving  as  a  check,  or  drag, 
to  the  wagon,  it  might,  indeed,  have  been  judicious,  but  as  a  wheel  it  was  monstrous. 
Fig.  32.  Yet  tliis  is  the  form  of  wheel  upon  which  the  contra- 

dictory opinions  refered  to  in  the  first  page  of  this 
treatise,  were  given  before  a  Committee  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  A  carrier  of  Exeter  advocated  these 
wheels,  and,  in  support  of  his  opinion,  adopts  them 
to  this  day.  But  a  few  days  ago  we  saw  one  of  his 
wagons  with  wheels  which,  although  only  about 
twelve  inches  wide,  were  six  inches  smdler  at  the 
outside  than  at  the  inside.  Such  a  cone,  if  set  a 
rolling  and  left  to  itself,  would  run  round  in  a  circle 
of  little  more  than  twenty  feet  diameter.  What  must 
be  the  grinding  and  the  fjiction,  then,  when  it  is  con- 
stantly compeled  to  go  on  in  a  straight  line  ?  yet 
enough  has  been  written  and  said  upon  this  subject 
to  convince,  we  should  imagine,  tlie  most  prejudiced 
of  the  absurdity  of  the  system. 
We  shall  repeat  tlie  principal  arguments  which  were  made  use  of  at  the  time  of  the 
inquiry  mentioned. 

Mr.  Cummins  took  great  pains,  by  constructing  models,  to  show  that  conical  wheels 
Fig.  33.  were  not  adapted  for  rolling  in  a  straight  line 

by  making  a  small  conical  wheel  run  over 
longitudinal  bars,  as  in  fig.  33.  It  was  seen 
that  if  the  middle  part  of  the  tire  rolled  upon 
the  centre  bar  without  moving  it,  the  bar  A 
was  pushed  backwards,  while  the  bar  C  was 
pushed  forwards  ;  clearly  showing  if,  instead 
of  sliding  bars,  the  wheel  had  moved  upon  a 
road,  how  much  it  must  have  ground  the  road. 
and  what  a  small  portion  of  the  tire  was  truly 
1-olling. 

That  such  must  have  been  the  case  is,  in- 
deed, easily  proved  without  a  model.  We  will 
talve  only  three  diiferent  parts  of  the  wheel 
and  consider  them  as  independent  hoops  of 
diiferent  diameter ;  if  these  hoops  are  com- 
peled to  go  the  same  number  of  revolutions 

S'"     /     /    ~~  ^'^^  large  one  will  evidently  gain  upon  the 

P^^li    y^-  second,  while  tlie  third  will  beleft  far  behind. 

filiill/''''^  Now,  if,  instead  of  being  independent  of  each 

other,  they  be  fixed  to  the  same  axle,  and  compeled  to  revolve  together,  the  large  bone  not 
being  able  to  advance  faster  than  the  others,  must  tear  up  the  ground.  The  smaller  one, 
on  the  contraiy,  being  dragged  forward  faster  than  it  would  naturally  roll,  must  drag  up  the 
ground  ;  and  this  is  what  must  take  place,  and  does,  with  any  but  a  cylindrical  wheel, 
and  that  to  a  very  considerable  extent.  ; 

Suppose,  for  instance,  a  conical  wheel,  of  an  average  diameter  of  five  feet;  that  is  to 
say,  that  the  centre  advances  about  fifteen  feet  to  every  revolution  of  the  wheel.  If  the 
inner  tire  be  six  inches  larger  in  diameter  than  the  outer  tire,  the  circumference  of  it  will 
be  about  eighteen  inches  greater ;  therefore,  at  each  revolution  of  the  wheel  the  inner 
tire  would  naturally  advance  eighteen  inches  more  than  the  outer  tire  :  but  they  are  com- 
peted to  go  over  the  same  distance  of  ground.  The  one  or  the  other,  therefore,  must 
have  disturbed  the  ground,  or,  what  is  nearer  the  truth,  upon  every  fifteen  feet  run  of  road, 
the  former  has  passed  over  nine  inches  less  ground  than  the  development  of  its  circum- 
ference, the  latter  nine  inches  more — the  one  pushing  back  the  ground,  the  otlier  dragging 
it  forward. 

Every  child  Icnowsthat  the  front  wheel  of  a  carnage  goes  oftener  round  than  the  hind 
wheel.  If  then,  the  front  wheel  were  obliged  to  make  only  one  revolution  to  every  revo- 
lution of  tlie  other,  but  still  impeled  at  the  same  rate,  it  must  be  partly  dragged  over  the 
road.  If  these  wheels  be  placed  side  by  side,  instead  of  one  being  in  fi-ont  of  the  other, 
the  effect  must  be  the  same.  Now,  suppose  them  to  be  the  outer  and  inner  tire  of  the 
same  wheel,  the  circumstances  are  not  thereby  altered  ;  the  smaller  circle  and  the  larger 
circle  cannot  both  roll  upon  the  ground.  A  conical  wheel  is  then  constantly  twisting  the 
surface  upon  which  it  rests,  and  hence  arises  a->vei'y  considerable  resistance,  as  well  as 
destruction  to  the  roads. 

If  these  arguments  are  not  suflicient  to  decide  the  point  completely,  let  the  reader  bear 
in  mind  simi>ly,  that  a  cone,  when  left  to  itself,  will  always  roll  in  a  circle.     The  frus- 

42 


330 


THE  HORSE. 


Fig.  35. 


trum  of  a  cone,  AB,  Jig.  34,  is  only  a  portion  of  the  entire  cone,  ABC,  which  will  roll 

round  the  point  C ;  if  this  entire 
Fig.  34.  cone  be  completely  severed  at  the 

point  B,  the  two  parts  will  still  con- 
tinue to  roll  round  the  same  point, 
and  if  the  portion  BC  be  now  ab- 
stiacted,  the  motion  of  the  remain- 
der will  not  be  altered.  If  a  wine- 
glass or  decanter,  any  thing  which 
IS  not  of  the  same  size  at  the  two 
parts  which  are  in  contact  witli  the 
surface  on  which  it  rests,  be  rolled 
upon  a  table,  those  who  are  not  al- 
ready too  familiar  with  the  fact  to 
require  an  illustration  of  it,  will  im- 
mediately see  the  truth  of  this  state- 
ment. If  then,  a  wheel  thus  form- 
ed would  naturally  quit  the  straight 
line  ;  when  compeled  to  follow  it, 
it  is  clear  that  exactly  the  same 
effect  must  be  produced  as  when  a 
cylindrical  mill-stone,  as  infig.  35, 
which  would  proceed  in  a  straight 
line,  is  compeled  to  follow  a  cur- 
ved line,  and  is  constantly  twisted 
round  the  centre  C,  it  would  grind 
every  thing  beneath  it  to  powder. 
Yet  these  traveling  grindstones 
have  been  in  use  upwards  of  twenty  years,  to  the  destruction  of  tlie  roads,  and  at  a  great 
expense  of  power  to  those  who  have  persisted  in  employing  them. 

The  increased  strain  upon  the  axles,  from  this  constant  tendency  of  the  wheel  to  be 
twisted  outwards,  with  the  consequent  friction,  is  a  source  of  resistance  absorbed  and 
rendered  comparatively  inconsiderable,  by  the  far  greater  friction  on  the  ground  ;  but  it 
is  not  the  less  a  cause  of  great  increase  of  draught,  and  the  union  of  all  these  serious  dis- 
advantages justifies,  we  think,  our  assertion,  that  such  a  wheel  is  as  injudicious  a  con- 
bivance  as  could  possibly  be  invented.  We  trust  they  will  not  long  continue  to  disgrace 
our  wheelwrights,  and  injure  our  roads. 

We  hope  that  none  of  our  readers  will  consider  tliat  we  have  wasted  our  arguments 
upon  a  point  too  self-evident  to  require  proof  In  reply  to  this,  however,  we  will  state 
that,  at  the  last  meeting  of  the  parties  interested  in  the  management  of  a  considerable 
portion  of  a  principal  road  in  the  middle  of  England,  the  question  was  considered,  and  it 
was  agreed  to  encourage  the  use  of  conical  wheels,  as  at  least  equal  to,  if  not  superior 
to  cylindrical  ones,  by  allowing  them  to  run  at  a  less  toll  than  that  required  by  act  of  Par- 
liament. 

The  cylindrical  form  is  the  only  one  which  ought  to  be  admited.  As 
a  wheel  must,  however,  always  be  liable  to  sink  a  little  into  the  road, 
and  cannot  be  expected  always  to  bear  perfectl)'  flat  upon  tlie  ground, 
the  surface  of  the  tires  should  be  slightly  curved,  and  the  edges  rounded 
oif,  as  in  Jig.  36.  As  the  rounding  is  rendered  necessaiy  by  the  yield- 
ing of  the  road,  its  degree  must  depend  upon  the  state  of  the  road,  and 
the  form  of  the  wheel  may  approach  more  nearly  to  the  true  cylinder,  in 
proportion  as  the  roads  approach  nearer  to  perfection  in  point  of  hard- 
ness and  flatness.  When  the  roads  are  good,  a  very  little  dishing  will  be 
sufllcient,  and  a  slight  incUnation  of  the  wheel  from  the  vertical  will 
make  it  correspond  with  the  beirrel  or  curve  of  the  road,  which  is  now 
generally  very  trifling. 

Next  to  the  form,  the  breadth  of  the  wheel  is  the  point  requiring 
most  consideration  ;  it  is  one,  however,  which  depends  entirely  upon 
the  state  of  the  road. 

We  have  seen,  that  the  displacement  or  crushing  of  the  materials 
forming  the  upper  surface  of  the  road  is  one  of  the  principal  causes  of 
resistance.  If  the  whole  mass  of  the  road  were  formed  of  a  yielding 
substance,  into  which  the  wheel  would  sink  to  a  depth  exactly  propor- 
tionate to  the  weight  bearing  upon  it,  it  is  probable  that  gi-eat  breadth 
would  be  advantageous,  so  that  the  wheel  might  form  a  roller,  tending 
to  consoUdate  the  materials  rather  than  cause  any  permanent  displacement;  but,  in  the 
improved  state  of  modern  roads,  it  may  safely  be  considered  that  such  is  never  the  case 


Fig.  36. 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


331 


A  road  as  we  have  before  stated,  always  consists  of  a  hard  bottom,  covered  with  a  stra- 
tum, more  or  less  thick,  of  soft,  yielding  material.  A  wheel,  even  moderately  loaded, 
will  force  its  way  through,  and  form  a  rut  in  this  upper  coating.  The  resistance  will  be 
nearly  proportionate  to  the  breadth  of  this  rut ;  the  depth  of  it  will  not  increase  in  the 
ratio  of  tiie  pressure.  In  considering,  then,  simply,  the  case  of  a  single  wheel  or  a  pair 
of  wheels  forming  two  distinct  ruts,  it  is  evident  that  it  should  form  as  narrow  a  rut  as 
possible,  but  that  it  should  not  in  any  degree  crush  or  derange  the  core  or  hard  basis  of 
the  road.  When  a  rut  is  thus  formed,  a  small  track  or  portion  of  the  road  is  for  a  time 
rendered  clean  and  hard,  and  consequently  capable  of  bearing  a  greater  load  than  before, 
and  with  less  injury.  It  is,  then,  highly  important  in  a  four-wheel  carriage  that  the  hind 
wheels  should  follow  exactly  in  the  track  of  the  front  wheels.  If  rollers  were  neces- 
sary for  the  road,  as  if,  for  instance,  it  was  merely  a  bed  of  clay,  then  indeed,  but  only  in 
such  a  case,  would  it  be  judicious  to  cause  the  wheels  to  run  in  different  tracks,  as  has 
been  proposed,  and  was  carried  into  effect  under  the  encouragement  of  an  act  of  parlia- 
ment. Such  wheels  were  called  sti'addlers  ;  they  might  have  been  necessary  tools  for  the 
preservation  of  such  roads  as  then  existed,  but  the  increased  draught  soon  taught  the 
public  to  evade  the  law  which  encouraged  them. 

Mr.  Deacon,  one  of  the  principal  carriers  in  England,  in  an  excellent  practical  work 
on  wheel-carriages,  published  in  1810,  describing  these  wheels,  says,  "  If  the  axle  of  a 
six-inch  wheel  is  of  that  length  to  cause  the  hind  wheels  to  make  tracks  five  inches  out- 
side, the  tracks  of  the  fore-wheels,  and  nine-inch  wheels  seven  inches  outside,  they  are 
then  called  straddlers,  and  are  allowed  to  carry  a  greater  weight  than  if  not  so.  The 
original  intent  of  these  was  most  excellent ;  but  the  effect  has  been  defeated  by  the  car- 
rier or  other  person  not  only  making  the  bed  or  axle  contrary  to  what  was  intended,  but 
also  by  carrying  with  them  a  false  collar,  with  a  joint  therein,  to  put  on  and  take  off  at 

Eleasure  ;  so  that  they  have  no  great  difficulty  in  making  the  wheels  straddlers  a  little 
efore  they  come  to  a  weighing  machine,  and  making  them  not  so  when  they  have  pass- 
ed the  same." 

On  modern  roads  such  an  arrangement  would  hardly  be  beneficial  even  to  the  road 
itself,  and  would  nearly  double  the  amount  of  draught. 

Too  great  care  and  precaution  cannot  be  taken  to  insure  the  wheels  running  in  the 
same  track.  Let  it  be  remembered  that,  on  a  good  road,  the  forming  the  rut  is  the  cause 
of  three-fourths,  and  oftener  five-sixths  of  the  whole  resistance.  Narrow  wheels,  there- 
fore, running  in  the  same  track,  without  doubt  ofi'er  the  least  resistance,  provided  there 
•s  surface  sufficient  to  bear  the  weight,  without  destruction  to  the  foundation  of  the  road. 

Six  inches  in  breadth  of  the  flat  or  cylindrical  part,  a  b,  fig.  36,  independent  of  the 
rounded  edges,  will  be  quite  sufficient,  in  a  wheel  of  ordinary  size,  to  bear  a  ton  without 
injury  to  the  roads,  if  in  good  condition  ;  and  according  as  the  weight  upon  each  wheel 
is  more  or  less  than  this,  the  breadth  should  be  proportionably  increased  or  diminished. 

While  upon  the  subject  of  wheels,  it  may  be  as  well  to  state  the  several  new  modes  of 
consti'ucting  wheels  lately  introduced,  which  severally  possess  their  merits  and  disadvan- 
tages.    The  last  improvement  is  that  known  under  the  name  of  "  Jones"  patent  wheels. 

It  consists  in  making  the  felloe  of  a  single  ring  of  cast  iron.  The  nave,  which  is  also 
of  cast  iron,  is  suspended  in  the  centre  by  eight  wrought  iron  rods  :  these  rods  are  crossed 
or  alternately  dished  inwards  and  outwards,  to  give  stifihess,  which  is  thus  obtained 
without  affecting  the  cylindrical  form  of  the  whole. 

Fig.  .37.  Fig.  38. 


332 


THE   HORSE. 


Fig.  37  and  38,  represent  different  views  of  this  wheel,  F  F  being  the  cast  iron  felloe, 
S  S  the  spokes,  and  N  tlie  nave. 


These  wheels  have  been  adopted  to  a  great  extent  in  London,  and  tlierefore  we  may- 
conclude  that  they  are  found  to  answer ;  but  they  are  expensive,  and  not  easily  repaired, 
except  at  the  original  manufactory,  and  therefore  we  should  think  are  not  so  well  adapted 
for  agricultural  as  for  commercial  purposes,  and  in  a  large  town  where  the  means  of  re- 
pair may  be  at  hand. 

The  most  simple  innovation  upon  the  original  wooden  wheel  is  the  cast  iron  nave. 
This  we  should  think  must  be  much  less  liable  to  wear  than  the  wooden  nave,  which  is 
literally  honeycombed  with  the  mortices  for  the  spokes ;  and  a  wheel  of  this  sort  can 
be  repaired  by  the  most  ordinary  wheelwright,  provided  he  has  one  of  the  castings  at 
hand. 

We  should  strongly  recommend  that  these  naves  should  be  made  with  a  double  row 
of  sockets  for  the  spokes,  so  as  to  cross  the  dishing  of  them  in  the  same  manner  as 
those  of  the  wrought  iron  wheels  described  above  ;  and  we  think  they  would  then  form 
a  strong,  durable,  and  economical  wheel.  There  might  be  some  danger  from  the  effects 
of  wet  or  damp  remaining  in  the  cast  iron  sockets,  and  attacking  the  wood;  but  we 
should  think  a  small  hole  bored  into  the  socket  to  allow  the  moisture  to  escape,  and 
common  precaution  in  painting  these  parts,  would  prevent  any  evil  consequences. 

With  respect  to  the  size  of  wheels,  we  have  shown  that  wheels  of  large  dieimeter  cer- 
tainly offer  less  resistance  than  small  ones  ;  but  expense  and  weight  cause  a  limit  to  this. 
From  4  ft.  9  in.  to  5  ft.  6  in.  is  a  good  size  for  cart-wheels,  and  is  about  the  limit  where 
any  great  increase  of  diameter  would  cause  more  inconvenience  and  expense  than 
would  be  compensated  for  by  any  advantage  gained ;  and  if  much  less  in  diameter  than 
this,  the  draught  is  unnecessarily  augmented. 

Yet  the  front  wheels  of  a  wagon  are  always  below  this  standard,  rarely  exceeding  four 
feet,  and  frequently  much  less.  This  is  a  serious  evil  attending  the  use  of  four  wheels; 
it  is  an  arrangement  originally  made  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  front  wheels  to 
lock  under  the  body  of  the  wagon,  which  may  thus  turn  in  a  small  space. 

Now  it  rarely  happens  that  a  wagon  is  required  to  turn  short  round,  and  it  cannot  cause 
any  serious  inconvenience  if  it  be  rendered  altogether  incapable  of  doing  so. 

In  this  respect  a  great  improvement  has  taken  place  within  a  few  years.  In  the  place 
of  those  moving  mountains  which  were  formerly  dragged  slowly  along  upon  immensely 
heavy  and  broad,  but  low,  wheels,  we  now  see,  particularly  on  the  roads  leading  north- 
ward from  London,  a  great  number  of  light,  well-built  wagons,  with  much  larger  wheels, 
especially  the  front  wheels,  which,  instead  of  being  small  enough  to  turn  under  the  floor 
of  the  wagon,  are  about  four  feet  six  inches  in  diameter.  As  those  wagons  ai'e  used  only 
on  the  road,  and  ai-e  never  required  to  turn  in  a  small  compass,  but  a  very  small  action 
is  allowed  to  the  fore-axle,  and  the  floor  and  body  of  the  wagon  is  continued  from  end  to 
end  of  nearly  the  same  width. 

A  wagon  with  part  of  the  floor  and  body  cut  away,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  recess  for 
the  front  wheels  to  turn  into,  allows  of  all  the  movements  that  can  be  required,  except  in 
the  crowded  streets  of  a  town,  and  by  this  arrangement  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the 
front  wheel  being  made  of  large  diameter,  as  in  the  case  just  described.  Our  present 
object,  however,  is  not  to  enter  into  a  detailed  description  of  how  we  should  build  a 
wagon,  but  simply  to  recommend  the  use  of  large  front  wheels,  as  tending  much  to 
diminish  the  draught.  An  intelhgent  wheelwright  will  always  know  how  to  construct 
a  wagon  so  as  to  admit  of  tliis. 

The  consideration  of  the  subject  of  the  wheels  naturally  includes  that  of  the  compara- 
tive advantages  of  two-wheeled  and  four-wheeled  carriages.  Upon  this  point  opinions 
differ  as  much  as  upon  any  of  those  we  have  already  considered ;  and  we  fear  that  we  are 
not  likely  to  do  more  than  to  arrange  the  different  opinions  given  by  others,  without 


ON  DRAUGHT.  33S 

advancing  any  of  our  own.  If  we  sncceed,  however,  in  doing  this  clearly  we  shall 
have  done  much,  because  we  may  thus  enable  each  individual  to  separate  those  argu- 
ments which  apply  particularly  to  his  own  case  ;  and  combining  these  opinion^  with  his 
own  judgment,  he  will  be  more  likely  to  arrive  at  a  just  conclusion  than  if  he  were  alto- 
gether unaided  by  the  experience  of  others 

The  advocates  of  hght  two-wheeled  carts  assert  that  a  horse  working  alone  is  capable 
of  performing  more  work  than  when  fonning  one  of  a  team  ;  and  that  in  consequence  of 
this  increased  effect,  there  is  a  saving  of  expense  nearly  in  the  proportion  of  three  to 
two,  or  one-third. 

The  advocates  for  wagons  assort,  on  the  conti'ary,  that  it  requires  that  each  horse  in 
a  single-horse  cart  should  be  of  a  superior  quality,  and,  therefore  more  expensive  than 
those  of  a  team,  where  the  average  power  only  is  considered  ;  that  the  wear  and  tear, 
first  cost,  and  expense  of  attendance  of  several  small  carts,  is  greater  than  that  of  a  wagon 
carrying  the  same  load,  and  that  in  consequence  there  is  an  economy  obtained  by  the 
latter  in  a  proportion  of  about  four  to  three. 

Numbers  of  facts  and  the  results  of  long  experience  are  adduced  on  either  side,  all  of 
which  convey  much  useful  information,  and  the  substance  of  the  whole  appears  to  be, 
that  with  light  single-liorse  two-wheeled  carts,  good  horses  are  able  to  draw  greater 
loads,  and  do  more  work  in  proportion  than  a  wagon  team  ;  that  these  carts  are  easier 
loaded  and  unloaded;  do  less  injury  to  the  roads,  and  that  they  do  not  require  more 
horses  in  action  than  are  suthcient  for  the  work  to  be  performed. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  found  tliat  the  horses  must  be  stronger  and  better  fed  ;  that 
being  entirely  dependant  on  their  own  exertions,  although  doing  more  work,  they  are 
more  fatigued,  and  sooner  knocked  up ;  that  on  rough  roads  they  are  liable  to  be  skaken 
and  injured  by  the  sudden  movements  and  shocks  of  the  cart,  all  of  which  are  conveyed 
by  the  shafts  directly  to  the  horse ;  that  in  ascending  or  descending  hills  the  whole 
weio;ht  being  above  the  axle-tree,  it  destroys  the  balance,  and  is  thrown  too  much  upon 
the  horse  in  the  former  case,  or  tends  to  raise  him  from  the  ground  in  the  latter,  which 
even  if  any  alteration  of  the  balance  be  found  advantageous,  is  exactly  the  contrary  of 
what  would  be  necessary. 

That  with  a  wagon — the  average  power  of  several  horses  is  obtained — horses  of  infe- 
rior quality  may  therefore  be  used  ;  they  are  not  so  much  fatigued,  because  by  relieving 
each  other  they  can  alternately  exert  themselves  or  relax.  Greater  loads  can  be  carried 
with  less  attendance  of  drivers,  and  they  are  less  liable  to  accidents  ;  they  are  easier 
withdrawn  from  any  hole,  or  forced  over  any  obstruction,  because  only  half  the  load 
being  upon  each  pair  of  wheels,  the  whole  force  of  the  team  is  applied  successively 
to  each  half  of  the  load,  consequently  in  any  bad  road  the  power  occasionally  required 
is  less,  although  the  draught  of  the  carriage,  properly  spf  aking,  is  greater  than  that  of  a 
two-wheeled  cart.  These  various  arguments  would  appear  to  lead  to  the  conclusion, 
that  upon  good  roads,  and  for  short  distances,  with  good  liorses,  two-wheeled  single- 
horse  carts  are  the  best ;  but  that  with  inferior  roads  and  ordinary  horses,  light  four- 
wheeled  wagons,  with  a  team  of  three  or  four  horses,  are  the  most  advantageous. 

Two-wheeled  carts  with  two  horses  are  decidedly  inferior  to  either  of  these :  the 
shaft  horse  suffers  all  the  inconveniences  complained  of  in  the  single-horse  cart,  and  the 
leader  does  not  produce  more  effect  than  when  in  a  wagon  team. 

It  is  impossible  to  decide  generally  upon  the  comparative  merits  of  the  different  ar- 
rangements, because  the  result  depends  entirely  upon  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 

We  may,  however,  endeavor  to  unite  in  some  degree  the  advantages  claimed  by  both. 
The  draught  of  a  cart  is  less  than  that  of  a  wagon  for  several  reasons  :  amongst  others, 
because  the  wheels  are  larger  and  the  horse  produces  more  effect,  because  his  force  is 
applied  immediately  to  the  resistance.  A  light  wagon  with  large  front  wheels  would 
not  be  much  inferior  in  point  of  draught  to  the  cart,  and  two  horses  abreast  in  double 
shafts  would  work  with  equal  advantage  to  the  single  horse  ;  while  an  additional  horse 
may  always  be  applied  when  an  excessive  load  or  the  state  of  the  roads  should  require  it. 

AH  that  we  have  said  with  respect  to  the  size  and  contrivance  of  wheels  is  equally 
applicable  to  light  carriages  as  to  heavy,  and  we  shall  now  proceed  to  consider  the  difier- 
ent  modes  of  placing  the  loads  upon  the  wheels. 

It  might  appear  at  first  sight  chat  this  would  not  affect  the  amount  of  the  draught ;  that 
provided  a  weight  to  be  moved  were  placed  upon  the  wheels,  and  the  wheels  put  in  mo- 
tion, that  nothing  more  could  be  required.  Upon  a  perfectly  level  smooth  plane,  and 
with  a  constant  force  of  traction,  this  would,  indeed,  be  the  case  ;  but,  in  practice,  the 
conditions  are  entirely  altered.  Impediments  are  continually  met  with  which  ob- 
struct the  progress  of  the  wheels,  and  the  draught  is  constantly  varying  by  the  different 
inclinations  of  the  road :  it  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  study  the  means  by  which  impedi- 
ments can  be  easiest  overeome,  and  by  which  the  resistance  thus  caused  will  afiect  the 
animal,  which  is  the  source  of  power,  in  the  least  disadvantageous  manner. 

We  have,  in  the  commencement  of  this  treatise,  proved,  that  impetus  is  necessary  to 


334 


THE  HORSE. 


overcome  an  obstruction,  and  that  elasticity  in  the  direction  of  the  movement  is  destructive 
of  the  full  effect  of  impetus. 

When,  therefore,  the  wheel  of  a  carriage  comes  in  contact  vv^ith  any  impediment,  it  is 
most  essential  ttiat  the  whole  of  the  impetus  or  momentum  which  the  carriage  has  already 
obtained,  should  be  brought  into  full  action,  to  force  the  wheel  forward.  To  effect  this, 
no  elasticity  should  intervene  between  the  wheel  and  the  load,  at  least,  in  the  direction 
of  the  motion  that  is  longitudinally ;  otherwise,  as  we  instanced  in  the  case  of  catching 
a  cricket-ball,  a  force  which  would  be  quite  irresistible  if  opposed  by  a  rigid  resistance, 
is  checked  with  ease  by  a  very  little  degree  of  elasticity  ;  so  with  a  wheel  meeting'a  small 
stone,  if  the  load  were  so  placed,  or  hung  upon  the  wheels,  as  to  allow  free  or  elastic 
action  longitudinally,  that  is,  in  the  direction  of  the  movement,  the  wheel  being  stopped 
against  the  stone,  the  whole  load  would  be  gradually  checked,  and  brought  to  a  full 
stop  ;  whereas,  if  this  same  load  had  been  fixed  firmly  to  the  wheel,  its  impetus  would 
have  carried  the  wheel  over  the  stone,  with  very  little  loss  of  velocity. 

In  the  first  case,  it  would  be  necessary  for  the  horses  to  drag  the  load  over  the  stone  by 
m£iin  force  ;  in  the  latter,  they  would  only  have  to  make  up  by  degrees  for  the  loss  of 
velocity  which  the  mass  had  sustained  in  passing  over  the  stone.  The  quantity  of  power 
required  will  indeed  be  the  same  in  either  case  ;  but  in  the  one,  the  horses  must  exert  it 
in  a  single  effort,  while  in  the  other,  this  momentary  exertion  is  borrowed,  as  it  were,  from 
the  impetus  of  the  mass  in  motion,  and  being  spread  over  a  greater  space  of  time,  as  fai- 
as  the  horses  are  concerned,  only  augments  in  a  small  degree  the  average  resistance.  It 
is  thus  that  the  fly-wheel  of  a  steam-engine  in  a  rolling-mill,  accumulates  power,  some- 
times for  several  minutes,  till  it  is  able  to  roll,  with  apparent  ease,  a  large  mass  of  metal, 
which,  without  the  effect  of  the  fly-wheel,  would  stop  the  engine  immediately;  or,  to 
mention  a  case  more  to  the  point,  in  the  operation  of  scotching  a  wheel,  a  large  stone, 
and  even  a  brick,  will  render  almost  immoveable  a  wagon,  which,  when  in  motion,  would 
pass  over  the  same  stone,  without  any  sensible  alteration  of  speed.  It  is  most  essential, 
therefore,  that  the  effect  of  the  momentum  of  the  load  should  in  no  way  be  reduced  by 
any  longitudinal  elasticity,  arising  either  from  the  injudicious  application  of  springs,  or 
weakness  in  the  construction  of  the  carnage. 

The  action  of  impetus,  and  the  effect  of  an  injudicious  mode  of  hanging  the  load,  is 
of  course  more  sensible  at  high  than  at  low  velocities,  and  in  a  carriage  hung  upon  springs, 
than  in  a  wagon  without  springs,  but  although  not  so  sensible  to  the  eye,  it  nevertheless 
affects  the  draught  materially  even  in  the  latter  case.  Carriages  hung  upon  springs,  as 
in  fig.  39,  which  are  called  C  springs,  and  which  admit  of  very  considerable  longitudinal 

Fig.  39. 


movement  in  the  body  of  the  carriage,  are  notoriously  the  most  heavy  to  pull ;  and  cabno- 
lets  which  are  hung  in  this  manner,  are  expressively  called  in  the  stable,  horse  murderers, 
and  require  heavy  powerful  horses  to  drag  them,  while  lighter  animals  are  able  to  drag 
much  greater  weights  in  Stanhopes  and  spring-carts,  which  do  not  admit  of  this  elasticity 
This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  the  draught  of  a  two-wheeled  cart  is  less  than  that  ot 
a  wao-on.  In  a  cart  the  horse  pulls  at  once  on  the  shafts,  which  are  fixed  immediately 
both  to  the  load  and  to  the  axletree,  so  that  not  only  the  impetus  ol  the  load,  but  also  ot 
the  horse,  acts  directly  and  without  elasticity  upon  the  wheel.  In  a  wagon,  owing  to  the 
smallness  of  the  front  wheels,  there  is  a  considerable  space  between  the  fore-axle  and 
the  floor  of  the  wagon,  which  is  filled  up  with  pieces  of  timber,  called  bolsters,  this  admits 
of  considerable  play  in  the  parts,  and  except  in  new  built  or  very  strong  wagons,  there  is 


ON  DRAUGHT,  835 

never  that  firm  connexion  between  the  load  and  the  wheels,  which  we  have  stated  to  be 
necessary.  Large  wheels  would  bring  the  axletrees  much  nearer  the  floors  of  the  wagons, 
and,  therefore,  admit  of  a  much  stronger  and  firmer  mode  of  attachment,  which  would 
be  found  to  produce  a  very  considerable  ellect  in  diminishing  the  draught. 

We  have  been  very  particular  in  confining  our  observations  to  longitudinal  elasticity, 
or  yielding  in  the  direction  in  which  the  power  is  applied,  and  in  which  the  progressive 
movement  takes  place ;  because,  elasticity  in  any  other  direction,  instead  of  increasing 
the  draught,  tends  very  much  to  diminish  it.  Let  us  suppose  the  load  placed  upon  per- 
fectly easy  springs,  which  allow  it  to  move  freely  in  every  direction,  except  longitudinally, 
when  any  one  of  the  wheels  comes  in  contact  with  a  stone,  the  elasticity  of  the  spring 
will  allow  it  to  run  over  the  stone  without  sensibly  raising  the  load  which  is  upon  it,  and 
the  force  which  is  required  to  pull  the  wheel  over  the  stone,  will  be  restored  again  by  the 
descent  of  the  wheel  from  the  stone,  which  will  tend  to  impel  the  mass  forward,  with 
exectly  the  same  force  as  was  required  to  draw  it  up  to  the  top  of  this  impediment ;  with- 
out this  elasticity  it  would  be  necessary  to  raise  the  whole  load  with  a  sudden  jerk,  and 
thus  instantaneously  impart  rapid  movement  to  the  whole  mass,  which  would  absorb  much 
power,  and  which  would  by  no  means  be  returned  by  the  load  falling  down  from  the  stone. 
We  see,  therefore,  that  the  use  of  springs  is  to  enable  the  wheels  to  rise  and  fall  accord- 
ing to  the  inequalities  of  the  ground,  while  the  load  continues  one  constant  equable  mo- 
tion. The  advantages  of  this  action  are  very  clearly  pointed  out,  in-a  letter  addressed  to 
the  Committee  on  the  Highways  of  the  Kingdom,  by  Mr.  D.  Giddy,  and  given  in  the 
Appendix  to  their  first  report,  printed  in  the  year  1808  ;  and  this  letter  explains  so  clearly, 
and  in  such  few  words,  the  whole  theory  of  wheels,  as  well  as  springs,  that  we  think  we 
cannot  do  better  than  quote  it  at  length. 

"  Taking  wheels  completely  in  the  abstract,  they  must  be  considered  as  answering  two 
different  purposes. 

"  First,  They  transfer  the  friction  which  would  take  place  between  a  sliding  body,  and 
the  rough  uneven  surface  over  which  it  slides,  to  the  smooth,  oiled  perijiheries  of  the  axis 
and  box,  assisted  by  a  leverage  in  the  proportion  of  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  to  the  axis. 

*'  Secondly,  They  procure  mechaniceJ  advantage  for  overcoming  obstacles,  by  intro- 
ducing time  proportioned  to  the  square  roots  of  their  diameters,  when  the  obstacles  are 
small  as  compared  with  the  wheels ;  and  they  pass  over  transverse  ruts  or  hollows, 
small  in  the  same  comparison,  with  an  absolute  advantage  proportioned  to  their  diame- 
ters, and  a  mechanical  one  proportionate  to  the  square  roots  of  these  diameters. 

"  Consequently,  wheels  thus  considered,  cannot  be  too  large ;  in  practice,  however, 
they  are  limited  by  weight,  by  expense,  and  by  experience. 

"  With  reference  to  the  preservation  of  roads,  wheels  should  be  made  wide,  and  so  con- 
stnicted,  that  the  whole  breadth  may  bear  at  once  ;  and  every  portion  in  contact  with  the 
ground,  should  roll  on  without  any  sliding. 

"  It  is  evident  from  the  well-known  properties  of  the  cycloid,  that  the  above  conditions 
cannot  all  unite,  unless  the  roads  are  perfectly  hard,  smooth,  and  flat ;  and  the  felloes  of 
the  wheels,  with  their  tire,  are  accurate  portions  of  a  cylinder.  These  forms,  therefore, 
of  roads  and  wheels,  would  seem  to  be  asymptotes,  towards  which  they  should  always 
approximate,  but  which,  in  practice,  they  are  never  likely  to  reach. 

"  Roads  must  have  some  degree  of  curvature  to  throw  off  water,  and  the  peripheries 
of  wheels  should,  in  tliere  transverse  section,  be  as  nearly  as  possible  tangents  to  this 
curve  ;  but  since  no  exact  form  can  be  assigned  to  roads,  and  they  are  found  to  differ 
almost  from  mile  to  mile,  it  is  presumed,  that  a  small  transverse  convexity  given  to  the 
peripheries  of  wheels,  otherwise  cylindrical,  will  sufiiciently  adapt  them  to  all  roads  ;  and 
that  the  pressure  of  such  wheels,  greatest  in  the  middle,  and  gradually  diminishing  to- 
wards the  sides,  will  be  less  likely  to  disarrange  ordinary  materials,  than  a  pressure  sud- 
denly discontinued  at  the  edges  of  wheels  perfectly  flat. 

"  The  spokes  of  a  wheel  should  be  so  arranged,  as  to  present  themselves  in  a  straight 
line  against  the  greatest  force  they  are  in  common  cases  likely  to  sustain.  These  must 
evidently  be  exerted  in  a  direction  pointed  towards  the  carriage,  from  lateral  percussions, 
and  from  the  descent  of  either  wheel  below  the  level  of  the  other :  consequently,  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  wliat  is  termed  dishing,  must  be  advantageous,  by  adding  strength  ;  whilst 
this  form  is  esteemed  useful  for  protecting  the  nave,  and  for  obviating  the  ill  effects  of 
expansions  and  contractions. 

"The  line  of  traction  is  theoretically  best  disposed,  when  it  lies  exactly  parallel  to 
the  direction  of  motion ;  and  its  power  is  diminished  at  any  inclination  of  that  line,  in 
the  proportion  of  the  radius  of  the  wheel  to  the  cosine  at  the  angle.  When  obstacles 
frequently  occur,  it  had  better,  perhaps,  receive  a  small  inclination  upward,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  acting  with  most  advantage  when  these  are  to  be  overcome.  But  it  is  probable, 
that  different  animals  exert  their  strength  most  advantageously  in  different  directions  ; 
and,  therefore,  practice  alone  can  determine  what  precise  inclination  of  the  hne  is  best 
adapted  to  horses,  and  what  to  oxen.    These  considerations  are,  however,  only  applica- 


336  THE  HORSE 

ble  to  cattle-drawiiiff  immediately  at  the  carriage  ;  and  the  convenience  of  their  draft, 
as  connected  with  the  insertion  of  the  line  of  traction,  which  continued,  ouglit  to  pass 
through  the  axis,  introduces  anotlier  limit  to  the  size  of  the  wheels. 

"  Springs  were  in  all  likelihood  first  applied  to  carriages,  with  no  other  view  than  for 
the  accommodation  of  travellers  :  they  have  since  been  found  to  answer  several  impor- 
tant ends.  They  convert  all  percussions  into  mere  increase  of  pressure ;  thus  preserv- 
ing both  the  carriage  and  the  materials  of  the  roads  from  the  effect  of  blows ;  and  small 
obstacles  are  surmounted  when  springs  allow  the  frame  and  wheels  freely  to  ascend, 
without  sensibly  moving  the  body  of  the  caniage  from  its  place. 

"  If  the  whole  weight  is  supposed  to  be  concentrated  on  springs  very  long,  extremely 
flexible,  and  with  the  frame  and  wheels  wholly  devoid  of  inertia,  this  paradoxical  con- 
clusion will  inost  certainly  follow ;  that  such  a  carriage  may  be  drawn  over  the  roughest 
road  without  any  agitation,  and  by  the  smallest  increase  of  force. 

"  It  seems  probable  that  springs,  under  some  modification  of  form  and  material,  may 
be  apj)licable  with  advantage  to  the  heaviest  wagon." 

And  there  can  be  no  doubt,  that,  in  the  words  of  the  writer,  the  application  of  springs 
would  be  highly  advantageous.  At  high  velocities,  as  we  have  before  said,  the  efiect 
of  springs  is  still  greater.  What  we  have  instanced  as  regards  springs,  is  generally  well 
known  and  understood.  All  stage-coaches,  and  many  traveling  carriages,  hang  upon 
grasshopper  springs,  which  allow  of  perpendicular  without  any  longitudinal  action.  It 
would  be  much  to  the  interests  of  horse  masters  if  the  mode  of  suspending  post-chaises 
were  a  little  more  attended  to.  The  more  elasticity,  or  in  other  words,  the  more  action, 
there  is  in  grasshopper  springs,  the  more  effect  will  it  produce  in  diminishing  the 
draught :  witn  a  C  spring  a  very  contrary  effect  is  produced. 

A  carriage  hung  upon  C  springs  may  certainly  be  made  the  most  comfortable  to  the 
rider,  but  all  the  ease  that  can  be  required,  and  much  more  than  is  found  in  the  gene- 
rality of  post-chaises,  may  be  obtained  by  well  constructed  grasshopper  springs,  and  with 
considerable  advantage  to  the  horses. 

The  practice  of  loading  coaches  as  high  as  possible  to  make  them  run  light,  as  the 
coachmen  have  found  by  experience,  is  only  a  mode  of  assisting  the  springs.  The  mass 
being  placed  at  a  greater  height  above  the  wheels,  acting  at  the  extremity  of  a  longer 
lever,  is  not  so  easily  displaced  laterally  by  any  motion  of  the  wheels,  which,  therefore, 
may  rise  and  fall  on  either  side  as  they  run  over  the  stones,  without  producing  any  sudden 
concussions  upon  the  load,  which  swings  to  and  fro  with  long,  easy  movements  ;  it  is  pro- 
bable also,  that  the  weight,  being  thus  swung  from  side  to  side,  may,  upon  good  roads, 
diminish  the  draught,  as  it  is  in  fact  generally  running  upon  two  of  the  wheels  ;  while,  in 
the  other  direction,  it  equally  admits  of  the  front  and  hind  wheels  successively  passing 
over  any  impediments ;  and  yet,  by  the  manner  in  which  it  is  fixed  upon  the  springs,  it 
does  not  admit  of  any  longitudinal  elasticity. 

The  fact  of  coaches  thus  loaded  running  light  has  been  clearly  proved  by  the  failure  of 
what  were  called  Safety  Coaches,  in  which  the  only  difference  consisted  in  placing  the 
load  very  low.  These  coaches,  although  completely  answering  their  purpose  of  safety, 
were  discontinued  solely,  we  believe,  from  their  being  found  destructive  of  the  horses. 

Experiments,  nevertheless,  have  been  made  to  prove  that  this  was  only  an  idle  prejudice 
of  coachmen  ;  but  universally  received  opinions,  even  if  leading  to  erroneous  conclusions, 
which  is  hardly  possible,  must  always  have  some  good  foundation  ;  and  coachmen  although 
they  may  not  have  been  so  much  so  at  the  time  these  experiments  were  published  (in 
1817,)  are  certainly  now  rather  an  intelligent  class  of  men.  We  should,  therefore,  prefer 
risking  a  theory,  if  a  theory  were  necessaiy,  in  support  of  their  prejudices  rather  than  in 
opposition  to  them.  The  experiments  alluded  to  were  not,  in  our  opinion,  made  under 
the  circumstances  which  occur  in  practice.  Small  models  (tlie  wheels  being  seven  inches 
in  diameter)  were  drawn  along  a  table  across  which  were  placed  small  strips  of  wood 
to  represent  the  obstructions  met  with  in  a  road  ;  but  these  strips  of  wood  came  in  con- 
tact with  each  pairof  wheels  at  the  same  time,  and  never  caused  any  lateral  motion.  They 
produced,  therefore,  a  totally  different  effect  from  that  which  takes  place  in  a  road,  where 
the  action  rarely  affects  more  than  one  wheel  at  a  time,  or  if  two,  they  are  almost  invaria- 
bly those  two  on  the  same  side  of  the  carriage  ;  consequently,  in  the  model,  the  wheels 
in  passing  over  an  obstruction,  threw  the  whole  weight  backwards  in  a  direction  exactly 
opposite  to  the  movement  required ;  while  in  practice,  the  carriage  is  generally  thrown 
sideways,  which  does  not  affect  its  forward  motion. 

The  conclusions  drawn  from  these  experiments  are,  therefore,  as  might  be  expected, 
at  variance  with  practical  results,  and  directly  contrary  to  the  opinions  of  those  whose 
daily  experience  ought  to  enable  them  to  judge  correctly. 

The  effects,  also,  of  velocity  and  momentum  must  be  difficult  to  imitate  in  models. 

The  advantage  of  placing  the  load  high  will  not,  however,  equally  apply  at  low  velocities, 
still  less  when  springs  are  not  used  :  it  may  frequently,  indeed,  in  the  latter  case,  produce 
quite  a  contrary  effect. 


ON  DRAUGHT  887 

In  a  rough  road,  the  increased  force  with  which  the  load  would  be  thrown  from  aide 
to  side  might  prove  very  inconvenient,  and  even  dangerous,  and  would  certainly  be  lia- 
ble to  increase  the  resistance  when  the  front  wheels  meet  with  any  obstruction  ;  but  this 
it  must  be  particularly  remembered  is  only  ti'ue  in  the  case  of  slow  velocities  and  car- 
riages without  springs. 

We  have  now  considered  in  succession  the  various  parts  of  tlie  vehicle  for  conveying 
the  weight,  and  shown  in  what  manner  they  afiect  the  draught,  and  how  they  should  be 
constructed  so  as  to  diminish  as  much  as  possible  the  amount  of  this  draught.  We  have 
endeavored  to  point  out  the  advantages  and  necessity  of  attending  to  the  construction  and 
size  of  the  wheel.  Thus  it  should  be  as  nearly  cylindrical  and  vertical  as  possible,  and 
of  as  large  a  diameter  as  can  conveniently  be  admited.  2dly,  That  there  should  be  a 
firm,  unyielding  connexion  in  the  direction  of  the  movement  between  the  power  em- 
ployed, the  weig-ht  moved,  and  the  wheels  ;  in  other  words,  that  the  force  should  always 
act  directly  and  without  elasticity  both  upon  the  load  and  upon  the  wheels  ;  and  that  the 
impetus  or  momentum  of  the  load,  when  in  movement,  should  always  act  in  the  same 
manner,  without  elasticity  in  propelling  the  wheels  ; — and  lastly,  that  it  is  highly  advan- 
tageous to  interpose  as  much  elasticity  as  possible  by  means  of  springs  in  a  vertical 
direction  between  the  wheels  and  the  body,  so  that  the  former  may  rise  and  fall  over  stones 
or  irregularities  in  the  road  without  communicating  any  sudden  shocks  to  the  load  ;  and 
we  believe  that  the  proper  application  of  springs  in  all  cases,  even  with  the  heaviest 
loads  would  be  found  productive  of  great  good  eltlect.  • 

Attention  to  those  points  will  tend  to  diminish  considerably  the  amount  of  draught 
As  far  as  regards  friction  at  the  axles,  and  the  resistance  in  passing  over  obstacles  in  the 
road,  it  will  assist  the  favorable  application  of  the  force  of  fraction  when  obtained  from 
animal  power ;  but  that  which  we  have  shown  to  be  the  most  considerable  source  of  resis- 
tance is  unfortunately  least  affected  by  any  of  those  arrangements.  We  allude  to  those 
arising  from  the  yielding  or  crushing  of  the  material  of  the  road ;  we  have  seen  that  on 
a  good  turnpike-road  the  draught  was  increased  in  the  proportion  of  thirty  to  forty,  or 
about  one-third,  by  the  road  being  slightly  dirty ;  and  that,  on  a  heavy,  sandy  road,  the 
draught  was  increased  to  205,  or  nearly  seven  times.  Springs  will  not  affect  this  ;  and 
increasing  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  even  will  be  of  very  slight  assistance ;  nothing  but 
removing  at  once  the  prime  source  of  this  evil,  improving  the  roads,  can  remedy  this. 
We  are  thus  naturally  led  to  the  third  division  of  our  subject,  viz.,  the  road  or  channel 
of  conveyance.  In  considering  this  as  a  branch  of  the  subject  of  draught  by  animal  power, 
we  shall  merely  point  out  what  are  the  principal  desiderata  in  the  formation  of  a  good 
road,  and  what  are  the  evils  principally  to  be  avoided.  To  enter  into  all  the  details  of 
their  construction,  dependant  as  it  is  on  the  different  materials  to  be  found  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, their  comparative  cost,  the  quality  of  the  ground  over  which  the  road  is  made, 
and  many  other  points,  would  be  to  enter  upon  a  much  more  extensive  field  than  is  at 
all  required  for  the  proper  consideration  of  the  subject  of  draught  by  animal  power. 
The  requisites  for  a  good  road  is  all  that  we  shall  indicate. 

Channel  of  conveyance,  in  a  general  point  of  view,  must  include  canals,  roads  and  rail- 
ways. Of  the  first,  however,we  shall  say  little ;  their  construction  does  not  materially  affect 
the  amount  of  draught,  and  we  have  already  examined  the  mode  of  applying  the  power,  and 
the  quantity  of  effect  produced ;  we  shall  proceed,  tlierefbre,  at  once  to  the  question  of 
roads. 

The  inquiry  into  the  best  form  and  construction  of  wheel  carriages  has  taught  us  what 
we  might  indeed  have  foreseen,  that  perfection  in  a  road  would  be  a  plane,  level,  hard 
surface ;  to  have  learned  this  only  would  not  have  advanced  us  much,  as  such  perfection 
is  unattainable  ;  but  we  have  learned  also  the  comparative  advantages  of  these  different 
qualities  of  hardness,  smoothness,  and  level.  We  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  slight 
alterations  of  level  which  shall  vary  the  exertion  required  of  the  animal,  without  at  any 
time  causing  excessive  fatigue,  are  rather  advantageous  for  the  full  development  of  his 
power  than  other\vise  ;  that  the  inconvenience  of  roughness  is  obviated  by  the  use  of 
springs,  and  that  even  when  the  ordinary  carts  and  wagons  without  springs  are  used,  still 
the  resistance  arising  from  mere  unevenness  of  surface,  when  not  excessive,  is  not  nearly 
so  great  as  that  which  is  caused  by  the  yielding  of  the  substance  of  the  road.  Hardness, 
therefore,  and  consequently  the  absence  of  dust  and  dirt,  wMch  is  easily  crushed  or  dis- 
placed, is  the  grand  desideratum  in  roads. 

To  satisfy  this  condition,  however,  smoothness  is  to  a  certain  degree  requisite  as  the 
prominent  parts  would  be  always  subject  to  abrasion  and  destruction  ;  for  the  same  rea- 
son, even  if  for  no  other,  ruts  and  every  thing  which  can  tend  to  form  tliem  must  be 
avoided. 

A  road  should,  in  its  transverse  section,  be  nearly  flat.  A  great  curvature  or  barrel, 
as  it  is  termed,  is  useless  ;  for  the  only  object  can  be  to  drain  the  water  from  it ;  but  if 
there  are  ruts,  or  hollow  places,  no  curvature  will  effect  this ;  and  if  the  road  is  hard  and 
smooth,  a  very  slight  inclination  is  sufficient.     Indeed,  an  excess  of  curvature  is  not  only 

43 


838 


THE  HORSE. 


useless  with  the  present  construction  of  carriages,  but  facilitates  the  destruction  of  the 
road ;  for  there  are  few  wheels  perfectly  cylindrical ;   yet  these,  when  running  on  a 

barreled  or  curved  road,  can  beat 
Fig.  38.  Fig.  39.  only  upon  one  edge,  as  in  fig.  38. 

The  conical  wheels  still  in  use, 
although  much  inclined  at  the 
axle,  are  never  sufficiently  so  to 
bring  the  lower  surface  of  the 
wheel  even  horizontal,  and  there- 
fore are  constantly  running  upon 
the  edge,  as  in  fig.  39,  until  they 
have  formed  a  rut,  coinciding  with 
their  own  shape.  In  a  barreled  or 
curved  road,  the  mischief  done 
will,  of  course,  be  great  in  pro- 
portion to  this  curvature.  This 
form,  is,  therefore,  michievousas 
well  as  useless  Six  or  eigiit  inches 
rise  in  the  centre  of  a  road  of  twenty  feet  wide  is  amply  sufficient  to  ensure  drainage, 
if  drainage  is  not  effectually  prevented  by  ruts  or  hollow  places,  and  is  a  curve  to  which 
the  position  of  the  wheel  may  be  easily  adapted. 

The  hardness  of  the  surface,  the  most  important  feature,  will,  of  course,  principally 
depend  upon  the  materials  used,  and  the  formation  of  the  road,  and  still  more  upon  the 
•state  of  repair  in  which  it  is  kept.  It  is  easy  to  form  a  good  road  when  the  foundation  is 
already  laid  by  the  existence  of  an  old  one  ;  leveling  the  surface, — applying  a  covering 
of  eight  or  ten  inches  in  thickness  of  broken  stones, — having  no  round  or  smooth  sur- 
faces, the  hardest  that  can  be  obtained, — and  securing  good  drainage  at  the  sides  is  all 
that  is  required ;  but  constant  repair  and  unremiting  attention  is  necessary  to  keep  a 
road  thus  formed  in  good  condition . 

These  repairs  and  attention  do  not  consist  in  laying  on,  at  certain  intervals  of  time, 
large  quantities  of  materials,  but  in  constantly  removing  the  sand  which  is  formed,  and 
which,  in  wet  weather,  holds  the  water,  and  prevents  drainage  ;  in  filling  up  as  quickly 
as  possible,  with  fresh  materials,  any  ruts  or  hollows ;  and  in  keeping  clear  aU  the 
drains,  and  even  in  scraping  little  drains  from  ruts,  or  such  parts  of  the  road  as  may 
contain  the  water,  and  which  it  may  not  be  possible  immediately  to  fill  up. 

By  attention  to  these  points,  those  who  are  interested  in  the  preservation  of  the  roads, 
and  the  expenses  attending  it,  will  find  that  economy  will  ultimately  be  the  result ;  and 
those  who  are  interested  in  diminishing  the  labor  and  expense  of  draught,  we  shall  only 
refer  again  to  the  table  (page  30)  of  the  resistance  of  a  wagon  upon  different  roads,  from 
which  they  will  see,  that  a  horse  upon  a  clean  road  will  do  one-third  more  than  upon  one 
slightly  muddy ;  more  than  four  times  as  much  as  upon  newly  laid  gravel,  and  nearly 
seven  times  as  much  as  upon  a  heavy,  sandy  road. 

No  arguments  that  we  can  put  forward  can  at  all  strengthen  the  eflTsct  that  such  facts 
must  produce  ;  and  we  shall,  therefore,  quit  the  subject  of  roads,  and  conclude  our  ob- 
servations on  draught  by  a  few  words  explanatory  of  the  object  of  rail-roads  and  their 
effects  as  regards  duninishing  draught. 

The  great  desideratum  in  the  formation  of  a  good  road  is  the  facilitating  the  rolling  of 
the  wheels.  We  have  shown  that,  for  this  purpose,  a  hard,  smooth  surface  is  necessary ; 
and,  as  this  is  only  required  for  the  wheels,  two  longitudinal  tracks,  of  such  surface, 
of  proper  width,  are  sufficient  for  the  mere  passage  of  the  carriage.  If,  therefore,  there 
is  a  considerable  traffic  between  two  points  along  a  line  of  road,  without  much  interrup- 
tion from  crossing,  all  the  qualities  of  a  good  road  may  be  obtained  in  a  very  superior 
degree,  by  having  two  parellel  rails,  or  tracts  of  wood  or  iron,  raised  a  little  above  the 
general  level  of  the  grou.nd,  with  a  graveled  road  between  tlie  rails.  This  is  a  rail-road. 
It  evidently  combines  the  advantages  of  a  good  foot-hold  for  horses,  with  those  of  sniooth 
and  hard  surfaces  for  the  wheels  to  roll  upon.  It  requires,  however,  that  the  carriages 
should  be  all  nearly  alike,  as  regards  the  width  and  form  of  the  wheels  ;  and  experience 
has  proved  that  such  a  road  is  not  generally  worth  constructing,  unless  the  traffic  is  suf- 
ficient to  allow  of  carriages  being  built  expressly  for  that  or  similar  roads.  This  being 
the  case,  the  form  and  dimensions  of  the  rails,  and  the  general  construction  oi  the  car- 
riages, are  uncontroled  by  any  other  consideration  than  tliat  of  diminishing  draught. 

A  considerable  improvement  upon  this  point  may,  therefore,  be  expected  in  the  rail- 
way over  the  common  road.  The  railway,  as  constructed  upon  the  plan  at  present  con- 
ceived to  be  the  best,  consists  of  two  parallel  bars  of  wrought  iron,  about  two  inches 
and  a  half  broad  on  the  upper  surface,  and  about  six  inches  deep  placed  at  a  distance  of 
about  five  feet:  these  bars  are  supported  upon,  and  finnly  fixed  to  blocks  of  stone,  from 
one  foot  to  two  feet  square,  and  at  intervals  of  three  feet. 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


839 


F;V.  40 


a 


-=ffl: 


^^ 


a 


■&S1 


^ 


a 


m- 


Fis:   41. 


aaa,  fig.  40,  represents  a  side  view  of  one  of  these  bars,  of  which  6  is  a  section 
c  c  c  are  the  blocks  of  stone  on  which  it  rests.     Fig.  42  is  a  perspective  view  of  a  pair 
of  these  parallel  bars,  constituting  together  the  railway;  and  ^g-.  41  represents  an  end 
~  view  of  the    rail  with   a  pair  of  wheels.      The 

ground  is  afterwards  filled  up  nearly  to  the  level  of 
the  bars,  leaving  only  about  one  inch  of  their  upper 
edge  exposed :  upon  this  the  wheels  run.  The 
wheels  are  generally  of  cast  iron,  about  three  feet 
in  diameter,  and  slightly  conical,  with  an  ed^e  or 
flange  inside,  to  guide  them  in  the  centre  of  the 
rails.  This  brief  description  is  sufficient  to  give  a 
general  idea  of  the  construction  of  railways,  which 
is  all  ihat  is  necessaiy  for  our  present  purpose.  It 
will  be  easily  conceived  that  hard,  cast-iron  wheels, 
running  upon  smooth  edges  of  iron  in  this  manner, 
can  meet  with  but  little  resistance  except  those 
arising  from  friction  at  the  axle.  Accordingly,  we  find  upon  a  well  constructed  railway,  in 
good  order,  that  the  resistance  does  not  exceed,  in  any  sensible  degree,  that  which  must 

Fig.  42 


X 


K 


c 


arise  from  this  cause.  It  has  been  found  that  a  force  of  traction  of  lib.  will  put  in  mo- 
tion a  weight  of  180,  200,  and  even,  in  some  cases,  2501b. :  so  that  a  horse,  ex- 
erting an  effort  of  only  1251b.,  would  drag  on  a  level  10  tons.  This  is  about  ten 
times  the  average  effect  of  his  work  upon  a  good  common  road,  and  as  it  eirises  from 
the  hardness  and  smoothness  of  the  road,  we  cannot  conclude  our  observations  by  a  more 
striking  and  unanswerable  argument  than  this,  in  proof  of  the  immense  advantages 
and  saving  of  expense  which  would  result  from  greater  attention  to  the  state  of  the 
roads. 


i 


INDEX. 


Action  of  the  hackney  described,  23. 

high,  not  indispensable  in  the  hack- 
ney, 23. 

.^thiop's  mineral,  an  alterative,  298. 

Age,  natui-al  of  the  horse,  115. 

of  the  horse  as  indicated  by  the  teeth, 

108. 

other  indications  of,  115. 

how  ascertained  before  eight  years, 

108. 

after  eight  years,  115. 

Air,  a  supply  of  pure,  necessary  for  the 
health  of  the  horse,  262. 

All  abroad,  what  in  the  action  of  the  horse, 
183. 

Aloes,Barbadoes,far  preferable  to  Cape,287. 

the  best  physic,  166. 

■  description  of  tlie  different  kinds  of. 


287. 


288. 


288. 


-principal  adulterations  of,  289. 

-  solution  of,  its  composition  and  use, 

■  tincture  of,  its  composition  and  use. 


Alteratives,  the  best,  281,  289. 

nature  and  effect  of,  289. 

Alum,the  use  of  in  restraining  purging,  289. 
solution  of,  a  good  wash  for  grease, 

289. 
burnt,  a  stimulant  and  mild  caustic 

for  wounds,  289. 
American  horse,  description  of  the,  16. 
Ammonia  given  in  flatulent  colic,  289. 

chloride  of,  medical  use  of,  289. 

carbonate  of,  its  medical  use,  289. 

vapor  of,  pentifuly  extricated  from 

dung  and  urine,  289. 

•  most  injurious  to  the  eyes 


and  lungs,  91,  289, 
Anchylosis  of  bones,  what,  131. 
Anderson,  Dr.,  his  account  of  the  Galloway, 

45. 
Animal  power  compared  with  that  of  the 

steam-engine,  304. 
its  advantage  over  mechanical, 

except  where  veloci^  is  required,  306. 
Animals,  zoological  divisions  of,  48. 
Anodyne,  opium  the  only  one  to  be  de- 
pended on,  289. 
Antea-spinatus  muscle,  description  of  the, 

183. 
Anticor,  nature  and  treatment  of,  135. 

Antimonial  powder,a  good  febrifuge,  290. 
Antimony,  black  sulphuret  of,  method  of 

detecting  its  adulterations,  289. 
used  as  an  alterative 

and  diaphoretic,  289. 


Antimony,  chloride  of,  one  of  the  best  liquid 
caustics,  290. 

tartarized,  used  as  a  nauseant,  dia- 


phoretic and  worm  medicine,  290. 

Antispasmodics,  nature  of,  290. 

Apoplexy,  nature  and  treatment  of,  81. 

Aqueous  fluid,  an,  why  placed  in  the  laby- 
rinth of  the  ear,  65. 

humor  of  the  eye,  description  of  the, 

73. 

Arab  breed,  the,  introduced  by  James  1, 21. 

Arabia,  not  the  original  country  of  the 
horse,  2. 

few  good  horses  there  even  in  the 


seventh  century,  3,  8. 
Arabian  horse,  history  of  the,  8. 

-Bishop    Heber's  description 


■  comparison  between,  and  the 

■  first  introduced  into  Scotland, 


of,  9. 


Barb,  6. 


18. 


-  general  form  of,  9. 

-  qualities  of,  9, 

•scanty  nourishment  of,  1. 
■treatment  of,  9,  10. 
■vai-ieties  of,  8. 


Arabs,  attachmentof  to  their  horses,  10. 

value  their  mares  more  than  their 


horses,  26 

Arched  form  of  the  skuU,  advantage  of,  59. 
Arm,  description  of  the,  184. 
action  of,  explained  on  the  principle 

9f  the  lever,  184,  185. 

extensor  muscles  of  the,  185. 

flexor  muscles  of  the,  187. 

full  and  swelling,  advantage  of,  187. 


should  be  muscular  and  long,  186 

Arsenic,  medical  use  of,  290. 

treatment  under  poison  by,  158. 


Arteries,  description  of  the,  136. 

terminations  of,  141. 

generally  improper  to  bleed  from, 


124. 


•  of  the  arm,  description  of  the,  205. 
—  of  the  face,  94. 

neck,  124. 

shoulder,  205. 

inside  of  the  thigh,  205. 

outside  of  the  thigh,  205. 


Astringent  medicines,  the  principal,  290. 

Athelstan,  his  attention  to  the  improvement 
of  the  horse,  17. 

Atlas,  anatomy  of  the,  120. 

Attechi,  the,  an  Arabian  breed,  8. 

Axle,  friction  of  the,  dependent  on  the  ma- 
terial employed,  326. 


342 


INDEX. 


Axle,  the  diameter  being  diininished  lessens 

the  friction,  32(5. 
Azoph,  Tartaiy  horses  traced  to  the  siege 

of,  3. 

Back,  general  description  of  the,  131. 

proper  form  of  tlie,  24,  130. 

long  and  short,  comparative  advan- 
tages of,  131. 

anatomy  of  the,  130. 

■  muscles  of  the,  132. 


Backing  the  colt,  178. 

a  bad  habit  of  the  horse,  usually  ori- 
gin of  it,  254. 

Back-sinews,  sprain  of  the,  171, 

thickening  of  the,  constituting  un- 
soundness, 276. 

Balls,  the  manner  of  giving,  290. 

the  manner  of  malang,  290. 

Barb,  description  of  the,  6. 

comparison  between,  and  the  Arabian, 

6. 

Barley  considered  as  food  for  the  horse,  269. 

Barnacles,  use  of  the,  as  a  mode  of  restraint, 
245. 

Bar-shoe,  the  description  and  use  of,  243. 

Barrel  of  the  horse,  proper  shape  of  the,  40. 

Bars,  description  and  office  of  the,  218. 

proper  paring  of,  for  shoeing,  240. 

not  paring  out  the  horn   between 

them  and  the  crust,  a  cause  of  corns, 
234. 

-  folly  of  cutting  tliem  away,  218, 227, 


234. 


227. 


removal  of,  a  cause  of  contraction, 


corns,  234. 
-  of  the  mouth,  description  of,  106. 


Bavarian  cavalry  horses,  anecdote  of,  33. 

Bay  horses,  description  of,  284. 

Beans  good  for  hardly  worked  horses,  and 
that  have  a  tendency  to  purge,  269, 

should  always  be  crushed,  269. 

Bearing  rein,  the  use  and  abuse  of,  104. 

Berners,  Juliana,  authoress  of  the  first  book 
on  hunting,  42. 

Bible,  earliest  history  of  the  horse,  in  the,  2. 

Bile,  account  of  the,  167. 

Bishoping  the  teeth,  description  of,  114. 

Biting,  a  bad  habit,  and  how  usually  acqui- 
red, 255. 

Bitting  of  the  colt,  177. 

Black  horses,  description  and  character  of, 
285. 

Bladder,  description  of  tlie,  171. 

inflammation    of,    sjTnptoms    and 

treatment,  171. 

neck  of,  171. 

•  stone  in  the,  171. 


Bladders  along  the  under  part  of  the  tongue, 

117. 
Blain  in  the  cow,  117. 
Bleeding,  best  place  for  general,  143. 

directions  for,  142,  245. 

from  veins  rather  than  arteries,  124. 

finger  should  be  on  the  pulse  during, 

138,  245. 


Bleeding,  importance  of,  in  inflammation, 
138. 

at  the  toe  described,  143. 

comparison  between  fleam  and  lan- 


cet, 142. 

Blindness,  usual  method  of  discovering,  74. 
discovered  by  the  pupil  not  dilating 

or  contracting,  74. 

hereditaiy,  9 1 . 

of  one  eye,  74. 


Blistering  all  round  at  once,  barbarit)'  and 
danger  oi;  246. 

after  firing,  absurdity  and  cruelty  of. 


248. 
Blistei's,  best  composition  of,  147,  246. 

best  mode  of  applying,  147,  246. 

caution  with  regard  to  their  applica- 


tion, 140,  291. 

the  principle  of  their  action,  291. 

use  of,  in  inflammation,  147,  291. 

•  comparison  between  them  and  row- 


els and  setons,  249. 
Blood,  change  in  after  bleeding,  143,  245. 

changes  in  during  respiration,  144. 

coagulation  of,  245. 

of  the  horse,  drunk  for  food,  6. 

horses,  very  subject  to  conti-action. 


•  spavin,  nature  and  treatment  of,  142, 


227. 


245. 

Blue  vitriol,  a  tonic  for  the  horse,  293 
Boats,  the  difficulty  of  drawing,  increasing 

rapidly  with  the  velocity,  319. 

calculation  of  the  power  requisite  to 


draw  them,  319. 
Bog  spavin,  nature  and  treatment  of,  208. 
Bole-Armenian,  medical  use  of,  291. 
Bolting  the  food,  how  restrained,  257. 
Bone-spavin,  nature  and  treatment  of,  208. 
Boots,  singular  ones,  5. 
Bots  in  the  stomach,  natural  history  of,  159. 
not  usually  injurious. 


160. 

Bournou  horse,  description  of  the,  7. 
Bowels,  inflammation  of  the  symptoms  and 

treatment  of,  164. 
Brain,  description  of  the,  59. 
inflammation  of  the,  83. 


Breadth  of  wheels,  depending  on  the  road, 
330. 

Brealcing  in  should  commence  in  the  se- 
cond winter,  175. 

description  of  its  various  stages,  176. 

necessity  of  gentleness  and  patience 


in,  175. 

of  the  fanner's  horse,  175. 

of  the  hunter  or  hackney,  177. 

the  South  American,  4. 

-  cruel  Arabian  method  of,  9. 


Breast-strap,  advantage  and  disadvantage 

of,  316. 
Breeding,  on,  26, 172. 

as  applied  to  the  farmer's  horse,  25 

other  horses,  27. 


qualities  of  the  mare  of  as  much 

importance  as  those  of  the  horse,  26, 
172. 


INDEX 


343 


Breeding,  peculiarity  of  form  and  constitu- 
tion inherited,  172. 

•  influence  of  good  keep  on  Uie  colt. 


■in  and  in,  observations  on,  174. 
•  distiicts,  the  same  formerly  as  now. 


47. 


20. 

Brittleness  of  the  hoof,  remedy  for,  217. 

Broad  and  nairow  wheels,  comparison  be- 
tween, 328. 

Broken  back,  what,  51. 

Broken  knees,  treatment  of,  188. 

melliod  of  judi^ing  of  the  dan- 
ger of,  188. 

when  healed,  not  unsound- 
ness, but  tlie  form  and  action  of  the  horse 
should  be  careluily  examined,  273. 

Brokeji  wind,  nature  and  treatment  of,  153. 

intluenced   much,  and  often 

caused  by  the  manner  of  feeding,  154. 

distinguished  from  thick  wind. 


ness,  there  should  be  a  special  warranty 
against  it,  203. 

Carbon  of  the  blood  got  rid  of  in  respiration, 
144. 

Carbonate  of  iron,  a  mild  tonic,  296. 

Carraways,  a  good  aromatic,  291. 

Carnage -horses  prociuced  by  crossing  the 
Suffolk  with  a  hunter,  30. 

Carriages,  wheel,  first  introduction  of,  27. 

Carriages,  two  and  four-wheeled,  compari- 
son between,  332. 

liglit,  should  have  no  longitudinal 


elasticity  in  the  hailing  or  springs,  334. 

disadvantage  of  C  springs  in,  334. 

■  hung  on  straps  or  springs  in  the  time 


153. 

Bronchitis,  nature  and  treatment  of,  149. 
Bronchotomy,  the  operation  of,  129. 
Brood  mare,  description  of  the,  174. 

should  not  be  too  old,  174. 

■treatment    of,  after    covering. 


174. 


■  after  foaling,  174. 


Brown  horses,  description  of,  284. 
Buccinator  muscle,  description  of  the,  95. 
Burleigh,  Lord,  his  opinion  of  hunting,  42. 
Busbequius,  his  interesting  account  of  the 

Turkish  horse,  14. 
Butyr  of  antimony,  the  best  liquid  caustic, 

290. 

Calculi  in  the  intestines,  163. 

Calkins,  advantages  and  disadvantages  of, 

241. 

sliould  be  placed  on  both  heels^  242. 

Calmuck  horse,  description  of  the,  13. 
Calomel,  the  use  of,  in  veterinary  practice, 

298. 
Camphor,  the  medical  use  of,  291. 
Canadian  horse,  description  of  the,  16. 
Canals,  advantages  antl  disadvantages  of, 

318. 
smallness  of  power  requisite  for  the 

transmission  of  goods  by  them,  318. 
Cajial  boat,  calculation  of  the  draught  of, 

319. 
ease  of  draught  of,   might  be   in- 
creased by  a  different  mode  of  applying 

the  power,  319. 
Canker  of  the  foot,  nature  and  ti-eatment  of, 

236. 
Cannon,  or  shank-bone,  description  of  the, 

189. 
Canter,  action  of  the  horse  during,  310. 
Cantharides  form  the  best  blister,  291. 

given  for  the  cure  of  glanders,  291. 

Capillaiy  vessels,  the,  138. 
Cappadocian  horses  sent  to  Arabia,  3. 
Capped  hock,  nature  and  treatment  of,  198. 

description  of,  207. 

although  not  always  unsound- 


of  Homer,  324. 

Carrots,  excellent  effects  of  in  disease,  152, 
154,  168,  271. 

Cart,  two-wheeled,  computation  of  the  fric- 
tion of,  326. 

Carts,  two-wheeled,  can  perform  propor- 
tionably  more  worlc  than  wagons,  332. 

easier  loaded,  and  do 


not  so  much  injure  the  roads,  333. 

-require   better  horses 


and  more  attendants,  333. 

-  the  horse  sooner  knock- 


ed up,  and  injiu-ed  by  the  shocks  of  the 
shafts,  333. 

on     good    roads    and 

for  short  distances  superior  to  wagons, 
333. 

with   two  horses,  disadvantage  of, 

3.33. 

have  less  draught  than  wagons,  rea- 
son why,  334. 

Cartilages  of  the  foot,  description  and  ac- 
tion of  the,  222. 

ossification    of 


the,  237 
Castley,  Mr.,  on  the  restifness  of  the  horse, 

252. 
Castor-oil    not  a  purgative  for  the  horse. 

167,  291. 
Castration,  method  of,  178. 

proper  period  for,  177. 


Cataract  in  the  eye,  nature  of,  75,  88. 

cannot  be  operated  on,  in 


the  horse,  75, 92. 


-method  of  examination 


for,  75. 
Catarrh,  description  and  treatment  of,  149. 

distinguished  from  glanders,  98. 

distinguished  from  inflammation  of 

the  lungs,  145. 
Catarrhal  fever,  nature  and  treatment  of,149. 

infectious,  96. 

distinction  between  it  and  in- 


flammation of  the  lungs,  145. 

Catechu,  a  good  astringent,  metliod  of  giv- 
ing, and  adulterations  of,  292. 

Caustic,  an  account  of  the  best,  292. 

Cavalry  horse,  description  of  the,  32. 
anecdotes  of  the,  33. 


Cawl,  description  of  the,  168. 
Cerebrum,  description  of  the,  59. 
Chalk,  its  medical  use  in  the  horse,  292. 


344 


INDEX. 


Chaff,  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  good- 
ness ol"  the  ingredients,  268. 

i — best  composition  of,  267. 

■ — when    given    to  the    hard-worked 

hoi-se,  much  time  is  saved  for  repose, 
268. 

quantity  of,  necessaiy  for  different 


kinds  of  horses,  268 

Camomile,  a  mild  tonic,  292. 

Channel  of  the  jaws,  what,  108. 

Charcoal,  useful  in  a  poultice,  and  as  an  an- 
tiseptic, 292. 

Charges,  composition  and  use  of,  292. 

Chariot,  price  of,  in  Solomon's  time,  3. 

description  of  that  of  Priam,  325. 

of  Juno  described,  325. 

on  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  de- 
scription of,  325. 

Chariots,  war,  the  ancient  British,  17. 

used  by  the  Egyptians  1500 

years  before  the  Christian  era,  324. 

at  the  seige  of  Troy,  324. 

—  description  of   the    ancient, 


324. 

of  the  ancients,could  not  move 

with  much  velocity,  325. 

Charles  I  patronized  racing,  21. 

Chest,  the  anatomy  of  the,  129. 

proper  form  of  the,  40, 129,  153. 

cut  of  the,  129. 

the  importance  of  depth  of,  130. 

narrow  and  rounded,  compaiison  be- 
tween, 129,  153. 

round,  often  connected  with  thick 

wind,  1-53. 

dropsy  of  the,  146. 

■  founder,  description  of,  135,  144. 


Chestnut  horses,  varieties  of,  284. 
Chester,  races  first  established  at,  21. 
Chiilaby,  friendship  between  him  and  a  cat, 

37. 
Chinese  horse,  description  of  the,  12. 
Chinked  in  the  chine,  what,  131. 
Chloride  of  Hme,  an  excellent  disinfectant, 

297. 
of  soda,  useful  in  unhealthy  ulcers, 

300. 
Choroid  coat  of  the  eye,  description  and  use 

of  the,  72. 
Chronic  cough,  nature  and  treatment  of,  96. 
Chyle,  the  formation  of,  161. 
Ciliary  processes  of  the  eye,  description  of 

the,  73. 
Cineritious  matter  of  tlie  brain,  nature  and 

function  of  the,  59. 
Circassian  horse,  description  of  the,  13. 
Clicking,  cause  and  remedy  of,  259. 
Clipping,  objections  to,  283. 
Clips,  when  necessary,  242. 
Clover,  considered  as  an  article  of  food,  271. 
Clysters,  the  composition  and  great  useful- 
ness of,  292. 
directions  as  to  the  administration 

of,  293. 
Clydesdale  horse,  description  of  tlie,  30. 
Coaches,  calculation  of  the  power  of  horses 

in  drawing  according  to  tlieir  speed,  313. 


Coaches  loaded  high,  run  lighter,  especially 
in  rapid  traveling,  336. 

safety,  heavy  draught  of,  336. 


Coach  horse,  description  of  the,  27 
best  breed  of,  27 


Coat,  fine,  connected  by  the  groom  with  a 
heated  stable,  262. 

persons  much  too  solicitous  to  pro- 


cure it,  282. 
Cochlea  of  the  ear,  description  and  use  of 

the,  66. 
Cocktail  horse,  mode  of  docking,  251. 
CoEcum,  description  of  the,  161. 
Coffin-bone,  description  of  the,  220. 

lamella;,  or  leaves  of,  221. 


Cold,  common,  description  and  treatment  of, 
149. 

Colic,  spasmodic,  description  and  treatment 
of,  162. 

Colar,  the  best  method  of  attaching  the  tra- 
ces to  the  horse,  317. 

proper  adaptation  of  to  the  shoulder, 

175. 

Colon,  description  of  the,  160,  161. 

Color  of  the  skin,  remarks  on  the,  263. 

Colt,  early  ti'eatment  of  the,  26. 

Coinplexus  major,  description  of  the,  94, 
122,  131. 

minor,  description  of  the,  94,  123. 


Concave  seated  shoe,  the,  described  and  re- 
commended, 238. 

Conestoga  horses,  description  of  the,  16. 

Conical  and   fiat  wheels,  comparison  be- 
tween, 328. 

wheels,  extreme  absurdity  of,  329. 

strange  degree  of  friction  and  drag- 


ging with  them,  329. 

•  afford  great  resistance  and  destroy 


the  road,  330. 

•  are    in  fact   traveling  grindstones, 


330. 


Conjunctiva,  description  of  the,  71. 

appearance  of,  how  fai-  a  test  of 


inflammation,  71. 
Contraction  of  the  foot,  nature  of,  225. 
the    peculiarity   of 


the  lameness  produced  by,  227. 

•  how  far  connected 


with  the  navicular  disease,  229. 

■  is  not  the  necessary 


consequence  of  shoeing,  226. 

-  produced  by  neglect 


of  peuring,  226. 


the  shoes  too  long,  226. 


natural  moisture,  226. 


•  wearing 

•  want  of 
■  the    re- 


moval of  the  bars,  227. 


■  inflam- 


mation of  the  foot,  227. 


—  unequal 
exercise  without  preparation,  227. 

•  not  so  much  produced  by  litter 


as  imagined,  226. 
Contraction  of  the  foot,  the  cause  rather  than 
the  consequence  of  thrush,  227. 


INDEX. 


845 


228. 


cured,  228. 


-  best  mode  of  treating, 

—  rarely    permanently 
does    not  necessai-ily 


imply  unsoundness,  226. 

althoujrh  not  necessa- 


rily unsoundness,  should  have  a  special 
warranty  against  it,  273. 

—  blood  horses  very  sub- 


ject to,  227 

Convexity  of  the  eye,  the  proper,  not  suffi- 
ciently attended  to,  77. 

Copper,  the  combinations  of,  used  in  vete- 
rinary practice,  29.3. 

Corded  veins,  what,  102. 

Cordials,  tlie  use  and  abuse  of  in  the  horse, 
293. 

Cornea,  description  of  the,  71. 

mode  of  examining  the,  72. 

its  prominence  or  flatness,  71. 

should  be  perfectly  transparent,  71. 

Corns,  \he  nature  and  treatment  of,  234. 

produced  by  cutting  away  the  bars, 

234. 

not  paring  out  the  foot 

between  the  crust  and  bars,  234. 
■  pressure,  234. 


ing,  216. 


216. 


217. 


■  proper  degree  of  its  slant- 

-  proper   thickness   of  the, 

-  brittleness  of,  remedy  for, 
the  cause  of 


sandcrack,  230. 
Crystalline  lens,  description  of  the,  75. 
Cuboid  bones,  description  of  the,  206. 
Cuneiform  bones,  description  of  the,  206, 

210. 
Curbs,  nature  and  treatment  of,  207. 

hereditaiy,  26. 

the  sUghtest  vestige  of,  constituting 


unsoundness,  208. 
Cuticle,  the,  description  of,  279. 
Cutis,  or  true  skin,  the,  account  of,  274. 
Cutting,  cause  and  cure  of,  196,  259. 

constitutes  unsoundness,  274. 

away  the  foot,  unfounded  prejudice 


■  verj'  difficult  to  cure,  234. 
-constitute  unsoundness,  274. 


Coronary  ligament,  description  of  the,  217. 

—  the  crust  principally  pro- 
duced from,  217. 

ring,  description  of  the,  217,  213. 

Coronet,  description  of  the,  217. 

Corrosive  sublimate,  treatment  under  poison 
by,  158. 

the  best  tonic  for  farcy,  103,  110. 

Cossack  horse,  description  of  the,  14. 

beaten  in  a  race  by  English 

blood  horses,  14. 

Cough,  nature  and  treatment  of,  149. 

constitutes  unsoundness,  274. 

•  chronic, nature  and  treatment  of,  152. 

Cow  hocks,  description  of,  211. 

Cozakee  horse,  description  of  the,  11. 

Cracks  in  the  heels,  treatment  of,  214. 

Cradle,  a  safe  restraint  upon  the  horse  when 
blistered,  246. 

Cream-colored  horses,  account  of,  284. 

peculiarity  in  their  eyes, 

73. 

of  tartar,  a  mild  diuretic,  293. 

Crib-biting,  the  sucking  in  of  air,  258. 

causes  and  cure,  253. 

injurious  to  the  horse,  258. 

constitutes  unsoundness,  274. 

Cricoid  cartilage  of  the  wind-pipe,  the,  126. 

Cromwell,01iver,  his  stud  of  i-ace  horses,  21. 

Cropping,  absurdity  of,  61. 

Croton,  the  farina  of,  used  as  physic,  167. 

Crusaders,  the  improvement  of  the  horse 
neglected  by  them,  18. 

Crust  of  the  foot,  description  of  the,  216. 

composition  of  the,  217. 

consisting  within  of  numer- 
ous hornv  plates,  218. 


against,  226. 
Cyhndrical  wheels,  description  and  advan- 
tage of,  330. 

DandrirF,  the,  nature  of,  279. 

Darley  Arabian,  account  of  the,  22,  34. 

Dartmoor  ponies,  description  and  anecdote 

of,  46, 
Denham,  Major,  interesting  account  of  the 

loss  of  his   horse,  11. 
Depressor  labii  inferioris  muscle,  descrip- 
tion of  the,  95. 
Devonshire  pack-horse,  description  of  tlie, 

45. 
Diabetes,  nature  and  treatment  of,  170. 
Diameter  of  wheels,  the  eifect  of,  increasing 

the,  323. 
Diaphoretics,  their  nature  and  effects,  294. 
Diaphragm,  description  of  the,  136,  155. 
Digestion,  process  of  it  described,  156, 161. 
Digestives,  their  nature  and  use,  294, 
Digitalis,  highly  recommended  in  colds  and 

all  inflammatory  complaints,  294. 
Dilator  magnus  lateralis  muscle,  description 

of  the,  95. 

naris  lateralis  muscle,  description  of 


the,  95. 

Dishing  of  wheels  described,  and  effect  of, 
328. 

both  inward  and  outward  effect  of. 


331. 

Distemper,  nature  and  treatment  of,  149. 
Distressed  horse,  treatment  of  the,  43. 
Diuretic  medicines,  use  and  abuse  of,  169, 

213,  294. 
Docking,  method  of  performing,  249. 
Dogs,  danger  of  encouraging  tliera  about  the 

stable,  87. 
Dongola  horse,  description  of  the,  7. 
Draught,  theory  of,  28,  303. 

has  not   been    sufficiently 


explained,  303. 
Draught  implies  the  moving  power,  the  ve- 
hicle, and  the  road,  304. 

the  moving  power  pcirticularly  con- 


sidered, 304. 


44 


346 


INDEX. 


Draught,  considered  in  respect  of  the  resist 

ance,  304. 
calculation  of,  according  to  velocity 

and  tune,  313,  318. 

•  much  influenced  by  the  direction  of 


the  traces,  313 

the  line  of,  should  be  parallel  to  the 


direction  of  motion,  335. 

•  in  cattle  should  pass  through  tlie  axle 


of  the  wheels,  336 
in  bad  roads  may  have  a  slight  incli- 
nation upward,  335. 

resistance  of,  should  be  as  much  as 


possible  firm  and  inelastic,  317,  337, 

how  increased  by  the  state  of  the 


road,  327,  337. 

■  does  not  injure  the  riding  of  the  far- 


mer's horse,  25. 

■  of  carriages,  calculation  of,  on  differ- 


ent roads,  327. 
of  boats,  difficult}'  of,  increasing  rap- 
idly with  the  velocity,  319. 

-  calculation  of  the  power  of. 


Egypt,  horse  propagated  from  it  to  other 
countries,  3,  7. 

not  known  in,  at  the  time  of  Abra- 
ham, 2. 

Elasticity  in  the  construction  of  carriages, 
difference  between  longitudinal  and  in 
any  other  direction,  335,  337. 

Elbow,  advantage  of  depth  of,  186. 

capped,  185. 

fracture  of,  185. 

•punctured,  185. 


Elder,  in  the  composition  of  an  emollient 
ointment,  295. 

El^in  marbles,  proportions  of  the  horses  un- 
laithfuUy  represented  on,  309. 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  number  and  value  of 
horses  much  diminished  when  she  reign- 
ed, 21. 

a  staunch  huntress,  42. 


319, 

of  the  sledge,  319. 

of  the  roller,  319, 

horse,  the  heavy,  29 

horses,  the  inferior  ones  about  the 

metropolis,  wretched  state  of,  32 
Dray  horse,  proper  form  of  the,  31. 
the  largest,  bred  in  Lincolnshire, 

31. 

usually  too  large  and  heavy,  31. 

Drinks,  how  to  administer,  295. 

compai'ison  between  them  and  balls, 

295. 
Dropsy  of  the  chest,  135. 

heart,  136. 

skin,  135. 

Drum  of  the  ear,  description  and  use  of  the, 

64. 
Dun  horse,  the,  account  of,  284. 
Duodenum,  description  of  the,  161. 
Dutch  horse,  description  of  the,  16. 

Ear,  description  of  the  external  parts  60,  61. 

internal  pju'ts,  63. 

bones  of  the,  description  and  use,  63. 

labyrinth  of  the,  65. 

cut  of  the  mechanism  of,  62. 

■  muscles  of  the  internal  part 


Emetic  tartar,  used  as  a  nauseant,  diapho- 
retic, and  worm  medicine,  289. 
Enamel  of  the  teeth,  account  of  the,  109. 
Enigmatical  account  of  the  horse,  20. 
English  horse,  history  of  the,  17. 

—  first  crossed  by  the  Romans, 


17. 


of  the,  64. 

indicative  of  the  temper,  61. 

•  cUpping  and  singeing  of  tlie,  cruelty 


of,  62 

East  Indian  horse,  description  of  the,  11. 

Eclipse,  pedigree  and  history  of,  36. 

Edward  II  introduced  Lombardy  horses  in- 
to England,  19. 

Ill,  the  breed  of  horses  much  im- 
proved by,  19. 

introduced  Spanish  horses,  19. 

•had  running:  horses,  19. 


improved  by  Athelstan,  17. 
William  the  Con- 


querer,  18. 


•  by  John,  19. 


not  used  for  the  plough  in 

early  times,  18. 
Entanglement  of  the  intestines,  description 

of,  163. 
Epidemic  catarrh,  nature  and  treatment  of, 

149. 
malignant,  nature  and  treatment  of, 

151. 
Epilepsy,  nature  and  treatment  of,  86. 
Epsom  salts,  used  as  a  purgative,  167,  297. 
Ethmoid  bone,  description  of  the,  59. 
Eustachain  tube,  description  and  use  of  the, 

65. 
Ewe-neck,unsightliness  and  inconvenience 

of,  40, 123. 
Exchanores  of  horses  stand  on   the  same 

ground  as  sales,  278. 
Exercise,  directions  for,  267. 

the  necessity  of  regular,  266, 
want  of,  producing  grease,  215. 
more  injury  done  by  the  want  of  it. 


Effect  of  the  horse's  labor,  limited  by  his 

velocity  and  his  power,  311. 
Esypt,  earliest  domestication  of  the  horse 

In,  2. 


than  by  the  hardest  work,  266 

Exmoor  poney,  description  of  the,  45. 

Expansion  shoe,  the,  description  and  use 
of,  243. 

Expense  of  horse,  calculation  of  the  annual, 
305. 

Extensor  pedis  muscle,  description  of  the, 
185,  204. 

Extract  of  lead,  the  use  of  it  much  over- va- 
lued, 296 

Eye  description  of  the,  66. 

cut  of  the,  70. 

healthy  appearance  of  the,  66. 

-inflammation  of,  common,  90, 

specific,  90. 

causes,  91. 


INDEX. 


347 


275. 


ness,  275. 


appear,  91. 


Eye,  inflammation  of,  medical  treatment  of, 

90,  92. 
• untractable  nature  of, 

90. 

consequences  of,  92. 

-marks  of  recent,  91, 

-  constitutes    unsound- 

■  when  most  likely  to 

-hereditary,  91. 

method  and  importance  of  examining 

it,  71. 

indicative  of  the  temper,  66. 

the  pit  above,  indicative  of  the  age,  53. 

muscles  of  the,  78. 

wounds  of  the,  88. 

Eye-brows,  substitute  for,  67. 
Eye-lashes,  description  of,  67. 

folly  of  singeing  them,  68. 

Eye-lid,  description  of,  67,  68. 

Face,  description  of  the,  92. 

cut  of  the  muscles,  nerves,  and  blood- 
vessels of,  94. 

Falling  in  of  the  foot,  what,  224. 

False  quarter,  nature  and  ti'eatment  of,  231. 

Farcy,  a  disease  of  the  absorbents  of  the 
skin,  102. 

connected  with  glanders,  101. 

both  generated  and  infectious,  102. 

symptoms  of,  102. 

treatment  of,  103. 

buds,  what,  102. 

Farmer's  horse,  description  of  the,  25. 

not  injured  by  draught,  25. 

Feeding  high,  connected  with  grease,  215. 

regular  periods  of,  necessity  of  at- 
tending to,  82,  273. 

■  manner  of,  has  much  influence  on 


,  Fits,  symptoms,  causes,  and  treatment  of, 

86. 
Fitzherbert,  Sir  A.,  his  description  of  the 
horse,  20. 

his  the  eai-liest  treatise 


broken  wind,  154, 

Feeling  of  the  mouth,  constant,  indispensa- 
ble in  the  good  rider,  23. 

Feet,  good,  importance  of,  in  the  hunter,41. 

the  general  management  of,  272. 

attention  to,  and  stopping  at  night, 

recommended,  273. 

Felt  soles,  description  and  use  of,  244. 

Fetlock,  description  of  the,  195. 

Fever,  idiopathic  or  pure,  140. 

•  symptoms  of,  140. 


•symptomatic,  141. 


Fibula,  the,  description  of  the,  204. 
Finland  horse,  description  of  the,  15. 
Firing,  mode  of  applying,  251. 
should  be  in  longitudinal  or  parallel 

lines,  248. 

should  not  penetrate  the  skin,  247. 

absurdity  and  cruelty  of  blistering 

after,  248. 
Firing,  horse  should  not  be  used  for  some 

montlis  after,  247. 

advantage  of  over  blistering,  248. 

Fistula  lacrymalis,  68. 

in  the  poll,  120. 

Fistulous  withers,  treatment  of,  133. 


on  agriculture,  20. 

Flanders  horse,  description  of  the,  15,  32. 

our  lieavy  draught  horses  ad- 
vantageously crossed  with  it,  15. 

Flat  roads  more  injuiious  to  horses  than 
those  with  sliglit  incfpiajities,  313. 

Fleam  andlancet,comparison  between,  142. 

Flexor  of  the  ai-m,  descrijifion  of  the,  186. 

metatarsi  muscle,  description  of  the, 

205. 

pedis  perforatus,  the  perforated  mus- 
cle, description  of  the,  186,204. 

pedis  perforans,the  perfoi'ating  mus- 
cle, description  of  the,  186,  204. 

Flying  Childers,  on  account  of  him,  35. 

Foal,  early  treatment  of,  175. 

early  handling  of,  important,  175. 

■ importance  of  liberal  feeding  of,  175. 

time  for  weaning:,  175. 


Fomentations,  theory  and  use  of,  139,  295. 
Food  of  the  horse,  observations  on,  267. 

a  list  of  the  articles  of. 


268. 


■  should  be  apportioned  to 


the  work,  272. 
Foot,  description  of  the,  216. 

diseases  of  the,  223. 

canker  in  the,  nature  and  treatment 


of,  236. 

corns  in  the  " 

contracted  '' 

false  quarter  of  the     " 

founder  of  the,  acute  " 

chronic  " 


234. 
225. 
231. 
223. 
225. 
223. 


•inflammation  of  the 

•  navicular  joint  of  the,  disease  in,  na- 


ture and  treatment  of,  228. 

overreach  of  the 

prick  in  the 

pumiced 

quittor  in  the 

sandcrack  in  the 

thrush  in  the 

tread  on  the 

weakness  of  the 

wounds  in  the 


230. 
232. 
224. 
231. 

230. 
235. 
230. 
237. 
232. 


Forehand,  proper  form  of,  40. 

Forehead,  diflerent  form  of,  in  the  ox  and 

horse,  56. 
Fore-legs,  description  of,  178. 

diseases  of  the,  190. 

proper  position  of  the,  198. 


Forge-water,  sometimes  used,  296. 

Forrester,  an  example  of  the  emulation  of 
the  horse,  38. 

Founder,  acute,  symptoms, causes  and  treat- 
ment of,  223. 

chronic,  nature  and  treatment  of, 


225. 
Foxglove,  strongly  recommended  in  colds 

and  all  fevers,  294. 
Fracture  of  tlie  skull,  treatment  of,  79. 


348 


INDEX. 


French  horse,  description  of  the  16. 

Friction,  compaiison  of,  in  the  wheel  and 
roller,  320. 

on  the  axle,  dependent  on  the  mate- 
rial employed,  326. 

is  not  materially  increased  by  the 

velocity,  326. 

reduced,  as  the  diameter  of  the  axle 


is  diminished,  326 

•  inveraely  as  the  diameter   of    the 


wheel,  326. 

at  the  axles  of  light  carriages,  con- 
sidered, 337. 

Frog,  horny,  description  of  the,  219. 

sensible,  description  of  the,  219,  221. 

action  and  use  of  the,  222. 

. -pressure,  question  of  the,  220. 

proper  paring  of,  for  shoeing,  240. 

diseases  of  the  235. 

■  stay,  the,  217. 


Frontal  bones,  description  of  the,  53. 

sinuses,  description  of  the,  54. 

perforated  to  detect  glanders, 

54. 
Furze,considered  as  an  article  of  food,  271. 

Gall,  account  of  the,  167. 

bladder,  the  horse  has  none,  167. 

Galloping,  action  of  the  horse,  during  310. 

Galloway,  description  of  the,  44. 

anecdotes  and  performances  of  the, 

45. 

Gaucho,  the  South  American,  description  of, 
4. 

his  method  of  taldng  and  breaking 

the  wild  horse,  4. 

's  boots,  curious  manufacture  of,  5. 

General  management  of  the  horse,  262. 

Gentian,  the  best  tonic  for  the  horse,  295. 

German  horse,  description  of  the,  15. 

Getting  the  cheek-bit  into  the  mouth,  me- 
thod of  preventing,  255. 

Gibbing,  a  bad  habit,  cause  of  it  and  means 
of  lessening  it,  254. 

Ginger,  an  excellent  aromatic  and  tonic, 
295. 
Glanders,  nature  of,  98. 

symptoms  of,  96,  97. 

slow  progress  of,  97. 

appearances  of  the  nose  in,  97. 

detected  by  injecting  the  frontal  si- 
nuses, 54. 

■  distinguished  from  catarrh,  98. 

-from  strangles,  98. 


100. 


■  connected  with  farcy,  102. 

•  treatment  of,  100. 

■causes  of,  99. 

-  both  generated  and  contagious,  99, 


Glanders,  oftenest  produced  by  improper 
stable  management,  99. 

mode  of  comniunication  of,  100. 

prevention  of,  101. 

anecdote  of  its  speedy  appearance, 

99. 

Glands,  enlarged,  it  depends  on  many  cir- 
cumstances whether  they  coiistitute  un- 
soundness, 274. 


Glass-eye,  nature  and  treatment  of,  92. 

Gleet,  nasal,  nature  and  treatment  of,  96. 

Glenoid  cavity  of  the  temporal  bone,descrip- 
tion  of  the,  107. 

Glutffii  muscles,  description  of  the,  202. 

Godolphin  Arabian,  an  account  of  the,  6, 
37. 

Goulard's  extract,  the  use  of  it  much  over- 
valued, 296. 

Gracilis  muscle  description  of  the,  201. 

Grains,  occasionally  used  for  horses  of  slow 
work,  269. 

Grapes  on  the  heels,  treatment  of,  215. 

Grasses,  neglect  of  the  farmer  as  to  the  pro- 
per mixture  of,  270. 

Grasshopper  springs,  description  of,  336. 

would  be  advantageously  adopted  in 

post-chaises,  336. 

Grease,  nature  and  treatment  of,  213. 

cause  of,  215. 

farmer's  horse  not  so  subject  to  it  as 


others,  214. 

■generally  a  mere  local    complaint. 


214. 

Greece,  early  domestication  of  the  horse  in, 
2. 

the  horse  introduced  there  from 


Egypt,  2. 
Grey  horses,  account  of  the  different  shades 

of,  283. 
Grinders,  construction  of  the,  110. 
Grinding  of  the  food  accomplished  by  the 

mechanism  of  the  joint  of  the  lower  jaw, 

108. 
Grogginess,  account  of,  196. 
Grooming,  as  important  as  exercise  to  the 

horse,  265. 

opens  the  pores  of  the  skin,  and  gives 


a  fine  coat,  266. 

■  directions  for,  266. 


Grunter,  the,  is  unsound,  274. 

Guinea  coast,  description  of  the  horse  of  the, 

7. 
Gullet,  description  of  the,  128. 
foreign  bodies  in,  128. 


Gutta  Serena,  nature  and  treatment  of,  92. 

Habits,  vicious  or  dangerous,  251. 
Hackney,  description  of  the,  22,  25. 
proper  action  of  the,  23. 


Hair,  account  of  the,  281. 

question  of  cutting  it  from  the  heels, 

215. 
Hall,  Bishop,  extract  from,  on  breeding,  26. 
Hamilton,  Duke  of,  the  Clydesdale  horses 

owe  their  origin  to  him,  30. 
Harnessing,  the  best  mode  as  it  regards 

draught,  313. 

method  of,  in  the  time  of  Homer, 


$15. 


Haunch,  description  of  the,  199.    • 
Vvide,  advantage  of,  199. 
injuries  of  the,  199. 
joint,  singular  strength  of  the,  199. 
and  thigh  bones,  advantage  of  tlie 


oblique  direction  of,  199. 
Haw,  curious  mechanism  of  the,  69. 
diseases  of,  90 


INDEX. 


849 


Haw,  absurdity  and  cruelty  of  destroying 

it,  70. 
Hay  considered  as  food,  270. 

mowburnt,  injurious,  270. 

old  preferable  to  new,  270. 

Head,  anatomy  of  the,  52. 

tlie   numerous  bones  composing  it, 

reason  of,  .52. 
■  cut  of  tlie  bones  of  the,  53. 

section  of  tlie,  53. 

-importance  of  proper  setting  on  of 


the,  40,  122. 

its  shape,  indicating  the  breed,  53. 

■beautiful  provision  for  its  support. 


■Captain  his  account  of  the  South 


56. 


American  horse,  4 
Hearing  of  the  horse  very  acute,  33. 
Heavy  black  horses,  account  of,  32. 
their  preparation  for  their 

work,  30. 
Heart,  description  of  the,  136. 

its  action  described,  136. 

inflammation  of  the,  136. 

dropsy  of  the,  136. 

Heber,  Bishop's  account  of  the  Arabian,  9. 
Heels,  question  of  cutting  the  hair  from 

them,  215. 

low,  disadvantage  of,  216. 

proper  paring  of,  for  shoeing,  240. 

washing  of  the,  producing  grease, 

215. 
Hellebore,  white,  used  in  inflammation  of 

the  lungs  and  fevers,  295. 
Helmsley  Aiabian,  account  of  the,  21. 
Hemlock,  sometimes  poisonous  when  eaten, 

158. 
given  in  inflammation  of  tlie  chest, 

296. 

Henry  VIH,  tyrannical  regulations   con- 
cerning the  horse  by  him,  20. 
the  breed  of  the  horse  not  materially 

improved  by  him,  20. 
Hereditary  diseases  on,  26, 91, 172. 
Hernia,  the  nature  and  treatment  of,  167. 
Hide-bound,  the  nature  and  treatment  of, 

280. 
High-blower,  the,  description  of,  155. 

is  unsound,  274. 

Highland  poney,  description  of  the,  46. 
Hind  legs,  description  of  the,  199. 

arteries,  veins, and  nerves  of  the, 205. 

wheels    should    follow  the   precise 

track  of  the  fore  ones,  331. 
Hip  joint,  the  great  strength  of  the,  199. 
Hips,  ragged,  what,  199. 
Hissar,  the  East  India  Company's  sale  of 

horses  at,  11. 
Hobbles,  description  of  the  best,  245. 
Hock,  the  advantage  of  its  numerous  sepa- 
rate bones  and  ligaments,  209. 

■ capped,  198,  211. 

cow,  211. 

description  of  the,  198. 

■ enlargement  of  the,  nature  of  and 

how  affecting  soundness,  199,  274. 
inflammation  of  the  small  bones  of, 

a  frequent  cause  of  lameness,  210. 


Hock,  the  principal  seat  of  lameness  be- 
hind, 207. 

lameness  of  the,  without  apparent 

cause,  210. 

point  of,advantage  of  length  in,  210. 

Homer,  method  of  harnessing  horses  in  his 
time,  315. 

Hoof,  cut  of  the,  218. 

description  of  the,  216. 


Horizontal  direction  of  the  traces  when  pro- 
per, 318. 

Horn  of  the  crust  secreted  principally  by 
the  coronary  ligament,  217. 

once  separated  from  the  sensible  part 

within,  will  never  again  unite  with  it, 
233. 

Horse,  the  American,  description  of,  16. 

Arabian,  description  of,  8. 

not  the  native  of  Arabia,  2. 

—  English,  improved  under  Athel- 


stan,  17. 

Barb,  description  of,  6. 

Bournou,  description  of,  7. 

cavalry,  32. 

and  chariot  races  formed  part  of 

Olympic  games,  1. 

•  calculation  of  the  annual  expense 


of,  305, 

Chinese,  description  of,  12. 

Circassian,  description  of,  13. 

was  trained  to  draught  before  he 

was  mounted,  2. 
Coach,    proper   form,    qualities, 

breed  of,  27. 

Cossack,  description  of,  14. 

neglected  by  the  Crusaders,  18. 

Dongola,  description  of,  7. 

Dutch,  description  of,  16. 

early  history  of,  1. 

when  first  domesticated  in  Egynt 

and  Canaan, 2. 

-  not  domesticated  until  after  many 


other  animals,  2. 
propagated  from  Egypt  to  other 

countries,  2. 

—  East  Indian,  description  of,  11. 

— the  flesh  of,  eaten,  6. 

English,  history  of,  17. 

farmer's,  description  of,  25. 

Finland,  description  of,  15. 

Flemish,  description  of,  16. 

French,  description  of  16. 

general  management  of,  262. 

German,  description  of,  15. 

of  the  Guinea  coast,  description  of. 


-heavy  black,  description  of,  285. 
■  for  heavy  draught,  description  of. 


29. 


tyrannical  regulations  respecting, 

Henry  VIII,  20. 

hiring,  early  regulations  of,  18. 

Hungarian,  description  of,  15. 

Iceland,  description  of,  15. 

Italian,  description  of,  16. 

much  improved  by  John,  19. 

■  Lombardy,  when  first  introduced 


into  England,  19. 


350 


INDEX. 


Horse,  the,  market,  first  account  of,  IS. 

native  country  of,  uncertain,  18. 

Norwegian,  description  of,  15. 

Persian,  description  of,  12. 

English,  not  used  for  the  plough 

in  early  times,  18. 

power,  calculation  of,  28,  303,  312. 

•depending  on  circumstances 


continually  varying,  303. 

■varying  with  his  speed,  Ta- 


-compared  with  that  of  the 


ble  of,  312. 


steam-engine  on  railways,  304. 

•  compared  with  that  of  the 


steam-engine  on  common  roads,  305 

-mechanically  considered,  su- 


Iceland  horse,  the,  description  of,  15. 
Ileum,  description  of  the,  161. 
Intlammation,  nature  of,  138. 

treatment  of,  138. 

hot  or  cold  applications  to,  guide  in 


the  choice  of,  140. 

importance  of  bleeding  in,  138. 

when  proper  to  physic  in,  139. 

of  the  bladder,  171. 

bowels,  163. 

•  distinction    between    it 


periorto  artificial,  308. 

•there  is  yet  no  practical  sub 


stitute  for,  307 

— price  of,  in  Solomon's  time,  3. 

-prices  of,  at  different  periods,  17, 


19,  20. 


ca,  4. 


■sagacity  of  24. 

-can  see  almost  in  darkness,  72. 

■  South  Amercian,  description  of,  4. 
instinct  and  sagacity  of,  4. 

■  management  of,  in  South  Ameri- 

Spanish,  description  of,  16. 

■  Spanish  first  introduced  into  Bri- 


tain, 19. 

Swedish,  description  of,  15. 

Tartarian,  description  of,  6, 13 

English,  thorough-bred,  superior 

to  the  Arabian,  34. 

Toorkoman,  description  of,  13. 

Turkish,  description  of,  14. 

wild,  description  of,  3. 

English,  improved  under  William 


the  Conqueror,  18. 

zoological  description  of,  48. 

•heavy,  exposed  to  grease,  215. 


Horses,  immense  number  of,  in  the  armies 
of  some  ancient  eastern  monarchs,  1. 

numerous  in  Britain  at  the  invasion 

of  the  Romans,  17. 

Howell  the  Good,  his  laws  respecting  the 
horse,  17. 

Hungarian  horse,  the,  description  of,  15. 

Hunter,  the,  general  account  of,  38. 

• proper  degree  of  blood  in,  39. 

■ ■ form  of,  39. 

— ■ spirit  of,  42. 

anecdotes  of,  42. 

management  of,  41.  , 

•  symptoms  of  dangerous  distress 


■  management  of  the,  when  dis- 


in,  43. 


tressed,  43. 

•summering  of,  43. 


Hunting,  the  earliest  book  on,  written  by  a 

lady,  42. 

shoe,  description  of  the,  243. 

Hyde  Park,  races  established  in,  by  Charles 

I,  21. 

Hydrothorax,  symptoms  and  treatment  of, 

146. 


and  colic,  164. 

brain,  83. 

eye,  90. 

foot,  223. 

kidneys,  170. 

liver,  167. 

lungs,  144. 

stomach,  158. 

-veins,  125 


Influenza,  nature  and  treatment  of,  149. 
Infusions,  manner  of  making  them,  296. 
Inoculation,  the  best  test  of  the  existence  of 

glanders,  98. 
Intercostal  muscles,  description  of  the,  135. 
Intestines,  description  of  the,  160. 
diseases  of  the,  162. 


Intus-suspection  of  the  intestines,  treatment 
of,  163. 

Invertebrated  animals,  what,  48 

Iodine,  usefulness,  of,  in  reducing  enlarged 
glands,  296. 

Iranee  horse,  description  of  the,  11. 

Iris,  description  of  the,  74. 

Irish  horse,  description  of  the,  47. 

Iron,  the  carbonate  of,  a  mild  and  useful  to- 
nic, 296. 

sulphate  of,  a  stronger  tonic,  296. 

recommended  for  the 


cure  of  glanders,  296. 

Italian  horse,  description  of  the,  16. 

Itchiness  of  the  skin,  should  always  be  re- 
garded with  suspicion,  287. 

James  I,  established  the  first  regulations  for 
racing,  21. 

nitroduction  of  the  Arabian  blood  by 


him,  21. 

Jaundice,  symptoms  and  treatment  of,  168. 
Jaw,  the  lower,  admirable   mechanism  of, 

107. 

upper,  description  of,  105. 


Jejunum,  description  of  the,  161. 
John,  the  breed  of  horses  improved  by,  19. 
Jointed  shoe,  the  description  and  use  of,  243. 
Jones's  patent  wheels,  a  description  of,  331. 
Jugular  vein,  anatomy  of  the,  95,  124. 
Jumper,  the  horse  breaker,  anecdotes  of  his 

power  over  animals,  252. 
Juniper  oil,  use  of,  296. 
Juno,  harnessing  her  own  horses,  325. 

Kadischi,  an  Arabian  breed  of  horses,  8. 
Kicking,  a  bad  and  inveterate  habit,  255. 
Kidneys,  description  of  the,  169. 

"nflammation  of,  symptoms  and  treat- 


ment of,  176. 


INDEX. 


S51 


Kidneys,  stone  in  the  171. 

King  Pippin,  anecdotes  of  him  as  illustra- 
ting the  inveterateness  of  vicious  habits, 
252. 

Knee,  an  anatomical  description  of  the,  187. 

knees  broken,  treatment  of,  188. 

Kochlani,  the  Arabian  breed  of  horses,  8. 

Knowledge  of  the  horse,  how  acquired,  50. 

Labyrinth  of  the  ear,  description  and  use  of 

the,  65. 
Lachrymal  duct,  description  of  the,  68. 

gland,  description  and  use  of,  68. 

Lamellae  or  laminae,  horny,  account  of  the, 

218. 

• fleshy  the,  account  of,  218. 

weight  of  the  horse 

supported  by  the,  218. 
Lameness,  shoulder,  method  of  ascertaining, 

179. 
from  whatever  cause,  unsoundness, 

275. 
Lampas,  nature  and  treatment  of,  106. 

cruelty  of  burning  the  bars  for,  107. 

Liminae  of  the  foot.     See  Lamellae. 
Lancet  and  fleam,  comparison  between,  142. 
Lard,  use  of  in  ointments  and  balls,  296. 
Lcirynx,  description  of  the,  126. 
Lasso,  description  of  the,  4. 

explanation  of  the  power  of  the,  316. 

Laudanum,  use  of  in  veterinary  practice, 

296. 
Lead,  the  compounds  of,  used  in  veterinary 

practice,  296. 
extract  of,  its  use  much  over-valued, 

296. 

■ sugar  of,  use  of,  296. 

• white,  use  of,  296. 

Leather-soles,  description  and  use  of,  244. 
Leg,  cut  of  the,  88. 

description  of  the,  189. 

Legs,  fore,  should  be  straight  and  perpen- 
dicular, 198. 

hind,  anatomical  description  of,  212. 

-  of  the  hackney,  should  not  be  lifted 


too  high,  23. 

of  the  horse,  movement  of  when 

walking,  309. 

Legs  of  the  horse,  different  when  drawing, 
309. 

also  different  when  trotting, 

310. 

swelled,  213. 

Levator  humeri  muscle,  description  of  the, 
94,  123,  182. 

Lever,  muscle  action  explained  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  the,  180,  185. 

Ligament  of  the  neck,  description  and  elas- 
ticity of  the,  58,  121. 

Light,  theory  of,  76. 

refraction  of,  76. 

Lightness  in  hand,  of  essential  consequence 
in  a  hunter,  39. 

Lime,  the  chloride  of,  exceedingly  useful 
forbad  smelling  wounds,  &c.,  297. 

Lime,  the  chloride  of,  exceedingly  useful  to 
cleanse  stables  from  infection,  297. 


Lincolnshire,  the  largest  heavy  black  horse 

bred  in,  31. 
Liniments,  the  composition  and  use  of,  297. 
Linseed,  an  infusion  of,  used  in  catarrh, 

297. 

meal  forms  the  best  poultice,  297. 

oil,  as  a  purgative,  167,  297. 


Lips,  anatomy  and  uses  of  the,  104. 

the,  the  hands  of  the  horse,  104. 

Litter,the, cannot  be  too  frequently  removed, 
264. 

propersubstances  for.  264. 

contraction  not  so  much  produced 


by  it  as  some  imagine,  226. 
Liver,  anatomy  and  use  of  the,  167. 

inflammation  of  the,  167. 

rupture  of  the,  167. 


Load,  the  lying  high  increases  the  lightness 
of  draught,  336. 

may  be  dangerous  in  rough 


road,  337. 

Locked  jaw,  symptoms,  cause,  and  treat- 
ment of,  83,  85. 

Loins,  description  of  the,  132. 

Lombardy  horse,  the,  when  introduced  into 
England,  19. 

Longissimus  dorsi  muscle,  description  of 
the,  133. 

Lucerne,  considered  as  an  article  of  food, 
271. 

Lunar  caustic,  a  very  excellent  one,  300. 

Lungs,  description  of  the,  143. 

inflammation  of  the,  symptoms  of. 


144. 


causes  of,  144. 

■ how   distinguished 

from  catarrh  and  distemper,  145,  151. 
treatment  of,   146, 


147. 


bleeding  in,  146. 


importance  of  early 


rowels  or  setons  in,  147. 


-blisters  preferable  to 


-consequences  of. 


146. 

Madness,  symptoms  and  treatment  of,  86. 

Majinniss  horse,  description  of  the,  11. 

Maiiomet,   two  horses  only  in  his  whole 
army,  3. 

Malcolm,   Sir  John,  his  anecdotes  of  the 
Arabian  horse,  10. 

Malignant  epidemic,  the  nature  and  treat- 
ment of  96. 

Mallenders,  nature  and  treatment  of,  211. 

Mammalia,  the,  an  important  class  of  ani- 
mals, 48. 

Mane,  description  and  use  of  the,  124. 

Mange,  description  and  treatment  of,  285. 

causes  of,  286. 

ointment,  recipes  for,  285. 

'  highly  infectious,  285. 

method  of  purifying  the  stable  after. 


287. 


Manger-feeding,  the  advantage  of,  267. 
Marble,  the  immense  block  of,  at  St.  Pe- 
tersburgh,  how  moved  on  rollers,  322. 


352 


INDEX. 


Mare,  time  of  being  at  heat,  174. 

going  with  foal,  174. 

best  time  for  covering,  174. 

management  of,  when  with  foal,  174. 

■after  foaling,  174 


more  concerned  thein  the  horse  in 

breeding,  26. 

Mares  preferable  to  geldings  for  the  farmer, 
26. 

prejudice  against  riding  of,  4. 

never  ridden  by  the  Africans,  7. 

alone  ridden  by  the  Arabs,  7. 

used  for  food,  6. 

selection  of,  for  breeding,  26. 

Mark  of  the  teeth,  what,  110. 

Markham"s  Arabian,  account  of,  21. 

Mashes,  importance  of  their  use,  297. 

best  method  of  making,  297. 

Masseter  muscle,   description  of  the,  95, 
108. 

Maxillary,  bones,  anatomy  of  the,  105. 

Mediastinum,  description  of  the,  136. 

Medicines,  a  history  of  the  most  useful,  287. 

Medullary  substance  of  the  brain,  nature 
and  function  of  the,  39. 

Megrims  caused  by  an  undue  quantity  of 
blood  pressing  on  the  brcdn,  80. 

symptoms  of,  80. 

treatment  of,  81. 

apt  return,  80. 

Melt,  description  of  the,  168. 

Memory  of  the  horse,  instances  of,  24. 

Mercurial  ointment,  the  use  of,  in  veterina- 
ry practice,  298. 

Merlin,  the  sire  of  many  of  the  Welsh  po- 
nies, 45. 

Mesentery,  description  of  the,  161. 

Metacarpels,  description  of  the,  189. 

Midriff,  description  of  the,  136. 

Mint,  an  infusion  of,  or  the  oil  of,  occasion- 
ally used,  298. 

Moisture,  want  of,  a  cause  of  contraction, 
226. 

Moon-blindness,  nature  of  90. 

Morocco  barb,  the,  account  of,  21. 

Moulting,  the  process  of,  282. 

•  horse  usually  languid  at  the  time  of, 


■  no  stimulant  or  spices  should   be 


portant  than  their  bulk,  213. 

Muscular  action,  the  principle  of,  185. 

Muzzle,  the  organ  by  which. the  horse  com- 
monly exammes  bodies,  279. 

Myrrh,  the  use  of,  for  canker  and  wounds, 
298. 

Narrow  and  broad  wheels,  comparison  be- 
tween, 328. 

Nasalis  labii  superioris  muscle,  description 
of  the,  94. 

Naves,  cast  iron,  to  wheels,  advantage  of, 
332. 

description  of    the    best 


Muscles  of  the  eye,  description  of  the,  78. 

face,  "  94. 

■ neck,  "  122. 

■ ribs,  "  135. 

■ shoulder-blade,    "        182. 

lower  bone  of  the 

shoulder,  "  181. 

■  advantageous  direction  of,  more  im- 


construction  of,  332. 
Navicular  bone,  description  of  the,  192,  221, 
228. 

action  and  use  of  the,  221,  228. 


joint  disease,  nature  and  treatment 

of,  228. 

how  far  connected  with 


■the  cure  very  uncertain. 


contraction,  229. 


229. 

Neapolitan  horse,  description  of  the,  16. 
Neck,  anatomy  and  diseases  of  the,  120. 

description  of  the  arteries  of  the,  124. 

description  of  the  veins  of  the,  124. 

bones  of  the,  120. 

proper  conformation  of  the,  121 

comparison  between  long  and  short, 

122. 

loose,  what,  123. 

Neptune,  the  horse  first  appeared  at  the 

stroke  of  his  tridents,  2. 
Nerves,  the,  construction  and  theory  of,  60. 

spinal,  compound  nature  of,  60. 

of  respiration,  origin  and  function  of. 


60. 


282 


given,  282. 

■  mode  of  treatment  under,  283. 


Mounting  the  colt,  177. 

Mouth  of  the  horse,  description  of  the  bones 

of,  105. 
ulcers  in,  treatment  of, 

127. 
should    be  always    felt 

lightly  in  riding,  23. 

•  importance  of  its  sensi- 


Neurotomy,  or  nerve  operation,  object  and 
effect  of  it,  87. 

manner  of  performing  it,  88. 

cases  in  which  it  should  or  should 


bility,  104. 

■  when  the  horse  may  be  ssdd  to  have 


a  perfect  one,  114. 
Moving  power,  animal  theory  of,  304. 

~ mechanical,  theory  of,  304. 

Mowburnt  hay  injurious,  270. 

Muscles  of  the  back,  description  of  the,  132. 

breast,  "  135. 


-  of  the  face,  94. 


not  be  performed,  89. 

-  a  vestige  of  the  performance  of  it. 


constitutes  unsoundness,  275. 
Newcastle,  the  Duke  of,  his  opposition  to 

the  introduction  of  the  Arabian  blood,  21. 
New-forester,  description  of  the,  45. 
Newmarket,  races  established  at,  by  Charles 

1,21. 

description  of  the  different  courses 


at,  38. 
Niclcing,  method  of  performing,  250. 

useless  cruelty  often  resorted  to  in 


it,  251.  ^     .„ 

Nitre,  a  valuable  cooling  medicme,  and  mild 
diuretic,  298. 


INDEX. 


863 


Nitrous  rether,  spirit  of,  a  mild  stimulant 

and  diuretic,  298. 
Norman  horse,  description  of  the,  16. 
Norwe^an  horse,  description  of  the,  15. 
Nose,  description  of  the  bones  of  the,  93. 
of  the  horse,  slit  to  increase  his  wind, 

15,  94. 
Nostrils,  description  of  the,  92. 

■ chronic  discharge  from  the,  96. 

how  distinguished 

from  glanders,  96. 

-the  membrane  of,  important  in  as- 


certaining disease,  95 

■  importance  of  an  ex^nded  one,  94. 

■  slit  by  some  nations  to  increase  the 


wiiid  of  the  horse,  94. 
Not  lying  down,  the  consequence  of  and 

cure  for,  259, 
Nutriment,  the  quantity  of,  contained  in  tlie 

diiferent  articles  of  food,  271. 

Oats,  the  usual  food  of  the  horse,  269. 

should  be  old,  heavy,  dry  and  sweet, 

268. 

kiln-dried,  injurious  to  the  horse,  269. 

proper  quantity  of,  for  a  horse,  269. 

bruised  preferable  to  whole,  269. 

Oatmeal,  excellent  for  gruel,  and  sometimes 
used  as  a  poultice,  269. 

Obelisk  at  Rome,  the  curious  method  of 
moving  it,  324. 

Occipital  bone,description  of  the,  57. 

(Esophagus,  description  of  the,  128. 

O'Kelly,   Colonel,  anecdotes  of  him,   and 
Eclipse,  37. 

Old  Mask,  the  sire  of  many  of  the  nev^  fo- 
resters, 45. 

Olive  oil,  as  a  purgative,  167,  298. 

Omentum,  description  of  the,  168. 

Opacity  of  tlie  eye,  nature  and  treatment  of, 
92. 

Operations,  description  of  the  most  impor- 
tant, 244. 

Opium,its  great  value  in  veterinary  practice, 
298. 

adulterations  of,  298. 

Orbicularis  muscle  of  the  eye,  description 
of  the,  67,95. 

oris  muscle,  description  of  the, 
95,  104. 

Orbit  of  the  eye,  fracture  of,  80. 

Ossification  of  the    cartilages,  cause   and 
treatment  of,  237. 

Ouseley,  Sir  GJore,  his  account  of  the  ruins 
of  PersepoUs,  2. 

Over-physicing,  treatment  of,  165. 

Over- reach,  nature  and  treatment  of,  231, 
259. 

often  producing  sandcrack  or  quit- 
tor,  231. 

Oxygen  of  the  air  unites  with  the  cjirbon  of 
the  blood  in  respiration,  144. 

Pace,  the  effect  of,  in  straining  the  horse, 28. 
Pachydermata,  an  order  of  animals,  49. 
Pack-horse,  description  of  the,  46. 
Pack-wax,  description  of  the,  57  121. 
45 


Palate,  description  of  the,  105. 

bleeding  place  in  the,  105. 


Palatine  artery,  description  of  the,  106. 
Palm-oil,  the  best  substance  for  maldng  up 

balls,  299. 
Palsy,  the  causes  and  treatment  of,  86. 
Pancreas,  description  of  the,  168. 
Panniculus  carnosus  muscle,  description  of 

the,  280. 
Paiietal  bones,  description  of  the,  55. 
Pai-ing  out  of  the  foot  foi  slioeing,directions 

for,  240. 

neglect  of. 


a  cause  of  contraction,  225. 
Parkinson  on  Live  Stock,  extracts  from,  47. 
Parotid  gland,  description  of  the,  and  its 

diseases,  95,  117. 
Parthenon,  description  of  the  chariots  on  the 

frieze  of,  325, 
Pasterns,  description  of  the,  193,  196. 

bones  of  the,  196. 

cut  of  the,  193,  197. 

proper  obliquity  of  the,  24,  41,  195. 


Patella  or  stifle  bone,  description  of  the,  204. 

Pawing,  remedy  for,  260. 

Payment  of  the  smallest  sum  completes  the 

purchase,  277. 
Peas,  sometimes  used  as  food,  but  should  be 

crushed,  270. 
Pectorales  muscles,  description  of  the,  122, 

133,  135. 
Pericardium,  description  of  the,  l36. 
Peronseus  muscle,  description  of  the,  204. 
Persian  horse,  description  of  the,  12. 

celebrated  before  the  Arabian 


was  known,  12. 

management  of,  12. 

race,  description  of  a,  13. 

Perspiration,  insensible,  no  medicines  will 
certainly  increase  it,  282. 

Peter  the  Great,  the  immense  block  of  mar- 
ble, constituting  the  pedestal  of  his  statue, 
how  moved,  322. 

Pharynx,  anatomy  of  the,  120. 

Physic  ball,  method  of  compounding  the 
best,  288. 

should  never  be  given  in  inflamma- 


tion of  the  lungs,  288. 

■half  doses  of,  objectionable,  288. 


Pied  horses,  account  of  the,  284. 
Pigmentium  nigrum,  account  of  the,  72. 
Piper,  description  of  the,  155. 
Pit  of  the  eye,  indicative  of  the  age,  53. 
Pitch,  its  use  for  chargers  and  plasters,  299. 
Pithing,  a  humane  method  of  destroying  ani- 
mals, 121. 
Pleura,  description  of  the,  136. 
Pleurisy,  nature  and  treatment  of,  149. 
Pneumonia,  nature  and  treatment  of,  144. 
Poisons,  account  of  the  most  frequent,  153. 
Poll  evil,  cause  and  treatment  of,  121. 

importance  or  the  free  escape  of  the 


matter,  121. 
Poney,  varieties  of  the,  45. 
Poplitae.us  muscle,  description  of  the,  205. 
Porter's,  Sir  R.  Ker,  account  of  the  Persian 

horse,  12. 


354 


INDEX. 


Post,  the  first  establishment  of  it,  27. 
Post-chaises,  greisshopper  springs  would  be 

advantageously  adopted  in,  336. 
Postea  spinatus  muscle,  description  of  the, 

183. 
Potatoes  considered  as  an  article  of  food, 

271. 
Poultices,  their  various  compositions,  man- 
ner of  acting  and  great  use,  140,  299. 
Powders,   comparison  between  them  and 

balls,  aoo. 
Power  of  draught  in  the  horse,  illustrations 

of,  28. 
■ calculation 

of,  303. 
compared 

with  that  of  the  human  being,  308. 
compared 

with  that  of  a  steam-engine  on  railways, 

304. 

on  common  roads,  306. 

on  bad  roads,  307. 

■dependent  on  his  weight  and 


muscular  force,  308 

■  how  diminished  when  towing  a 


boat  on  a  canal,  310. 

■  greater  when  close  to  his  work, 


•depends  on  his  strength,   and 


311. 


the  time  he  can  exert  it,  312. 

■diminution  of,  according  to  his 


speed,  table  of,  312,  313. 

Preparation  of  the  foot  for  shoeing,  240. 

Pressure  on  the  brain,  effect  of,  80. 

Priam's  chariot,  a  description  of,  325. 

harnesses  his  own  horses,  325.  , 

Prices  of  horses  at  different  periods,  17,  19, 
21. 

Prick  in  the  foot,  treatment  of,  232 

in  searching  for,  injurious 

method  of  removing  the  horn,  233. 

Profuse  staling,  cause  and  treatment  of,  170 

Puffing  the  glims,  a  trick  of  fraudulent 
horse-dealers,  53. 

Pulling,  the  action  of,  explained,  308. 

Pulse,  the  natural  standard  of  the,  137. 

varities  of  the,  137. 

importance  of  attention  to  the,  137. 

most  convenient  place  to  feel  it,  137 

the,  should  be  watched  during  bleed- 
ing, 138 

Pumiced  feet,  description  and  treatment  of, 
224. 

do  not  admit  of  cure,  224. 

constitute  unsoundness,  275. 

Pupil  of  the  eye,  description  of  the,  73. 

mode  of'  discovering  blind- 
ness by,  73. 

Purchase,  to  complete  the,  there  must  be  a 
memorandum,  or  payment  of  some  sum, 
however  small,  277. 

Purging,  violent,  treatment  of,  165. 

Quarters  of  the  horse,  description  of  the, 
202. 

importance  of  their 


Quarters  of  the  foot,  description  of,  216. 

the  inner,  crust  thin- 


ner and  wealcer  at,  216. 

■folly  of  lowering  the,  217. 


Quidding  tlie  food,  cause  of,  260. 

unsoundness  while  it  lasts. 


276. 
Quittor,  nature  and  treatment  of,  231. 

the  treatment  of,  long  and  difficult. 


exercising  the  patience  both  of  the  prac- 
titioner and  owner,  232. 
is  unsoundness,  276. 


Rabies,  symptoms  of,  86. 
Races,  early,  mere  running  on  train  scent, 
21. 

frequent  cruelty  of,  38. 

'different  kinds  of  described,  38 

regular,  first  established  at  Chester 


and  Stamford,  21. 

■  regulations  for,  established  by  James 


1,21. 


patronised  by  Charles  I,  21. 

Persian,  description  of,  13. 

short  consequences  of  their  intro- 
duction, 38. 

■  at  Smithfield,  18 


Race  horse,  the  history  of,  33. 

form  of,  34. 

action  of,  38. 

emulation  of,  38. 

whether   exclusively  of  foreign 


breed,  34. 
Racks,  no  openings  should  be  allowed  above 

them,  263. 
Radius,  description  of  the,  184. 
Ragged-hipped,  what,  199. 

no  impediment  to  action,  199. 


Railways,  mechanical  advantage  of,  29, 338. 
comparison  of  horse  and  mechanical 


power  on,  304. 

■  description  of,  338. 


Railways  increase  the  power  of  the  horse 

tenfold,  339. 
Raking,  the  operation  of,  300. 
Rat-tails,  nature  and  treatment  of,  212. 
Rearing,  a  dangerous  and  inveterate  habit, 

256. 
Recti  muscles  of  the  neck,  description  of 

the,  123. 

thigh,  description 


muBcularity  and  depth,  202. 


of,  200. 

Rectus  muscle,  description  of  tlie,  200. 
Rectum,  description  of  the,  160,  162. 
Reducing  speed,  and  prolonging  exertion, 

advantage  of  in  horse  labor,  311. 
Refrafction  of  light,  the  theory  of,  76. 
Refractive  power  of  the  eye,  account  of  the, 

76. 
Reins,  description  of  the  proper,  104. 
Repositories,  account  of  the  principal  in 

London,  and  their  regulations,  278. 
Resin,  its  use  in  veterinary  practice,  300. 
Resistance  in  draught,  principally  caused 

by  the  ruts,  331. 
Respiration,  description  of  the  mechanism 

and  effect  of,  143. 


INDEX. 


S55 


Respiratory  nerves,  the,  60. 

Restifness,  a  bad  habit,  and  never  cured, 

252. 
anecdotes  in  proof  of  its  inveter- 

ateness,  252. 
Retina,  description  of  the,  74,  75. 
Retractor  muscle  of  the  eye,  description  of 

the,  79. 
Ribbed-home,  advantage  of  being,  130. 
Ribs,  anatomy  of  the,  134. 
Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,  account  of  his  Ara- 
bian horses,  18. 
Richmond,  Duke  of,  his  method  of  breeding 

good  carriage  horses,  30. 

anecdote  concerning,  42. 

Riding,  directions  for,  23. 

Ringbone,  nature  and  treatment  of,  197, 198. 

constitutes  unsoundness,  276. 

Roach-backed,  what,  131. 

Roads,  how^  affected  by  different  w^heels,331. 

how  influencing  the  proper  breadth 

of  the  wheels,  330. 
the  great  extent  to  which  they  affect 

the  drauglit,  337. 

soft  and  yielding,  far  more  disadvan- 


Rowels,  use  of,  and  method  of  applying,  147, 
manner  of  inserting,  and  their  ope- 


ration, 300. 
comparison  between  them,  blisters, 

and  setons,  249. 
Running  away,  method  of  restraining,  256. 

horses,  first  account  of,  19. 

Rupture,  treatment  of,  167. 

of  the  suspensory  ligament,  195. 


tageous  than  rough  ones,  337. 
slig-ht  alterations  in  their  level  ad- 


337. 


vantageous,  337. 

■  hardness,  the  grand  desideratum  in. 


■should  be  nearly  flat,  337. 
■absurdity  of  much  curvature  in,  337. 
necessity  of  constant  repairs  and  at- 


tention to  them,  338 

■  calculation  of  the  degree  by  which 


resistance  is  increased  by  bad  ones,  338 

Roan  horses,  account  of,  284. 

Roaring,  the  nature  of,  126. 

constitutes  unsoundness,  274. 

proceeding  from  inflammation,  127. 

proceeding  from  tight  reining,  127. 

■ — ■ buckling  in  crib- 
biting,  127. 

•treatment  of,  127. 


Rollers,  calculation  of  the  draught  of,  319, 

320. 
how  probably  first    invented    oi 

brought  into  use,  319. 
comparison  of  their  power  with  that 

of  wheels,  319. 

mechanism  and  principle  of,  319. 

•particular   circumstances   in  which 


Ruts,  the  cause  of  three-fourths  of  the  re- 
sistance indraught,  331. 

Rye-grass  considered  as  an  article  of  food, 
271. 

Sacrum,  description  of  the. 

Saddle-backed,  what,  131. 

galls,  treatment  of,  134. 

Saddling  of  the  colt,  177. 

Safety  coaches,  the  heavy  draught  of,  336. 

Sagacity  of  the  horse,  24. 

Sainfoin  used  as  an  article  of  food,  271. 

Saint  Domingo,  wild  horses  in,  6. 

Sal  ammoniac,  the  medical  use  of,  289. 

Saliva,  nature  and  use  of  (he,  1 17. 

Salivary  glands,  description  of  the,  117. 

Sallenders,  nature  and  treatment  of,  211. 

Salt,  use  of  in  veterinary  practice,  300. 

value  of,  mingled  in  the  food  of  ani- 
mals, 270. 

Sandcrack,  nature  and  treatment  of,  230. 

^.most  dangerous  when  proceeding 

from  tread,  230. 

liable  to  return,  unless  the  brittle- 


ness  of  the  hoof  is  remedied,  230. 

■  constitutes  unsoundness,  276. 


their  use  is  advantageous,  321. 

■  the  weigfht  moves  with  double  the 


Sartorius  muscle,  description  of  the,  201. 

Sclerotica,  description  of  the,  72. 

Scouring,  general  treatment  of,  165. 

Semicircular  canaJs  of  the  ear,  description 
and  use  of  the,  66. 

Sedatives,  a  list  of,  and  their  mode  of  action, 
300. 

Semiramis,  number  of  horsemen  and  chari- 
ots possessed  by,  1. 

Serratus   magnus    muscle,  description    of, 
the,  178. 

Sesostris,  number  of  chariots  possessed  by, 
1. 

Sessamoid  bones,  admirable  use  of  in  obvia- 
ting concussion,  194. 

Setons,  mode  of  introducing,  250. 

cases  in  which  they  are  indicated. 


velocity  of  them,  and  therefore  fresh  rol- 
lers must  be  supplied  in  front,  321. 

the  immense  block  of  marbltf  at  St. 

Petersburgh,  description  of  its  being 
moved  on  them,  322. 

a  particular  construction  of,  very 

useful,  323. 

Rolling,  danger  of,  and  remedy  for,  260. 

Roman  nose  in  the  horse,  what,  93. 

Round-bone,  the,  can  scarcely  be  dislocated, 
200. 

■ sprain  of,  description  and  treatment 

of,  203. 


250. 

comparison  between  them  and  row- 
els and  blisters,  250. 

Setting  on  of  the  head,  the  proper,  122. 

Shalokh-horse,  description  of  the,  13. 

Shank-bone, the,  189. 

Shetland  poney,  description  of  the,  46. 

Ship,  the  method  of  dragging  it  up  a  slip, 
323. 

Shoe,  the  concave  seated,  cut  of,  2.39. 

described  and  re- 


commended, 238. 
the  manner  in  Avhich  the  old  one 


should  be  taken  off;  240. 
the  putting  on  of  the,  241. 


356 


INDEX. 


Shoe,  the,  should  be  fitted  to  the  foot,  and 
not  the  foot  to  the  shoe,  241. 

description  of  the  hinder,  242. 

the  bar,  243. 

the  tip,  243. 

^the  hunting,  243. 

the  jointed,  or  expansion, 

244. 

Shoeing,  not  necessarily  productive  of  con- 
traction, 225. 

preparation  of  the  foot  for,  239,  240. 

the  principles  of,  238, 

singular,  16. 

Shoes,  wearing  too  long,  a  cause  of  contrac- 
tion, 226. 

Short-bodied  horses,  when  valuable,  41. 

Shoulder,  anatomical  description  of  the, 
178. 

slanting  direction  of  the,  advanta- 
geous, 179,''1S0, 185. 

when  it  should  be  oblique,  and  when 

upright,  181,  182. 

sprain  of  the,  179. 

lameness,  method  of  ascertaining. 


179. 


Shoulder-blade,  muscles  of  the,  182. 

why  united  to  the  chest  by 

muscle  alone,  178, 

-  lower  bone  of,  the  description  of,  18 1, 


184. 


■muscles  of  the,  183. 


Shying,  probable  cause  of,  77,  260. 

treatment  of,  260. 

on  coming  out  of  the  stable,  descrip- 
tion of,  261. 

Side-line,  description  of  the,  244, 

Silver,  the  nitrate  of,  an  excellent  caustic, 
300. 

Sinuses  in  the  foot,  necessity  of  following 
them  as  far  as  they  reach,  233. 

Sitfasts,  treatment  of,  134. 

Skeleton  of  the  horse,  description  of  the,  49 

Slcin,  anatomical  description  of  the,  279. 

function  and  uses  of  it,  280. 

pores  of  the,  28 1 . 

when  the  animal  is  in  health,  is  soft 

and  elastic,  280. 

Skull,  anatomical  description  of  the,  52. 

arched  form  of  the  rooti  58. 

fracture  of  the,  79. 

Smithfield-market,  early  account  of,  18. 

Sledges,  calculation  of  the  draught  of,  319. 

description  of  the  mechanism  and 

use  of,  320. 

■  where,  more  advantageous  than 


wheels,  320 

where  very  disadvantageous,  320. 

calculation  of  the  power  of,  320. 

■  their  advantage  in  traveling  over  ice 


and  snow,  320. 

-Esquimaux,  an  account  of  the,  320. 


Slipping  the  collar,  remedy  for,  261. 
Smell,  the  sense  and  seat  of,  93. 

very  acute  in  the  horse,  93. 

Soap,  its  use  in  veterinary  practice,  300. 
Soda,  the  chloride  of,  its  use  in  ulcers,  300. 
Sole,  the  horny,  description,  220. 


Sole,  the  homy,  descent  of,  220. 

proper  form  of,  220 

—  management  of,  in  shoeing, 


220. 


■the  sensible,  221. 


Soles,  felt  or  leather,  their  use,  244. 

Solomon  imported  horses  from  Egypt,  3. 

Sound,  theoiy  of,  62,  64. 

Soundness,  consists  in  there  being  no  dis- 
ease nor  alteration  of  structure  that  does 
or  is  likely  to  impair  the  usefulness  of 
the  horse,  273. 

considered  with  reference  to  the 


principal  causes  of  unsoundness. 
South  American  horse,  description  of  the, 

3,6. 

management  of  the,  4. 

method  of  harnessing  it,  316. 


Spanish  horse,  description  of  the,  16. 

when  introduced  into  England,  19. 


Spasmodic  colic,  nature  and  treatment  of, 

162. 
Spavin,  blood,  nature  and  treatment  of,  142, 

208. 

is  unsoundness,  276. 


bog,  cause,  nature  and  treatment  of, 

142,  208. 

bone,  "  "  208. 

-why  not  always   accompanied 


by  lameness,  209. 

■  is  unsoundness,  276. 


Spavined  horses,  the  kind  of  work  they  are 

'capable  of,  209. 
Speed  of  the  horse  producing  rapid  diminu- 
tion of  power,  313. 
Speed  and  time  of  labor  the  most  advanta- 
geous proportion  of,  318. 

sacrifice  of  the  horse  in  endeavoring 


to  obtain,  319. 
Speedy-cut,  account  of,  190. 
Sphenoid-bone,  description  of  the,  58. 
Spinalis  dorsi  muscle,  description  of  the, 

133. 
Spine,  description  of  the,  129. 
Spleen,  description  of  the,  168. 
Splenius  muscle,  description  of  tlie.  94, 122, 

183. 
Splent-bones,  description  of  the,  189. 
Splint,  nature  and  treatment  of,  189. 
is  unsoundness,  276. 


Sprain  of  tiie  back  sinews,  treatment  of, 
191. 

—  sometimes  re- 


quires firing,  192. 


■  any  thickening 
remaining  after,  constitutes  unsoundness 
of,  276. 
Spring  steel-yard,  the  force  of  traction  illus- 
trated by,  304. 
Springs  to  carriages,  theory  of  their  effect, 
335,  337. 

with  some  modifications  might  be 


adapted  to  the  heaviest  wagons,  336. 

great  advantages  of,  in  rapid  travel- 


ing, 336. 

Springs,  grasshopper,  description  of,  336. 
C,  disadvantages  of,  334,  336. 


INDEX. 


S57 


Stables,  hot  and  foul,  highly  injurious,  262 
daik,  occasional  cause  of  inflamma- 
tion of  the  eye,  91. 

•  hot  and  foul,  frequent  cause  of  in- 


flammation of  the  eye,  91. 

. lungs,  262. 

■  glanders,  91 

should   be  large  compared  with  the 

number  of  horses,  263. 

-the  management  of,  too  much  neg- 


I  Strain,  uniform  and  constant  in  draught, 

bad  consequences  of,  313. 
Strangles,  symptoms  and  treatment  of,  118 

distinguished  from  glanders,  97. 

the  importance  of  blistering  early 


lected  by  tlie  owner  of  the  horse,  263 
—  ceiling  of,  should  be  plastered,  if 


there  is  a  loft  above,  263. 
should  be  so  contrived  that  the  urine 


will  run  off",  264. 

the  stalls  should  not  have  too  much 


decUvity,  264. 

■should  be  sufficiently  light,  yet  with- 


out any  glaring  color,  265 

•importance  of  coolness  and  cleanli- 


ness in,  91,  99,  145 

•  infection  of,  removed  by  the  chloride 


of  lime,  297 
Staggers,  stomach,  symptoms,  cause  and 

treatment  of,  81. 

generally  fatal,  81. 

producing  blindness,  82. 

sometimes  epidemic,  82. 

mad,  symptoms  and  treatment  of,  83. 

Staling,  profuse,  cause  and  treatment  of, 

170. 
Stallion,  description  of  the  proper,  for  breed- 
ing, 173. 
Stamford,  races  first  established  at,  21. 
Stanhopes,  advantage  of  the  construction  of, 

334. 
Starch,  useful  in  superpurgation,  301. 
Stargazer,  the,  123. 
Steam-engine,  comparison  of  the,  with  the 

exertion  of  animal  power  on  railways, 

304. 

-  common  roads,  305. 


calculation  of  the  expense  of,  305 

small,  little  advantage  in  expense 

over  horse  power,  306. 
Steeple-hunt,  description  and  censure  of 

the,  44. 
Stifle,  description  of  the,  204. 

accidents  and  diseases  of  the,  205. 

Sterno-maxillaris  muscle,  description  of  the, 

95, 123,  183. 
Sternum,  or  breast-bone,  description  of  the, 

134. 
Stirrups,  not  used  in  South  America,  5. 
Stomach,  description  of  the,  156. 

very  small  in  the  horse,  156. 

inflammation  of  the,  158. 

pump,  recommended,  82. 

Stone  in  the  bladder,  symptoms  and  treat- 
ment of,  171. 

kidney,  "  171. 

Stoppings,  the  best  composition  of,  and  their 

great  use,  301. 
Straddlers,  wheels  so  called,  description  of, 

331. 

• objection  to,  331. 

. curious  method  of  evading  the  law 

concerning,  331. 


in,  119. 

Strangury  produced  by  blistering,  247. 
treatment  of,  247. 


Strawberry  horse,  account  of  the,  284. 
Stringhalt,  nature  of,  212. 

is  not  unsoundness,  276. 


Structure  of  the  horse,  importance  of  a 

knowledge  of,  51. 
Stylo-maxillaris  muscle,  description  of  the, 

95,  183. 
Sublingual  gland,  description  of  the,  118. 
Submaxillary  glands,  description  of  the,117. 
artery,  description  of  the,  95. 


Sub-scapulo  hvoideus  muscle,  description  of 

the,  95. 
Suffolk  punch,  description  of  the,  30. 

honesty  and  continuance  of 


the  old  breed,  30. 

Sugar  of  lead,  use  of,  296. 

Sullivan,  the  Irish  whisperer,  anecdotes  of 
his  power  over  the  horse,  253. 

the  younger  did  not  inherit  the  pow- 
er of  his  father,  anecdote  of  this,  254. 

Sulphate  of  copper,  use  of  in  veterinary 
practice,  289.  . 

iron,  '    "  296. 

magnesia,  "  297, 

zinc,  "  302. 


Sulphur,  an  excellent  alterative  and  ingre- 
dient in  all  applications  for  mange,  301. 

Summering  of  the  hunter,  consideration  of, 
44. 

Surfeit,  description  and  treatment  of,  285. 
importance  of  bleeding  in,  285. 


Suspensory  ligament,  beautiful  mechanism 
of  the,  194. 

rupture  of  the,  195. 


Suspensory  muscle  of  the  eye,  description 

of  the,  78. 
Sweating  blister,  composition  of,  291. 
Swedish  horse,  description  of  the,  15. 
Swelled  legs,  cause  and  treatment  of,  213. 
most  frequently  connected  with  de- 


bility, 213 
Sweet-bread,  description  of  the,  168 
Sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  a  mild  stimulant  and 

diuretic,  298. 
Sybarite  horses,  anecdote  of,  33. 
Sympathetic  nerve,  description  of  the,  60. 

Tail,  anatomy  of  the,  250. 

the  setting  on  of  the,  a  character  of 

breeding,  250. 

Tapetum  lucidum,  beautiful  color  and  de- 
sign of  the,  72. 

Tar,  its  use  in  veterinary  practice,  301. 

Tares  a  nutritive  and  healthy  food,  270. 

Tartary  horses,  description  of  the,  6,  13. 

descent  of,  traced  to  the  siege 


of  Azoph,  3. 

Tarzee  horse,  description  of  the,  11. 

Team,  disadvantages  of  draught  in,  explain- 
ed, 311. 


358 


INDEX. 


Team,  their  united  power,  not  equal  to  the 
calculation  of  so  many  horses,  311. 

Tears,  the  secretion  and  nature  of  the,  68. 

how  conveyed  to  the  nose,  68. 

sometimes  shed  by  the  horse  from 

pain  and  grief,  68. 

Teeth,  description  of  the,  as  connected  with 
age,  108. 


Thorough-pin,  constitutes  unsoundness,276. 
Thrush,  nature  and  treatment  of,  235. 

the  consequence,  rather  than  the 


at  birth,  109. 

2  months,  109. 

12  months,  109. 

18  months,  110. 

2  years,  110. 

the  front  sometimes  pushed  out,  that 

the  next  pair  may  sooner  appear,  and  the 
horse  seem  to  be  older  thein  he  is.  111. 

— — ■ 3  years.  111. 

3^  years,  112. 

4  years,  112. 

4^  years,  113. 

5  years,  113. 

6  years,  113. 

7  years,  114. 

-8  years,  114. 

change  of  the, 

—  enamel  of  the, 


111. 


109. 


■  irregular,  inconvenience  and  danger 
of,  116. 

mark  of  the,  109. 

frauds  practised  with  regard  to  the. 


111. 

diseases  of  the,  116. 

Temper  denoted  by  the  eye,  66. 

by  the  ear,  61. 

Temperature,  sudden  change  of,  injurious 

effect  of,  262. 
Temporal  bones,  description  of  the,  55. 
Tendons  of  the  leg,  the,  should  be  distinct 

and  far  from  the  shank  bone,  191. 
Tetanus,  symptoms,  causes  and  treatment 

of,  84.    ' 
Thick  wind,  nature  and  treatment  of,  153. 
often  found  in  round  chested 

horses,  153. 
Thigh  and  haunch  bones,  advantage  of  the 

oblique  direction  of  the,  200. 
■ lower  bone  of  the,  description  of, 

the,  204. 


and  muscular,  205. 


204. 


-should  be  long 

-  muscles  of  the, 
-upper  bone  of 

-  muscles  of  the 

■  outside,  202. 
mechanical  cal- 
culation of  tlieir  power,  203. 
the  horse  should  be  wider  at  it  than 


the,  description  of,  200. 
inside  of  the,  201. 


at  the  haunch,  203. 
Thirst,  strange  effect  of,  on  horses,  6. 
Thorough-bred  horses,  the   quality  of  has 

not  degenerated,  38. 
Thorough -pin,  nature   and  treatment    of, 

205. 


cause  of  contraction,  227. 

its  serious  nature  and  consequences 

not  sufficiently  considered,  235. 
-  constitutes  unsoundness,  276 


Thyi-oid  cartilage  of  the  wind-pipe,  descrip- 
tion of  the,  126. 

Tied  in  below  the  knee,  nature  and  disad- 
vantage of,  40,  190. 

Tips,  description  and  use  of,  243. 

Toe,  bleeding  at  the,  described,  143. 

Tongue,  anatomy  of  the,  116  > 

diseases  of  it,  116. 

bladders  along  the  undeipart  of  it, 


117. 

Tonics,  an  account  of  the  best,  301. 

their  use  and  danger  in  veterinary 

practice,  301. 

Toorkoman  horse,  description  of,  13. 

Toorky  horse,  description  of  tlie,  11. 

Towing,  power  of  the  horse,  how  diminish- 
ed in,  310. 

Traces,  the  direction  of  them,  very  impor- 
tant in  draught,  319. 

proper  angle  of  the,  314,  318. 

the  proper  inclination  of  them,  de 


pending  on  the  kind  of  horse  and  the 
road,  314,  318. 

-the,  should  be  inclined  downward 


on  rough  roads,  315. 

inclined    downward,  the    same  as 


throwing  a  part  of  the  weight  on  the 
shafts,  315. 

direction  of  them,  rarely  attended 


to,  315. 

•  the  manner  of  affixing  them  in  South 


America,  316. 
Track,  importance  of  both  wheels  running 

in  the  same,  331. 
Traction,  the  force  of,  explained,  304. 

illustrated  by  reference 


to  the  spring  steel-yards,  304. 

■the,  proper  line  of,  very  important 


in  draught,  313. 
Training,  principles  of,  41. 
Transversalis  costarum  muscle,  description 

of  the,  182. 
Trapezius  muscle,  description  of  the,  182. 
bone,  description  of  the,  187,  190. 


Traveling,   different   rate    of,  at    different 

times,  27. 
Tread,  nature  and  treatment  of,  231. 

often  producing  sandcrack  or  quittor. 


231. 
Tredgold,  Mr.,  his  comparison  of  moving 

power  in  draught,  305. 
Trevis,  description  of  the,  245. 
Triceps  femoris  muscle,  description  of  the, 

202. 
Tripping,  an  annoying  and  inveterate  habit, 

261. 
Trochanter  of  the  thigh,  description  of  the, 

200. 

importance  of  the 


202. 
Trotting,  action  of  the  horse,  during,  310. 


INDEX. 


359 


Trotting,  position  of  the  limbs  in,  unfaithfully 

represented  in  the  Elgin  marbles,  and  the 

church  of  St.  Mark,  309. 
Turbinated  bones,  description  of  the,  93. 
Turkish  horse,  description  of  the,  14. 
Turnips  considered  as  an  article  of  food, 

271.  », 
Turpentine,  the  best  diuretic,  169. 
oil  of,  an  excellent  medicine  in 

spasmodic  colic,  163. 

■  a  useful  ingredient  in  many  oint- 


Vitriol,  blue,  use  of,  in  veterinary  practice, 
293. 

296. 


ments,  302. 
Tushes,  description  of  the,  112,  115. 
Twitch,  description  of  the,  245. 

UkrEiine,  horses  of  the,  direction  of,  3. 
Ulcers  in  the  mouth,  treatment  of,  119. 
Ulna,  description  of  the,  184. 
Unguiculata,  a  tribe  of  animals,  48. 
Ungulata,  a  tribe  of  animals,  48. 
Unsoundness,  contraction  does  not  always 

cause  it,  225. 
being  discovered,  the  animal  should 

be  tendered,  277 

■  the  tender  or  return  notle- 


-  green 

-  white 


302. 


Wagon  horse,  the,  32. 
Wagons,  inferior  horses  may  be  used  in 
them,  compared  with  carts,  332. 

horses  drawing,  not  so  fatigued  as 


in  carls,  333. 

require  fewer  drivers,  and  are  not  so 


liable  to  accidents,  333. 

with  inferior  roads  and  ordinary 


horses  preferable  to  carts,  333. 

■  with  large  front  wheels,  advantage 


■  particularly  with  two  htjrses 


of,  332. 


abreast,  333. 

-  reason  why  they  have  more  draught 


gaily  necessary,  277. 

-  the  horse  may  be  returned 


and  action  brought  for    depreciation  in 
value,  but  this  not  advisable,  277 

■  horse  returned  for,  must  be 


as  valuable  as  before  in  every  other  re- 
spect, 277. 

■  medical  means  may  be 


adopted  to  cure  the  horse,  277 

they  are,  however. 


better  declined,  lest  in  an  unfortunate  is- 
sue of  the  case  they  should  be  misrepre- 
sented, 278. 

Unsteadiness  whilst  mounting,  remedy  for, 
256. 

Utero-gestation,  the  period  of,  174. 

Vastus  muscle,  description  of  the,  200. 
Vatican,  the  obelisk  in  the,  curious  method 

of  moving  it,  323. 
Vehicles  of  draught,  comparison  of  the  best, 

Veins,  description  of  the,  141. 

of  the  arm,  description,  &c.       202. 

of  the  neck  "  124. 

of  the  face  "  94. 

of  the  shoulder       "  202. 

inside  of  the  thigh  "  200. 

of  the  outside  of  the  thigh  202. 

inflammation  of  the,  treatment  of,  125. 

Verdigris,   an    uncertain    medicine,  when 

given  internally,  293. 

a  mild  caustic,  293. 

Vertebrated  animals,  what,  48. 
Vices  of  horses,  account  of  the,  251. 
Vicious  to  clean,  a  bad  habit  that  may  be 

conquered,  257. 
• to  shoe,  a  bad  habit  that  may  also  be 

conquered,  258. 
Vinegar,  its  use  in  veterinary  practice,  302. 
Vision,  theory  of,  76. 
Vitreous  humor  of  the  eye,  account  of  the, 

75. 


than  two-wheeled  CcU-ts,  334. 
Walking,  movement  of  the  legs  in,  309. 

different  when  drawing  a  load,309. 
Wall-eyed  horses,  what,  73. 

whether  they  become  blind,  73. 


War  horse,  description  of  the  ancient,  19. 
Warbles,  treatment  of,  134. 
Warranted,  the  word  extends  only  to  sound- 
ness, 277. 
Warranty,  the  form  of  a,  277. 

breach  of,  how  established,  277. 

no  price  will  imply  it,  277. 

when    there  is  none,  the  action 


must  be  brought  on  ground  of  fraud,  277. 
Warts,  method  of  getting  rid  of,  287. 
Washing  of  the  heels,  productive  of  grease, 

215. 
Washy  horses,  description  and  treatment  of, 

165. 
Water  generally  given  too  sparingly,  272. 

management  ofon  a  journey,  273.  . 

the  difference  in  effect,  between  hard 

and  soft,  272. 
spring,  principally  injurious  on  ac- 
count of  its  coldness,  272. 
in  the  internal  part  of  the  ear,  use 

of,  65. 

stomach  of  the  horse,  the,  161. 

farcy,  nature  and  treatment  of,  103. 

conveyance,   singular  smallness  of 

power  required  in,  319. 

•resistance  to,  increases  with 


the  square  of  the  velocity,  319. 

■  power  to  be  exerted,  in,  in- 


creases as  the  cube  of  the  velocity,  319. 
Water  dropwort,  poisonous,  158. 
hemlock,  poisonous,  158. 
parsley,  poisonous,  158. 


WaxT.ised  in  charges  and  plasters,  302. 
Weakness  of  the  foot,  what,  237. 
Weaving  indicating  an  irritable  temper,  and 

no  cure  for  it,  262. 
Weight,  calculation  of  the  power  of  the 

horse  to  overcome,  29. 
Wellesley  Arabian,  account  of  the,  9,  38. 
Welsh  poney,  description  of  the,  45. 
Wheat  considered  as  food  for  the  horse,  269. 
inconvenience  and  danger  of  it. 


269. 


360 


INDEX. 


Wheels,  the  principle  on  which  they  act  ex- 
plained, 323,  325,  335. 

effect  of  increasing  the  diameter  of 

the,  324. 

-no  record  of  the  time  of  their  inven- 


tion, 324 

spoked;  known  to  Homer,  324. 

little  improvement  of  the  principle 

of,  from  the  earliest  times,  325. 

principle  of,  on  a  level  surface,  325. 

■  theory  of  the  degree  of  friction  at- 


Wheezer,  description  of  the,  155 
Whipping  sound,  cruelty  of,  29. 
Whisperer,  the,  anecdotes  of   his    power 

over  the  horse,  252. 
Whistler,  description  of  the,  155. 
is  unsound,  300. 


tending  them,  325,  335 

friction  of  on  tlie  axle,  dependant  on 

the  material  employed,  326. 

■consideration  of  the  various  forms 


of,  327. 

dishing  of,  described,  827. 

advantages  of,  328,  335. 


conical  and  fiat,  calculation  between 

the  effects  of,  303,  328. 

-obliquely  placed,  ill  consequences 


of,  328. 

■  narrow  and  broad,  comparison  be- 


tween, 328. 

•  conical,  strange  degree  of  friction 


and  dragging  with,  329. 

-traveling  grindstones,  329. 


description  of,  and  proper  rounding 

of  the  edges,  330,  335. 

cylindrical,  the  best  form,  330,  335. 

■  but  influenced  by  the  state  of 


the  road,  330. 

-  hind,  should  follow  the  precise  track 


of  the  fore  ones,  331. 

considered  as  to  their  effect  on  the 


road,  331, 335 
Wheels,  straddlers,  description  of,  and  their 

effect,  331. 
■ proper  breadth  of,  in  proportion  to 

the  load,  331. 

James's  patent,  description  of,  331. 

with  cast  iron  naves,  332. 

size  of,  332,  335. 

advantage  of  large  front  ones,  332. 

should  have  a  veiy  slight  convexity 

in  the  fcentre,  335. 

-  should  have  the  spokes  so  arranged 


as  to  present  themselves  against  the  great- 
est force,  335. 


White  Turk,  the,  account  of,  21. 

White  lead,  use  of,  29i?. 

vitriol,  its  use  in  veterinary  practice. 

Wild  horse,  description  of  the,  3,  8. 
William  the  Conqueror,  improvement  ef- 
fected in  tbe  English  horse  by  him,  18. 
Wind-broken,  nature  and  treatment  of,  153.  - 
galls,  description  and  treatment  of. 


193,  198. 


■  unsoundness  when  they  cause 
lameness,  or  are  likely  to  do  so,  277. 
Windpipe,  description  of  the,  125. 

the,  should    be    prominent   and 


loose,  125. 

-opening  the,  128. 


Wind-suckine,  nature  of,  and  remedy  for. 


259 


■  thick  nature  and  treatment  of,  153. 


Wiring-in  of  the  heels,  nature  and  treatment 

of,  225. 
Withers,  description  of  the,  122,  132 

high,  advantage  of,  132. 

fistulous,  treatment  of,  133.  

Wolves  teeth,  what.  111.  ^^ 

Work  of  the  horse,  should  not  exceed  six  f?^^ 

hours  per  diem,  311.     . 
Worms,  different  kinds,  and  treatment  of, 

165. 
Wounds  in  the  feet,  treatment  of,  232. 

in  the  mouth,  treatment  of,  119 


^ 

Yellows,  symptoms  and  treatment  of  the,  '^*^ii^ 


"•'^. 


Yew,  the  leaves  of,  poisonous,  158. 
Yielding  resistance,  the  effect  of  in  neutra-     ^<*^ 
"izing  impetus,  311.  C^ 

Zoological  classification  of  the  horse,  48. 

Zygomatic  arch,  reason  of  the  strong  con- 
struction of  the,  56. 

Zygomaticus  muscle,  description  of  the, 
95. 


THE  END. 


, — «>, 


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